Shorter men live longer: association of height with longevity and FOXO3 genotype in American men of Japanese ancestry

Differential behavioral aging trajectories according to body size, expected lifespan, and head shape in dogs

The twofold life expectancy difference between dog breeds predicts differential behavioral and cognitive aging patterns between short- and long-lived dogs. To investigate this prediction, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis using survey data from over 15,000 dogs. We examined the effect of expected lifespan and three related factors (body size, head shape, and purebred status) on the age trajectory of various behavioral characteristics and the prevalence of canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD). Our findings reveal that, although age-related decline in most behavioral characteristics began around 10.5 years of age, the proportion of dogs considered "old" by their owners began to increase uniformly around 6 years of age. From the investigated factors, only body size had a systematic, although not gradual, impact on the aging trajectories of all behavioral characteristics. Dogs weighing over 30 kg exhibited an earlier onset of decline by 2-3 years and a slower rate of decline compared to smaller dogs, probably as a byproduct of their faster age-related physical decline. Larger sized dogs also showed a lower prevalence of CCD risk in their oldest age group, whereas smaller-sized dogs, dolichocephalic breeds, and purebreds had a higher CCD risk prevalence. The identification of differential behavioral and cognitive aging trajectories across dog groups, and the observed associations between body size and the onset, rate, and degree of cognitive decline in dogs have significant translational implications for human aging research, providing valuable insights into the interplay between morphology, physiological ageing, and cognitive decline, and unravelling the trade-off between longevity and relative healthspan.

Genes That Extend Lifespan May Do So by Mitigating the Increased Risk of Death Posed by Having Hypertension

BACKGROUND

Genetic factors influence lifespan. In humans, there appears to be a particularly strong genetic effect in those aged ≥ 90 years. An important contribution is nutrient sensing genes which confer cell resilience.

METHODS

Our research has been investigating the genetic factors by longitudinal studies of American men of Japanese descent living on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. This cohort began as the Honolulu Heart Program in the mid-1960s and most subjects are now deceased.

RESULTS

We previously discovered various genes containing polymorphisms associated with longevity. In recent investigations of the mechanism involved we found that the longevity genotypes ameliorated the risk of mortality posed by having a cardiometabolic disease (CMD)-most prominently hypertension. For the gene FOXO3 the protective alleles mitigated the risk of hypertension, coronary heart disease (CHD) and diabetes. For the kinase MAP3K5 it was hypertension, CHD and diabetes, for the kinase receptor PIK3R1 hypertension, CHD and stroke, and for the growth hormone receptor gene (GHR) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 gene (FLT1), it was nullifying the higher mortality risk posed by hypertension. Subjects with a CMD who had a longevity genotype had similar survival as men without CMD. No variant protected against risk of death from cancer. We have postulated that the longevity-associated genotypes reduced mortality risk by effects on intracellular resilience mechanisms. In a proteomics study, 43 "stress" proteins and associated biological pathways were found to influence the association of FOXO3 genotype with reduced mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Our landmark findings indicate how heritable genetic components affect longevity.

Insulin and aging - a disappointing relationship

Experimental studies in animal models of aging such as nematodes, fruit flies or mice have observed that decreased levels of insulin or insulin signaling promotes longevity. In humans, hyperinsulinemia and concomitant insulin resistance are associated with an elevated risk of age-related diseases suggestive of a shortened healthspan. Age-related disorders include neurodegenerative diseases, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes. High ambient insulin concentrations promote increased lipogenesis and fat storage, heightened protein synthesis and accumulation of non-functional polypeptides due to limited turnover capacity. Moreover, there is impaired autophagy activity, and less endothelial NO synthase activity. These changes are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. The cellular stress induced by anabolic activity of insulin initiates an adaptive response aiming at maintaining homeostasis, characterized by activation of the transcription factor Nrf2, of AMP activated kinase, and an unfolded protein response. This protective response is more potent in the long-lived human species than in short-lived models of aging research resulting in a stronger pro-aging impact of insulin in nematodes and fruit flies. In humans, resistance to insulin-induced cell stress decreases with age, because of an increase of insulin and insulin resistance levels but less Nrf2 activation. These detrimental changes might be contained by adopting a lifestyle that promotes low insulin/insulin resistance levels and enhances an adaptive response to cellular stress, as observed with dietary restriction or exercise.

Growth Hormone and Aging

Growth hormone (GH) secretion declines with aging (somatopause). One of the most controversial issues in aging is GH treatment of older adults without evidence of pituitary pathology. Although some clinicians have proposed reversing the GH decline in the older population, most information comes from not placebo-controlled studies. Although most animal studies reported an association between decreased GH levels (or GH resistance) and increased lifespan, human models have shown contradictory reports on the consequences of GH deficiency (GHD) on longevity. Currently, GH treatment in adults is only indicated for individuals with childhood-onset GHD transitioning to adulthood or new-onset GHD due to hypothalamic or pituitary pathologic processes.

Do the short die young? Evidence from a large sample of deceased Polish adults

Body height is associated with various socioeconomic and health-related outcomes. Despite numerous studies, the relationship between stature and longevity remains uncertain. This study explores the association between self-reported height and lifespan. Data from 848,860 adults who died between 2004 and 2008 in Poland were collected. After excluding a small proportion of records due to missing data or errors, we examined records for 848,387 individuals (483,281 men, age range: 20–110 years; 365,106 women, age range: 20–112 years). Height was expressed as standardized residual variance derived from linear regression in order to eliminate the variance of year of birth on height. After the elimination of the cohort effect, five height classes were designated using centiles: very short, short, medium, tall and very tall. The differences between sexes and among classes were evaluated with two-way ANOVA and post hoc Tukey’s test. The effect size was assessed using partial eta squared (η2). Pearson’s r coefficients of correlation were calculated. The effect of sex on lifespan was nearly 17 times stronger than the effect of height. No correlation between height and lifespan was found. In conclusion, these findings do not support the hypothesis that taller people have a longevity advantage. We offer tentative explanations for the obtained results.

Mothers of small-bodied children and fathers of vigorous sons live longer

Life-history traits (traits directly related to survival and reproduction) co-evolve and materialize through physiology and behavior. Accordingly, lifespan can be hypothesized as a potentially informative marker of life-history speed that subsumes the impact of diverse morphometric and behavioral traits. We examined associations between parental longevity and various anthropometric traits in a sample of 4,000-11,000 Estonian children in the middle of the 20th century. The offspring phenotype was used as a proxy measure of parental genotype, so that covariation between offspring traits and parental longevity (defined as belonging to the 90th percentile of lifespan) could be used to characterize the aggregation between longevity and anthropometric traits. We predicted that larger linear dimensions of offspring associate with increased parental longevity and that testosterone-dependent traits associate with reduced paternal longevity. Twelve of 16 offspring traits were associated with mothers' longevity, while three traits (rate of sexual maturation of daughters and grip strength and lung capacity of sons) robustly predicted fathers' longevity. Contrary to predictions, mothers of children with small bodily dimensions lived longer, and paternal longevity was not linearly associated with their children's body size (or testosterone-related traits). Our study thus failed to find evidence that high somatic investment into brain and body growth clusters with a long lifespan across generations, and/or that such associations can be detected on the basis of inter-generational phenotypic correlations.

Rapamycin treatment during development extends life span and health span of male mice and Daphnia magna

Development is tightly connected to aging, but whether pharmacologically targeting development can extend life remains unknown. Here, we subjected genetically diverse UMHET3 mice to rapamycin for the first 45 days of life. The mice grew slower and remained smaller than controls for their entire lives. Their reproductive age was delayed without affecting offspring numbers. The treatment was sufficient to extend the median life span by 10%, with the strongest effect in males, and helped to preserve health as measured by frailty index scores, gait speed, and glucose and insulin tolerance tests. Mechanistically, the liver transcriptome and epigenome of treated mice were younger at the completion of treatment. Analogous to mice, rapamycin exposure during development robustly extended the life span of Daphnia magna and reduced its body size. Overall, the results demonstrate that short-term rapamycin treatment during development is a novel longevity intervention that acts by slowing down development and aging, suggesting that aging may be targeted already early in life.

Local non-pituitary growth hormone is induced with aging and facilitates epithelial damage

Microenvironmental factors modulating age-related DNA damage are unclear. Non-pituitary growth hormone (npGH) is induced in human colon, non-transformed human colon cells, and fibroblasts, and in 3-dimensional intestinal organoids with age-associated DNA damage. Autocrine/paracrine npGH suppresses p53 and attenuates DNA damage response (DDR) by inducing TRIM29 and reducing ATM phosphorylation, leading to reduced DNA repair and DNA damage accumulation. Organoids cultured up to 4 months exhibit aging markers, p16, and SA-β-galactosidase and decreased telomere length, as well as DNA damage accumulation, with increased npGH, suppressed p53, and attenuated DDR. Suppressing GH in aged organoids increases p53 and decreases DNA damage. WT mice exhibit age-dependent colon DNA damage accumulation, while in aged mice devoid of colon GH signaling, DNA damage remains low, with elevated p53. As age-associated npGH induction enables a pro-proliferative microenvironment, abrogating npGH signaling could be targeted as anti-aging therapy by impeding DNA damage and age-related pathologies.

Chesnokova et al. show that non-pituitary growth hormone (npGH) is induced in aging DNA-damaged colon epithelium and suppresses DNA damage response by attenuating the phosphorylation of DNA repair proteins. npGH induction promotes DNA damage accumulation, resulting in age-associated colon microenvironment changes. Accordingly, disrupted GH signaling in aging mice prevents accumulated DNA damage.

Birth Year-Dependent Increase in Axial Length of Japanese Adult

PURPOSE

To determine whether the correlations between the axial length and the aging-dependent and birth year-dependent age are significant.

DESIGN

Retrospective cross-sectional study.

METHODS

This study included Japanese patients ≥50 years who had undergone cataract surgery at numerous clinics from 2002 to 2020. Only 1 eye/patient was analyzed. The axial length was measured with the IOL Master. The age-dependent changes were determined by the significance of the correlation between the axial length and age by the birth year. The birth year-dependent changes were determined by the significance of the correlation between the axial length and birth year in the different age groups. The age refers to the age at the time of the cataract surgery. Spearman correlations were calculated. The turning points were identified by the LOESS, NLIN, and HPMIXED procedures.

RESULTS

A total of 62,362 eyes (35,508 women, 26,854 men) were studied. The mean age was 72.9 ± 8.4 (standard deviation) years (range, 50-101 years), and the mean axial length was 23.90 ± 1.66 mm (standard deviation) (range, 19.20-37.07 mm). The birth year ranged from 1908 to 1970. Analyses of the birth year-dependent changes showed significant positive correlations in 48 of 81 (59.3%) groups for women and men. The increase in the axial length was birth year-dependent, and the turning point was 1939.4 for women and 1936.7 for men.

CONCLUSIONS

The negative and significant correlation between the axial length and age is due to birth year-dependent changes. A birth year-dependent increase in axial length might have continued for several decades from the birth year of the late 1930s.

The association between male height and lifespan in rural Spain, birth cohorts 1835-1939

This article analyses the relationship between male height and age at death and its evolution over time among conscripts born in fourteen villages in north-east rural Spain. A total of 1,488 conscripts born between 1835 and 1939 (and who died between 1868 and 2019) have been included in the analysis (based on the study of 3 sub-periods: 1835-1869, 1870-1899, and 1900-1939). The height data have been obtained from military service conscription records and the demographic and socioeconomic information of the deceased was obtained from parish archives and censuses. The data have been linked according to nominative criteria using family reconstitution methods. For the statistical analysis, we have used ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regressions with heteroskedasticity-robust estimation. The results suggest a positive relationship between height and lifespan in the long-term. For the birth cohorts of 1835-1869, conscripts with a height of 170 cm or more lived on average 7.6 years longer than conscripts measuring less than 160 cm. This difference in life expectancy tended to disappear for the birth cohorts of 1900-1939, benefiting especially the short conscripts who had greater possibilities to increase their average lifespan. The reasons that might explain these changes could reside in the improvements experienced by this group in terms of their living conditions, health and nutrition during the twentieth century.

LncRNA ORLNC1 Promotes Bone Marrow Mesenchyml Stem Cell Pyroptosis Induced by Advanced Glycation End Production by Targeting miR-200b-3p/Foxo3 Pathway

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are a type of adult stem cells that originate from the mesoderm and have important roles in the body because of their self-renewal and multidirectional differentiation potential. Now it has been proved that BMSCs are closely related to the development of osteoporosis (OP). There is growing evidence that lncRNAs are involved in regulating the pyroptosis of BMSCs. And advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) have been recognized as NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activators. In this study, we aimed to explore the role of lncRNA ORLNC1 (NONMMUT016106.2) on the pyroptosis of BMSCs under CML (Nε-(carboxymethyl) lysine, the most common AGEs) treatment and its specific molecular mechanisms. Our study revealed that CML treatment promoted pyroptosis of BMSCs and upregulated ORLNC1 expression. As a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) of miR-200b-3p, the level of ORLNC1 was negatively correlated with miR-200b-3p. Foxo3 was a target of miR-200b-3p and ORLNC1 promoted BMSCs pyroptosis induced by CML through targeting miR-200b-3p/Foxo3 pathway.

Investigating causal relationships between exposome and human longevity: a Mendelian randomization analysis

BACKGROUND

Environmental factors are associated with human longevity, but their specificity and causality remain mostly unclear. By integrating the innovative "exposome" concept developed in the field of environmental epidemiology, this study aims to determine the components of exposome causally linked to longevity using Mendelian randomization (MR) approach.

METHODS

A total of 4587 environmental exposures extracting from 361,194 individuals from the UK biobank, in exogenous and endogenous domains of exposome were assessed. We examined the relationship between each environmental factor and two longevity outcomes (i.e., surviving to the 90th or 99th percentile age) from various cohorts of European ancestry. Significant results after false discovery rates correction underwent validation using an independent exposure dataset.

RESULTS

Out of all the environmental exposures, eight age-related diseases and pathological conditions were causally associated with lower odds of longevity, including coronary atherosclerosis (odds ratio = 0.77, 95% confidence interval [0.70, 0.84], P = 4.2 × 10-8), ischemic heart disease (0.66, [0.51, 0.87], P = 0.0029), angina (0.73, [0.65, 0.83], P = 5.4 × 10-7), Alzheimer's disease (0.80, [0.72, 0.89], P = 3.0 × 10-5), hypertension (0.70, [0.64, 0.77], P = 4.5 × 10-14), type 2 diabetes (0.88 [0.80, 0.96], P = 0.004), high cholesterol (0.81, [0.72, 0.91], P = 0.0003), and venous thromboembolism (0.92, [0.87, 0.97], P = 0.0028). After adjusting for genetic correlation between different types of blood lipids, higher levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (0.72 [0.64, 0.80], P = 2.3 × 10-9) was associated with lower odds of longevity, while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (1.36 [1.13, 1.62], P = 0.001) showed the opposite. Genetically predicted sitting/standing height was unrelated to longevity, while higher comparative height size at 10 was negatively associated with longevity. Greater body fat, especially the trunk fat mass, and never eat sugar or foods/drinks containing sugar were adversely associated with longevity, while education attainment showed the opposite.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study supports that some age-related diseases as well as education are causally related to longevity and highlights several new targets for achieving longevity, including management of venous thromboembolism, appropriate intake of sugar, and control of body fat. Our results warrant further studies to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of these reported causal associations.

Association of growth hormone receptor gene variant with longevity in men is due to amelioration of increased mortality risk from hypertension

The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs4130113 of the growth hormone receptor gene (GHR) is associated with longevity. Here we explored whether longevity-associated genotypes protect against mortality in all individuals, or only in individuals with aging-related diseases. Rs4130113 genotypes were tested for association with mortality in 3,557 elderly American men of Japanese ancestry. At baseline (1991–1993), 1,000 had diabetes, 730 had coronary heart disease (CHD), 1,901 had hypertension, 485 had cancer, and 919 lacked these diseases. The men were followed from baseline until Dec 31, 2019 or death (mean 10.8 ± 6.5 SD years, range 0.01–28.8 years; 99.0% deceased by that date). In a heterozygote disadvantage model, longevity-associated genotypes were associated with significantly lower mortality risk in individuals having hypertension (covariate-adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 0.83 [95% CI: 0.76–0.93, p = 4.3 x10^–4]. But in individuals with diabetes, CHD, and cancer there was no genotypic difference in lifespan. As expected, normotensive men outlived men with hypertension (p = 0.036). There was no effect, however, of genotypic difference on lifespan in normotensive men (p = 0.11). We found that SNP rs4130113 potentially influenced the binding of transcription factors E2A, MYF, NRSF, TAL1, and TCF12 so as to alter GHR expression. We propose that in individuals with hypertension, longevity-associated genetic variation in GHR enhances cell resilience mechanisms to help protect against cellular stress caused by hypertension. As a result, hypertension-affected men who possess the longevity-associated genetic variant of GHR live as long as normotensive men.

Growth hormone and aging

Growth hormone (GH) actions impact growth, metabolism, and body composition and have been associated with aging and longevity. Lack of GH results in slower growth, delayed maturation, and reduced body size and can lead to delayed aging, increased healthspan, and a remarkable extension of longevity. Adult body size, which is a GH-dependent trait, has a negative association with longevity in several mammalian species. Mechanistic links between GH and aging include evolutionarily conserved insulin/insulin-like growth factors and mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling pathways in accordance with long-suspected trade-offs between anabolic/growth processes and longevity. Height and the rate and regulation of GH secretion have been related to human aging, but longevity is not extended in humans with syndromes of GH deficiency or resistance. However, the risk of age-related chronic disease is reduced in individuals affected by these syndromes and various indices of increased healthspan have been reported.

Experimental manipulation of body size alters life history in hydra

Body size has fundamental impacts on animal ecology and physiology but has been strongly influenced by recent climate change and human activities, such as size-selective harvesting. Understanding the ecological and life history consequences of body size has proved difficult due to the inseparability of direct effects of body size from processes connected to it (such as growth rate and individual condition). Here, we used the cnidarian Hydra oligactis to directly manipulate body size and understand its causal effects on reproduction and senescence. We found that experimentally reducing size delayed sexual development and lowered fecundity, while post-reproductive survival increased, implying that smaller individuals can physiologically detect their reduced size and adjust life history decisions to achieve higher survival. Our experiment suggests that ecological or human-induced changes in body size will have immediate effects on life history and population dynamics through a growth-independent link between body size, reproduction and senescence.

Physiological and metabolic features of mice with CRISPR/Cas9-mediated loss-of-function in growth hormone-releasing hormone

Our previous study demonstrated that the loss of growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) results in increased lifespan and improved metabolic homeostasis in the mouse model generated by classical embryonic stem cell-based gene-targeting method. In this study, we targeted the GHRH gene using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to avoid passenger alleles/mutations and performed in-depth physiological and metabolic characterization. In agreement with our previous observations, male and female GHRH-/- mice have significantly reduced body weight and enhanced insulin sensitivity when compared to wild type littermates. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry showed that there were significant decreases in lean mass, bone mineral content and density, and a dramatic increase in fat mass of GHRH-/- mice when compared to wild type littermates. Indirect calorimetry measurements showed dramatic reductions in oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production and energy expenditure in GHRH-/- mice compared to wild type mice in both light and dark cycles. Respiratory exchange ratio was significantly lower in GHRH-/- mice during the light cycle, but not during the dark cycle, indicating a circadian related metabolic shift towards fat utilization in the growth hormone deficient mice. The novel CRISPR/Cas9 GHRH-/- mice are exhibiting the consistent and unique physiological and metabolic characteristics, which might mediate the longevity effects of growth hormone deficiency in mice.

Tryptophan metabolism is differently regulated between large and small dogs

Companion dogs have recently been promoted as an animal model for the study of aging due to their similar disease profile to humans, the sophistication of health assessment and disease diagnosis, and the shared environments with their owners. In addition, dogs show an interesting life history trait pattern where smaller individuals are up to two-fold longer lived than their larger counterparts. While some of the mechanisms underlying this size and longevity trade-off are strongly suspected (i.e., growth hormone/IGF-I), there are likely a number of undiscovered mechanisms as well. Accordingly, we have completed a large-scale global metabolomic profiling of dogs encompassing a range of sizes and ages from three cities across the USA. We found a surprisingly strong location signal in the metabolome, stronger in fact than any signal related to age, breed, or sex. However, after controlling for the effects of location, tryptophan metabolism emerged as significantly associated with weight of the dogs, with small dogs having significantly higher levels of tryptophan pathway metabolites. Overall, our results point toward novel, testable hypotheses about the underlying physiological mechanisms that influence size and longevity in the companion dog and suggest that dogs may be useful in sorting out the complexities of the tryptophan metabolic network.

Complex Phenotypes: Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Human Stature

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The goal of the review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying variation in human stature.

RECENT FINDINGS

Human height is an anthropometric trait that varies considerably within human populations as well as across the globe. Historically, much research focus was placed on understanding the biology of growth plate chondrocytes and how modifications to core chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation pathways potentially shaped height attainment in normal as well as pathological contexts. Recently, much progress has been made to improve our understanding regarding the mechanisms underlying the normal and pathological range of height variation within as well as between human populations, and today, it is understood to reflect complex interactions among a myriad of genetic, environmental, and evolutionary factors. Indeed, recent improvements in genetics (e.g., GWAS) and breakthroughs in functional genomics (e.g., whole exome sequencing, DNA methylation analysis, ATAC-sequencing, and CRISPR) have shed light on previously unknown pathways/mechanisms governing pathological and common height variation. Additionally, the use of an evolutionary perspective has also revealed important mechanisms that have shaped height variation across the planet. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge of the biological mechanisms underlying height variation by highlighting new research findings on skeletal growth control with an emphasis on previously unknown pathways/mechanisms influencing pathological and common height variation. In this context, this review also discusses how evolutionary forces likely shaped the genomic architecture of height across the globe.

Temperature and insulin signaling regulate body size in Hydra by the Wnt and TGF-beta pathways

How multicellular organisms assess and control their size is a fundamental question in biology, yet the molecular and genetic mechanisms that control organ or organism size remain largely unsolved. The freshwater polyp Hydra demonstrates a high capacity to adapt its body size to different temperatures. Here we identify the molecular mechanisms controlling this phenotypic plasticity and show that temperature-induced cell number changes are controlled by Wnt- and TGF-β signaling. Further we show that insulin-like peptide receptor (INSR) and forkhead box protein O (FoxO) are important genetic drivers of size determination controlling the same developmental regulators. Thus, environmental and genetic factors directly affect developmental mechanisms in which cell number is the strongest determinant of body size. These findings identify the basic mechanisms as to how size is regulated on an organismic level and how phenotypic plasticity is integrated into conserved developmental pathways in an evolutionary informative model organism.

Genetic and epigenetic regulation of human aging and longevity

Here we summarize the latest data on genetic and epigenetic contributions to human aging and longevity. Whereas environmental and lifestyle factors are important at younger ages, the contribution of genetics appears more important in reaching extreme old age. Genome-wide studies have implicated ~57 gene loci in lifespan. Epigenomic changes during aging profoundly affect cellular function and stress resistance. Dysregulation of transcriptional and chromatin networks is likely a crucial component of aging. Large-scale bioinformatic analyses have revealed involvement of numerous interaction networks. As the young well-differentiated cell replicates into eventual senescence there is drift in the highly regulated chromatin marks towards an entropic middle-ground between repressed and active, such that genes that were previously inactive "leak". There is a breakdown in chromatin connectivity such that topologically associated domains and their insulators weaken, and well-defined blocks of constitutive heterochromatin give way to generalized, senescence-associated heterochromatin, foci. Together, these phenomena contribute to aging.

Influence of Diets with Varying Essential/Nonessential Amino Acid Ratios on Mouse Lifespan

An adequate intake of essential (EAA) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA) is crucial to preserve cell integrity and whole-body metabolism. EAA introduced with diet may be insufficient to meet the organismal needs, especially under increased physiological requirements or in pathological conditions, and may condition lifespan. We therefore examined the effects of iso-caloric and providing the same nitrogenous content diets, any diet containing different stoichiometric blends of EAA/NEAA, on mouse lifespan. Three groups of just-weaned male Balb/C mice were fed exclusively with special diets with varying EAA/NEAA ratios, ranging from 100%/0% to 0%/100%. Three additional groups of mice were fed with different diets, two based on casein as alimentary proteins, one providing the said protein, one reproducing the amino acidic composition of casein, and the third one, the control group, was fed by a standard laboratory diet. Mouse lifespan was inversely correlated with the percentage of NEAA introduced with each diet. Either limiting EAA, or exceeding NEAA, induced rapid and permanent structural modifications on muscle and adipose tissue, independently of caloric intake. These changes significantly affected food and water intake, body weight, and lifespan. Dietary intake of varying EAA/NEAA ratios induced changes in several organs and profoundly influenced murine lifespan. The balanced content of EAA provided by dietary proteins should be considered as the preferable means for “optimal” nutrition and the elevated or unbalanced intake of NEAA provided by food proteins may negatively affect the health and lifespan of mice.

Inverse Association Between Height-Increasing Alleles and Extreme Longevity in Japanese Women

Growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)/insulin signaling is one of the most plausible biological pathways regulating aging and longevity. Previous studies have demonstrated that several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the GH/IGF-1/insulin signaling-associated genes influence both longevity and adult height, suggesting the possibility of a shared genetic architecture between longevity and height. We therefore examined the relationship between 30 height-associated SNPs and extreme longevity in a Japanese population consisting of 428 centenarians and 4,026 younger controls. We confirmed that height-increasing genetic scores (HGSs) constructed based on 30 SNPs were significantly associated with height in the controls (p = 6.95 × 10-23). HGS was significantly and inversely associated with extreme longevity in women (p = .011), but not in men, although no SNPs were significantly associated with extreme longevity after Bonferroni correction. The odds ratio for extreme longevity in the lowest HGS group (≤27) and the second lowest HGS group (28-30) relative to the highest HGS group (≥37) was 1.71 (p = .056) and 1.69 (p = .034), respectively, for women. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated an inverse association between height-increasing alleles with extreme longevity in Japanese women, providing novel insight into the genetic architecture of longevity and aging.

Growth Hormone Deficiency: Health and Longevity

The important role of GH in the control of mammalian longevity was first deduced from extended longevity of mice with genetic GH deficiency (GHD) or GH resistance. Mice with isolated GHD (IGHD) due to GHRH or GHRH receptor mutations, combined deficiency of GH, prolactin, and TSH, or global deletion of GH receptors live longer than do their normal siblings. They also exhibit multiple features of delayed and/or slower aging, accompanied by extension of healthspan. The unexpected, remarkable longevity benefit of severe endocrine defects in these animals presumably represents evolutionarily conserved trade-offs among aging, growth, maturation, fecundity, and the underlying anabolic processes. Importantly, the negative association of GH signaling with longevity extends to other mammalian species, apparently including humans. Data obtained in humans with IGHD type 1B, owing to a mutation of the GHRH receptor gene, in the Itabaianinha County, Brazil, provide a unique opportunity to study the impact of severe reduction in GH signaling on age-related characteristics, health, and functionality. Individuals with IGHD are characterized by proportional short stature, doll facies, high-pitched voices, and central obesity. They have delayed puberty but are fertile and generally healthy. Moreover, these IGHD individuals are partially protected from cancer and some of the common effects of aging and can attain extreme longevity, 103 years of age in one case. We think that low, but detectable, residual GH secretion combined with life-long reduction of circulating IGF-1 and with some tissue levels of IGF-1 and/or IGF-2 preserved may account for the normal longevity and apparent extension of healthspan in these individuals.

Body size, non-occupational physical activity and the chance of reaching longevity in men and women: findings from the Netherlands Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

The rising number of obese and/or physically inactive individuals might negatively impact human lifespan. This study assessed the association between height, body mass index (BMI) and non-occupational physical activity and the likelihood of reaching 90 years of age, in both sexes separately.

METHODS

Analyses were conducted using data from the Netherlands Cohort Study. Participants born in 1916-1917 (n=7807) completed a questionnaire in 1986 (at age 68-70 years) and were followed up for vital status information until the age of 90 years (2006-2007). Cox regression analyses were based on 5479 participants with complete data to calculate risk ratios (RRs) of reaching longevity (age 90 years).

RESULTS

In women, we observed significant associations between reaching longevity and height (RR: 1.05 per 5 cm increment; 95% CI 1.00 to 1.09), BMI at baseline (≥30vs18.5-<25 kg/m²; RR: 0.68; 95% CI 0.54 to 0.86) and BMI change since age 20 years (≥8vs0-<4 kg/m²; RR: 0.81; 95% CI 0.66 to 0.98). In men, height and BMI were not associated with reaching longevity. In women, non-occupational physical activity showed an inverse U-shaped association with reaching longevity, with the highest RR around 60 min of physical activity per day. In men, a positive linear association was observed between physical activity and reaching longevity.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that body size and physical activity are related to the likelihood of reaching 90 years of age and that these associations differ by sex.

Mitochondria Inspire a Lifestyle

Tucked inside our cells, we animals (and plants, and fungi) carry mitochondria, minuscule descendants of bacteria that invaded our common ancestor 2 billion years ago. This unplanned breakthrough endowed our ancestors with a convenient, portable source of energy, enabling them to progress towards more ambitious forms of life. Mitochondria still manufacture most of our energy; we have evolved to invest it to grow and produce offspring, and to last long enough to make it all happen. Yet because the continuous generation of energy is inevitably linked to that of toxic free radicals, mitochondria give us life and give us death. Stripping away clutter and minutiae, here we present a big-picture perspective of how mitochondria work, how they are passed on virtually only by mothers, and how they shape the lifestyles of species and individuals. We discuss why restricting food prolongs lifespan, why reproducing shortens it, and why moving about protects us from free radicals despite increasing their production. We show that our immune cells use special mitochondria to keep control over our gut microbes. And we lay out how the fabrication of energy and free radicals sets the internal clocks that command our everyday rhythms-waking, eating, sleeping. Mitochondria run the show.

Exceptional Human Longevity

Exceptional longevity represents an extreme phenotype. Current centenarians are survivors of a cohort who display delayed onset of age-related diseases and/or resistance to otherwise lethal illnesses occurring earlier in life. Characteristics of aging are heterogeneous, even among long-lived individuals. Associations between specific clinical or genetic biomarkers exist, but there is unlikely to be a single biomarker predictive of long life. Careful observations in the oldest old offer some empirical strategies that favor increased health span and life span, with implications for compression of disability, identification and implementation of lifestyle behaviors that promote independence, identification and measurement of more reliable markers associated with longevity, better guidance for appropriate health screenings, and promotion of anticipatory health discussions in the setting of more accurate prognostication. Comprehensive PubMed literature searches were performed, with an unbiased focus on mechanisms of longevity. Overall, the aggregate literature supports that the basis for exceptional longevity is multifactorial and involves disparate combinations of genes, environment, resiliency, and chance, all of which are influenced by culture and geography.

Impact of Growth Hormone-Related Mutations on Mammalian Aging

Mutations of a single gene can lead to a major increase in longevity in organisms ranging from yeast and worms to insects and mammals. Discovering these mutations (sometimes referred to as “longevity genes”) led to identification of evolutionarily conserved molecular, cellular, and organismal mechanisms of aging. Studies in mice provided evidence for the important role of growth hormone (GH) signaling in mammalian aging. Mice with mutations or gene deletions leading to GH deficiency or GH resistance have reduced body size and delayed maturation, but are healthier and more resistant to stress, age slower, and live longer than their normal (wild type) siblings. Mutations of the same genes in people can provide remarkable protection from age-related disease, but have no consistent impact on lifespan. Ongoing research indicates that genetic defects in GH signaling are linked to extension of healthspan and lifespan via a variety of interlocking mechanism, including improvements in genome and stem cell maintenance, stress resistance, glucose homeostasis, and thermogenesis, along with reductions in the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) C1 complex signaling and in chronic low grade inflammation.

Adult height and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study (JPHC)

Adult height is determined by both genetic characteristics and environmental factors in early life. Although previous studies have suggested that adult height is associated with risk of mortality, comprehensive associations between height and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the Japanese population are unclear. We aimed to evaluate the associations between adult height and all-cause and cause-specific mortality among Japanese men and women in a prospective cohort study. We investigated 107,794 participants (50,755 men and 57,039 women) aged 40 to 69 years who responded to the baseline questionnaire in the Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study. Participants were classified by quartile of adult height obtained from a self-reported questionnaire in men (<160cm, 160-163cm, 164-167cm, ≥168cm) and women (<149cm, 149-151cm, 152-155cm, ≥156cm). Hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for mortality from all-cause, cancer, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, respiratory disease, and other cause mortality were calculated using Cox proportional hazards models. During follow-up, 12,320 men and 7,030 women died. Taller adult height was associated with decreased risk for mortality from cerebrovascular disease (HR _{<160cm vs. ≥168cm} (95% CI) = 0.83 (0.69–0.99); HR _{for 5-cm increment} (95% CI) = 0.95 (0.90–0.99)) and respiratory disease (HR _{<160cm vs. ≥168cm} (95% CI) = 0.84 (0.69–1.03); HR _{for 5-cm increment} (95% CI) = 0.92 (0.87–0.97)), but was also associated with increased risk for overall cancer mortality (HR _{<160cm vs. ≥168cm} (95% CI) = 1.17 (1.07–1.28); HR _{for 5-cm increment} (95% CI) = 1.04 (1.01–1.07)) in men. Taller adult height was also associated with decreased risk for mortality from cerebrovascular disease (HR _{<149cm vs. ≥156cm} (95% CI) = 0.84 (0.66–1.05); HR _{for 5-cm increment} (95% CI) = 0.92 (0.86–0.99)) in women. Our results confirmed that adult height is associated with cause-specific mortality in a Japanese population.

Growth Hormone and Aging: Updated Review

Role of growth hormone (GH) in mammalian aging is actively explored in clinical, epidemiological, and experimental studies. The age-related decline in GH levels is variously interpreted as a symptom of neuroendocrine aging, as one of causes of altered body composition and other unwelcome symptoms of aging, or as a mechanism of natural protection from cancer and other chronic diseases. Absence of GH signals due to mutations affecting anterior pituitary development, GH secretion, or GH receptors produces an impressive extension of longevity in laboratory mice. Extension of healthspan in these animals and analysis of survival curves suggest that in the absence of GH, aging is slowed down or delayed. The corresponding endocrine syndromes in the human have no consistent impact on longevity, but are associated with remarkable protection from age-related disease. Moreover, survival to extremely old age has been associated with reduced somatotropic (GH and insulin-like growth factor-1) signaling in women and men. In both humans and mice, elevation of GH levels into the supranormal (pathological) range is associated with increased disease risks and reduced life expectancy likely representing acceleration of aging. The widely advertised potential of GH as an anti-aging agent attracted much interest. However, results obtained thus far have been disappointing with few documented benefits and many troublesome side effects. Possible utility of GH in the treatment of sarcopenia and frailty remains to be explored.

Birth weight predicts aging trajectory: A hypothesis

Increasing evidence suggests that risk for age-related disease and longevity can be programmed early in life. In human populations, convincing evidence has been accumulated indicating that intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) resulting in low birth weight (<2.5 kg) followed by postnatal catch-up growth is associated with various aspects of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Fetal macrosomia (birth weight > 4.5 kg), by contrast, is associated with high risk of non-diabetic obesity and cancers in later life. Developmental modification of epigenetic patterns is considered to be a central mechanism in determining such developmentally programmed phenotypes. Growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor (GH/IGF) axis is likely a key driver of these processes. In this review, evidence is discussed that suggests that different aging trajectories can be realized depending on developmentally programmed life-course dynamics of IGF-1. In this hypothetical scenario, IUGR-induced deficit of IGF-1 causes "diabetic" aging trajectory associated with various metabolic disorders in adulthood, while fetal macrosomia-induced excessive levels of IGF-1 lead to "cancerous" aging trajectory. If the above reasoning is correct, then both low and high birth weights are predictors of short life expectancy, while the normal birth weight is a predictor of "normal" aging and maximum longevity.

Prolonged Growth Hormone/Insulin/Insulin-like Growth Factor Nutrient Response Signaling Pathway as a Silent Killer of Stem Cells and a Culprit in Aging

The dream of slowing down the aging process has always inspired mankind. Since stem cells are responsible for tissue and organ rejuvenation, it is logical that we should search for encoded mechanisms affecting life span in these cells. However, in adult life the hierarchy within the stem cell compartment is still not very well defined, and evidence has accumulated that adult tissues contain rare stem cells that possess a broad trans-germ layer differentiation potential. These most-primitive stem cells-those endowed with pluripotent or multipotent differentiation ability and that give rise to other cells more restricted in differentiation, known as tissue-committed stem cells (TCSCs) - are of particular interest. In this review we present the concept supported by accumulating evidence that a population of so-called very small embryonic-like stem cells (VSELs) residing in adult tissues positively impacts the overall survival of mammals, including humans. These unique cells are prevented in vertebrates from premature depletion by decreased sensitivity to growth hormone (GH), insulin (INS), and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling, due to epigenetic changes in paternally imprinted genes that regulate their resistance to these factors. In this context, we can envision nutrient response GH/INS/IGF signaling pathway as a lethal factor for these most primitive stem cells and an important culprit in aging.

The tall and the short of it: An investigation of height ideals, height preferences, height dissatisfaction, heightism, and height-related quality of life impairment among sexual minority men

Human height has attracted empirical interest from a variety of psychological perspectives. However, little research has explored height from the perspective of sexual minority men, inclusive of their height beliefs, height preferences, height dissatisfaction, experiences of heightism, and height-related quality of life impairment. We explored these height variables in 2733 sexual minority men who completed a survey distributed nationwide to Australian and New Zealander users of geosocial-networking smartphone applications. Results showed that men's ideal height (M=182.26cm, SD=5.93cm) was taller than their actual height (M=178.96cm, SD=7.52cm). Shorter and taller men reported negative and positive treatment from others due to their height, respectively, with the cross-over (i.e., neutral) point at approximately 175-176cm. Heightism was reported by 11.0% of men. Height dissatisfaction and heightism were uniquely associated with quality of life impairment; the size of these associations was small.

Do "big guys" really die younger? An examination of height and lifespan in former professional basketball players

While factors such as genetics may mediate the relationship between height and mortality, evidence suggests that larger body size may be an important risk indicator of reduced lifespan longevity in particular. This study critically examined this relationship in professional basketball players. We examined living and deceased players who have played in the National Basketball Association (debut between 1946-2010) and/or the American Basketball Association (1967-1976) using descriptive and Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analyses. The cut-off date for death data collection was December 11, 2015. Overall, 3,901 living and deceased players were identified and had a mean height of 197.78 cm (± 9.29, Range: 160.02-231.14), and of those, 787 former players were identified as deceased with a mean height of 193.88 cm (± 8.83, Range: 167.6-228.6). Descriptive findings indicated that the tallest players (top 5%) died younger than the shortest players (bottom 5%) in all but one birth decade (1941-1950). Similarly, survival analyses showed a significant relationship between height and lifespan longevity when both dichotomizing [χ2 (1) = 13.04, p < .05] and trichotomizing [χ2 (2) = 18.05, p < .05] the predictor variable height per birth decade, where taller players had a significantly higher mortality risk compared to shorter players through median (HR: 1.30, 95% CI: 1.13-1.50, p < .05) and trichotomized tertile split (HR: 1.40, 95% CI: 1.18-1.68, p <. 05; tallest 33.3% compared to shortest 33.3%) analyses. The uniqueness of examining the height-longevity hypothesis in this relatively homogeneous sub-population should be considered when interpreting these results. Further understanding of the potential risks of early mortality can help generate discourse regarding potential at-risk cohorts of the athlete population.

Somatic growth, aging, and longevity

Although larger species of animals typically live longer than smaller species, the relationship of body size to longevity within a species is generally opposite. The longevity advantage of smaller individuals can be considerable and is best documented in laboratory mice and in domestic dogs. Importantly, it appears to apply broadly, including humans. It is not known whether theses associations represent causal links between various developmental and physiological mechanisms affecting growth and/or aging. However, variations in growth hormone (GH) signaling are likely involved because GH is a key stimulator of somatic growth, and apparently also exerts various “pro-aging” effects. Mechanisms linking GH, somatic growth, adult body size, aging, and lifespan likely involve target of rapamycin (TOR), particularly one of its signaling complexes, mTORC1, as well as various adjustments in mitochondrial function, energy metabolism, thermogenesis, inflammation, and insulin signaling. Somatic growth, aging, and longevity are also influenced by a variety of hormonal and nutritional signals, and much work will be needed to answer the question of why smaller individuals may be likely to live longer.

Exome-wide Association Study Identifies CLEC3B Missense Variant p.S106G as Being Associated With Extreme Longevity in East Asian Populations

Life span is a complex trait regulated by multiple genetic and environmental factors; however, the genetic determinants of extreme longevity have been largely unknown. To identify the functional coding variants associated with extreme longevity, we performed an exome-wide association study (EWAS) on a Japanese population by using an Illumina HumanExome Beadchip and a focused replication study on a Chinese population. The EWAS on two independent Japanese cohorts consisting of 530 nonagenarians/centenarians demonstrated that the G allele of CLEC3B missense variant p.S106G was associated with extreme longevity at the exome-wide level of significance (p = 2.33×10^–7, odds ratio [OR] = 1.50). The CLEC3B gene encodes tetranectin, a protein implicated in the mineralization process in osteogenesis as well as in the prognosis and metastasis of cancer. The replication study consisting of 448 Chinese nonagenarians/centenarians showed that the G allele of CLEC3B p.S106G was also associated with extreme longevity (p = .027, OR = 1.51), and the p value of this variant reached 1.87×10^–8 in the meta-analysis of Japanese and Chinese populations. In conclusion, the present study identified the CLEC3B p.S106G as a novel longevity-associated variant, raising the novel hypothesis that tetranectin, encoded by CLEC3B, plays a role in human longevity and aging.

Adult height, dietary patterns, and healthy aging

Background: Adult height has shown directionally diverse associations with several age-related disorders, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, decline in cognitive function, and mortality.Objective: We investigated the associations of adult height with healthy aging measured by a full spectrum of health outcomes, including incidence of chronic diseases, memory, physical functioning, and mental health, among populations who have survived to older age, and whether lifestyle factors modified such relations.Design: We included 52,135 women (mean age: 44.2 y) from the Nurses' Health Study without chronic diseases in 1980 and whose health status was available in 2012. Healthy aging was defined as being free of 11 major chronic diseases and having no reported impairment of subjective memory, physical impairment, or mental health limitations.Results: Of all eligible study participants, 6877 (13.2%) were classified as healthy agers. After adjustment for demographic and lifestyle factors, we observed an 8% (95% CI: 6%, 11%) decrease in the odds of healthy aging per SD (0.062 m) increase in height. Compared with the lowest category of height (≤1.57 m), the OR of achieving healthy aging in the highest category (≥1.70 m) was 0.80 (95% CI: 0.73, 0.87; P-trend < 0.001). In addition, we found a significant interaction of height with a prudent dietary pattern in relation to healthy aging (P-interaction = 0.005), and among the individual dietary factors characterizing the prudent dietary pattern, fruit and vegetable intake showed the strongest effect modification (P-interaction = 0.01). The association of greater height with reduced odds of healthy aging appeared to be more evident among women with higher adherence to the prudent dietary pattern rich in vegetable and fruit intake.Conclusions: Greater height was associated with a modest decrease in the likelihood of healthy aging. A prudent diet rich in fruit and vegetables might modify the relation.

Effects of size at birth, childhood growth patterns and growth hormone treatment on leukocyte telomere length

BACKGROUND

Small size at birth and rapid growth in early life are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease in later life. Short children born small for gestational age (SGA) are treated with growth hormone (GH), inducing catch-up in length. Leukocyte telomere length (LTL) is a marker of biological age and shorter LTL is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether LTL is influenced by birth size, childhood growth and long-term GH treatment.

METHODS

We analyzed LTL in 545 young adults with differences in birth size and childhood growth patterns. Previously GH-treated young adults born SGA (SGA-GH) were compared to untreated short SGA (SGA-S), SGA with spontaneous catch-up to a normal body size (SGA-CU), and appropriate for gestational age with a normal body size (AGA-NS). LTL was measured using a quantitative PCR assay.

RESULTS

We found a positive association between birth length and LTL (p = 0.04), and a trend towards a positive association between birth weight and LTL (p = 0.08), after adjustments for gender, age, gestational age and adult body size. Weight gain during infancy and childhood and fat mass percentage were not associated with LTL. Female gender and gestational age were positively associated with LTL, and smoking negatively. After adjustments for gender, age and gestational age, SGA-GH had a similar LTL as SGA-S (p = 0.11), SGA-CU (p = 0.80), and AGA-NS (p = 0.30).

CONCLUSIONS

Larger size at birth is positively associated with LTL in young adulthood. Growth patterns during infancy and childhood are not associated with LTL. Previously GH-treated young adults born SGA have similar LTL as untreated short SGA, SGA with spontaneous catch-up and AGA born controls, indicating no adverse effects of GH-induced catch-up in height on LTL.

GH and ageing: Pitfalls and new insights

The interrelationships of growth hormone (GH) actions and aging are complex and incompletely understood. The very pronounced age-related decline in GH secretion together with benefits of GH therapy in individuals with congenital or adult GH deficiency (GHD) prompted interest in GH as an anti-aging agent. However, the benefits of treatment of normal elderly subjects with GH appear to be marginal and counterbalanced by worrisome side effects. In laboratory mice, genetic GH deficiency or resistance leads to a remarkable extension of longevity accompanied by signs of delayed and/or slower aging. Mechanisms believed to contribute to extended longevity of GH-related mutants include improved anti-oxidant defenses, enhanced insulin sensitivity and reduced insulin levels, reduced inflammation and cell senescence, major shifts in mitochondrial function and energy metabolism, and greater stress resistance. Negative association of the somatotropic signaling and GH/insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-dependent traits with longevity has also been shown in other mammalian species. In humans, syndromes of GH resistance or deficiency have no consistent effect on longevity, but can provide striking protection from cancer, diabetes and atherosclerosis. More subtle alterations in various steps of GH and IGF-1 signaling are associated with reduced old-age mortality, particularly in women and with improved chances of attaining extremes of lifespan. Epidemiological studies raise a possibility that the relationship of IGF-1 and perhaps also GH levels with human healthy aging and longevity may be biphasic. However, the impact of somatotropic signaling on neoplastic disease is difficult to separate from its impact on aging, and IGF-1 levels exhibit opposite associations with different chronic, age-related diseases.

Understanding the links between month of birth, body height, and longevity: why some studies reveal that shorter people live longer – further evidence of seasonal programming from the Polish population

There is a lack of agreement in the literature as to whether adult height depends on month of birth and whether height affects lifespan. Additionally, the relationship between stature and longevity involves conflicting findings and the results remain mixed due to several confounders, such as: year of birth, somatotype, relative body weight, genetic inheritance, diet, diseases, etc. Here, we hypothesize that the season of birth effect can also be involved in shaping the mysterious link between body height and longevity. To assess the links between month of birth, adult height, and longevity in the Polish population, data on 848,860 individuals, of whom 483,512 were men (57%) and 365,348 were women (43%), born in the years 1896-1988 and died in the years 2004-2008, were collected from the ‘PESEL’ database and signalments in the censuses obtained from identity card offices throughout Poland. ANOVA and the LSD test were performed. A significant relationship between month of birth and lifespan was found. Individuals born in autumn and winter months lived significantly longer than those who were born in the middle of the year (May). The amplitudes of lifespan were 16 months in men and 14 months in women. As expected, subjects of both sexes born in autumn and winter months were significantly shorter than their peers born around the middle of the year. In conclusion, the results of the study not only corroborate the theory of seasonal programming of longevity and support the idea that some undetermined factors from early stages of ontogeny and associated with season of birth have long-term effects on phenotype in later life in terms of adult height and longevity, but also bear out the hypothesis that month of birth can be another important confounding factor with respect to the relationship between adult height and longevity.

Growth hormone actions during development influence adult phenotype and longevity

There is considerable evidence that exposure to undernutrition, overnutrition, stress or endocrine disruptors during fetal development can increase the probability of obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and other problems in adult life. In contrast to these findings, reducing early postnatal growth by altering maternal diet or number of pups in a litter can increase longevity. In hypopituitary Ames dwarf mice, which are remarkably long lived, a brief period of growth hormone therapy starting at 1 or 2weeks of age reduces longevity and normalizes ("rescues") multiple aging-related traits. Collectively, these findings indicate that nutritional and hormonal signals during development can have profound impact on the trajectory of aging. We suspect that altered "programming" of aging during development may represent one of the mechanisms of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) and the detrimental effects of "catch-up" growth.

The relationship between adult stature and longevity: tall men are unlikely to outlive their short peers – evidence from a study of all adult deaths in Poland in the years 2004–2008

Early epidemiological studies demonstrated that short stature is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, lower energy intake or food deprivation during growth, poor health, and increased all-cause mortality. Nevertheless, the links between adult height and longevity become tenuous if certain confounders (e.g. BMI, SES, educational attainment, etc.) are allowed for. Furthermore, numerous studies have found that like excess weight, tallness is costly in terms of longevity in late ontogeny, and shorter people tend to outlive their taller peers, especially if they are slim and maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle. Therefore, there is currently a lack of agreement in the literature as to whether and how body height and lifespan are linked. The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between adult stature and longevity on the basis of a large sample from a population-based cohort study. Data on declared height and exact dates of birth and death were available from 480,493 men and 364,666 women who died in the years 2004-2008 in Poland. To control for secular changes, the sample was divided into fifteen birth cohorts and each group was subsequently split into five height categories using pentiles, separately for both sexes. The analysis has revealed an inverse relationship between height and lifespan in men and women. However, after controlling for secular changes in height, the relationship turned out to be very weak and linear in men, and inverted U-shaped in women. In general, taller individuals had lower age at death compared to shorter ones, and this relationship was more pronounced and consistent in men. To sum up, these findings do not comport with the traditional belief that taller individuals live longer. The role of several possible biological mechanisms pertinent to enhanced longevity in smaller individuals was emphasized, and these biological factors were discussed.

Demographic, phenotypic, and genetic characteristics of centenarians in Okinawa and Japan: Part 1-centenarians in Okinawa

A study of elderly Okinawans has been carried out by the Okinawa Centenarian Study (OCS) research group for over four decades. The OCS began in 1975 as a population-based study of centenarians (99-year-olds and older) and other selected elderly persons residing in the main island of the Japanese prefecture of Okinawa. As of 2015, over 1000 centenarians have been examined. By several measures of health and longevity the Okinawans can claim to be the world's healthiest and longest-lived people. In this paper we explore the demographic, phenotypic, and genetic characteristics of this fascinating population.

Contemporary views on human aging and longevity

Aging is currently stimulating intense interest of both researchers and the general public. In developed countries, the average life expectancy has increased by roughly 30 years within the last century, and human senescence has been delayed by around a decade. Although aging is arguably the most familiar aspect of human biology, its proximate and ultimate causes have not been elucidated fully and understood yet. Nowadays there are two main approaches to the ultimate causes of aging. These are deterministic and stochastic models. The proximate theories constitute a distinct group of explanations. They focus on mechanistic causes of aging. In this view, there is no reason to believe that there is only one biological mechanism responsible for aging. The aging process is highly complex and results from an accumulation of random molecular damage. Currently, the disposable soma theory (DST), proposed by Thomas Kirkwood, is the most influential and coherent line of reasoning in biogerontology. This model does not postulate any particular mechanism underpinning somatic defense. Therefore, it is compatible with various models, including mechanistic and evolutionary explanations. Recently, however, an interesting theory of hyper-function of mTOR as a more direct cause of aging has been formulated by Mikhail Blagosklonny, offering an entirely different approach to numerous problems and paradoxes in current biogerontology. In this view, aging is quasi-programmed, which means that it is an aimless continuation of developmental growth. This mTOR-centric model allows the prediction of completely new relationships. The aim of this article is to present and compare the views of both parties in the dispute, based on the results of some recent experimental studies, and the contemporary knowledge of selected major aspects of human aging and longevity

Sixteen kiwi (Apteryx spp) transcriptomes provide a wealth of genetic markers and insight into sex chromosome evolution in birds

Background

Kiwi represent the most basal extant avian lineage (paleognaths) and exhibit biological attributes that are unusual or extreme among living birds, such as large egg size, strong olfaction, nocturnality, flightlessness and long lifespan. Despite intense interest in their evolution and their threatened status, genomic resources for kiwi were virtually non-existent until the recent publication of a single genome. Here we present the most comprehensive kiwi transcriptomes to date, obtained via Illumina sequencing of whole blood and de novo assembly of mRNA sequences of eight individuals from each of the two rarest kiwi species, little spotted kiwi (LSK; Apteryx owenii) and rowi (A. rowi).

Results

Sequences obtained were orthologous with a wide diversity of functional genes despite the sequencing of a single tissue type. Individual and composite assemblies contain more than 7900 unique protein coding transcripts in each of LSK and rowi that show strong homology with chicken (Gallus gallus), including those associated with growth, development, disease resistance, reproduction and behavior. The assemblies also contain 66,909 SNPs that distinguish between LSK and rowi, 12,384 SNPs among LSK (associated with 3088 genes), and 29,313 SNPs among rowi (associated with 4953 genes). We found 3084 transcripts differentially expressed between LSK and rowi and 150 transcripts differentially expressed between the sexes. Of the latter, 83 could be mapped to chicken chromosomes with 95% syntenic with chromosome Z.

Conclusions

Our study has simultaneously sequenced multiple species, sexes, and individual kiwi at thousands of genes, and thus represents a significant leap forward in genomic resources available for kiwi. The expression pattern we observed among chromosome Z related genes in kiwi is similar to that observed in ostriches and emu, suggesting a common and ancestral pattern of sex chromosome homomorphy, recombination, and gene dosage among living paleognaths. The transcriptome assemblies described here will provide a rich resource for polymorphic marker development and studies of adaptation of these highly unusual and endangered birds.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2714-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The genetics of exceptional longevity: Insights from centenarians

As the world population ages, so the prevalence increases of individuals aged 100 years or more, known as centenarians. Reaching this age has been described as exceptional longevity (EL) and is attributed to both genetic and environmental factors. Many genetic variations known to affect life expectancy exist in centenarians. This review of studies conducted on centenarians and supercentenarians (older than 110 years) updates knowledge of the impacts on longevity of the twenty most widely investigated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

The somatotropic axis and aging: Benefits of endocrine defects

Reduced somatotropic [growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)] action has been associated with delayed and slower aging, reduced risk of frailty, reduced age-related disease and functional decline, and with remarkably extended longevity. Recent studies have added to the evidence that these relationships discovered in laboratory populations of mice apply to other mammalian species. However, the relationship of the somatotropic signaling to human aging is less striking, complex and controversial. In mice, targeted deletion of GH receptors (GHR) in the liver, muscle or adipose tissue affected multiple metabolic parameters but failed to reproduce the effects of global GHR deletion on longevity. Continued search for mechanisms of extended longevity in animals with GH deficiency or resistance focused attention on different pathways of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), energy metabolism, regulation of local IGF-1 levels and resistance to high-fat diet (HFD).