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Wang Z, Huang M, Gong H, Li X, Zhang H, Zhou X. Increased tropical vegetation respiration is dually induced by El Niño and upper atmospheric warm anomalies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 818:151719. [PMID: 34822906 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tropical vegetation respiration (TVR) is affected by extreme climate change. As it is very difficult to directly observe TVR, our understanding of the land-ocean-atmosphere carbon cycle, and particularly the regulatory effect of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on TVR and the land-atmosphere carbon balance, is very limited. Therefore, usingModerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) products and meteorological data, we investigated the response of TVR to changes in ENSO during 2000-2015. The influence of El Niño on TVR was approximately 10.8% higher than that of La Niña. During El Niño years, a significant and anomalous increase in thermal measures related to TVR and ENSO and a significant and anomalous decrease in related hydrological measures favor the formation of warmer and drier climate conditions. Furthermore, the zonal distributions of air temperature and vertical velocity at 200-1000 hPa during El Niño years show that a stronger atmospheric inversion over tropical regions causes an increase in the surface temperature. Moreover, anomalous atmospheric subsidence inhibits the upward transport of water vapor, leading to a decrease in the cloud formation probability and reduced precipitation. In summary, increased surface temperatures caused by increased solar radiation and enhanced atmospheric inversion and decreased precipitation cause warmer and drier climate conditions, which forces TVR to increase. As TVR constitutes the key node of the land-atmosphere‑carbon cycle process, we focus on TVR and its close linkage with ENSO events and further establish a knowledge framework for understanding the land-atmosphere-ocean carbon cycle. This study deepens our understanding of not only the mechanism of the land-atmosphere carbon balance but also the ocean-induced terrestrial ecosystem processes spurred by ENSO-involved climate change. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: Vegetation respiration regulates the carbon balance of the land and atmosphere. As it is very difficult to directly observe vegetation respiration, our understanding of the land-ocean-atmosphere carbon cycle involved and the roles of vegetation respiration and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in regulating the land-atmosphere carbon balance is very limited. Therefore, using MODIS products and meteorological data, we investigated the response of tropical vegetation respiration to changes in ENSO during 2000-2015. We found that during El Niño years, warmer and drier climate conditions over tropical regions increased vegetation respiration. Exacerbating the warmer and drier climate conditions, upper atmospheric warm anomalies further caused a remarkable increase in tropical vegetation respiration. Based on the land-atmosphere‑carbon cycle process, we establish a knowledge framework for understanding the land-atmosphere-ocean carbon cycle. This knowledge deepens our understanding of not only the mechanism of the land-atmosphere carbon balance but also the ocean-induced terrestrial ecosystem processes spurred by ENSO-involved climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaosheng Wang
- National Ecosystem Science Data Center, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Mei Huang
- National Ecosystem Science Data Center, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - He Gong
- National Ecosystem Science Data Center, Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xinzhou Li
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Kominoski JS, Pachón J, Brock JT, McVoy C, Malone SL. Understanding drivers of aquatic ecosystem metabolism in freshwater subtropical ridge and slough wetlands. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- John S. Kominoski
- Department of Biological Sciences Institute of Environment Florida International University Miami Florida 33199 USA
| | - Julio Pachón
- Department of Biological Sciences Institute of Environment Florida International University Miami Florida 33199 USA
| | | | | | - Sparkle L. Malone
- Department of Biological Sciences Institute of Environment Florida International University Miami Florida 33199 USA
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Integrating Aquatic Metabolism and Net Ecosystem CO2 Balance in Short- and Long-Hydroperiod Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands. Ecosystems 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-021-00672-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AbstractHow aquatic primary productivity influences the carbon (C) sequestering capacity of wetlands is uncertain. We evaluated the magnitude and variability in aquatic C dynamics and compared them to net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) and ecosystem respiration (Reco) rates within calcareous freshwater wetlands in Everglades National Park. We continuously recorded 30-min measurements of dissolved oxygen (DO), water level, water temperature (Twater), and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). These measurements were coupled with ecosystem CO2 fluxes over 5 years (2012–2016) in a long-hydroperiod peat-rich, freshwater marsh and a short-hydroperiod, freshwater marl prairie. Daily net aquatic primary productivity (NAPP) rates indicated both wetlands were generally net heterotrophic. Gross aquatic primary productivity (GAPP) ranged from 0 to − 6.3 g C m−2 day−1 and aquatic respiration (RAq) from 0 to 6.13 g C m−2 day−1. Nonlinear interactions between water level, Twater, and GAPP and RAq resulted in high variability in NAPP that contributed to NEE. Net aquatic primary productivity accounted for 4–5% of the deviance explained in NEE rates. With respect to the flux magnitude, daily NAPP was a greater proportion of daily NEE at the long-hydroperiod site (mean = 95%) compared to the short-hydroperiod site (mean = 64%). Although we have confirmed the significant contribution of NAPP to NEE in both long- and short-hydroperiod freshwater wetlands, the decoupling of the aquatic and ecosystem fluxes could largely depend on emergent vegetation, the carbonate cycle, and the lateral C flux.
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Richards JH, Olivas PC. A common-mesocosm experiment recreates sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) phenotypes from Everglades marl prairies and peat marshes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2020; 107:56-65. [PMID: 31889308 PMCID: PMC7004165 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE The southern Florida Everglades landscape sustains wetlands of national and international importance. Sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), the dominant macrophyte in the Everglades, has two phenotypes that vary in size and density between Everglades marl prairies and peat marshes. Marl prairies have recently been hypothesized to be a newly formed habitat developed after European colonization as a result of landscape-scale hydrologic modifications, implying that sawgrass marl phenotypes developed in response to the marl habitat. We examined whether sawgrass wetland phenotypes are plastic responses to marl and peat soils. METHODS In a common-mesocosm experiment, seedlings from a single Everglades population were grown outdoors in field-collected marl or peat soils. Growth and morphology of plants were measured over 14 mo, while soil and leaf total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total carbon, and plant biomass and biomass allocation were determined in a final harvest. RESULTS Sawgrass plant morphology diverged in marl vs. peat soils, and variations in morphology and density of mesocosm-grown plants resembled differences seen in sawgrass plants growing in marl and peat habitats in Everglades wetlands. Additionally, sawgrass growing in marl made abundant dauciform roots, while dauciform root production of sawgrass growing in peat was correlated with soil total phosphorus. CONCLUSIONS Sawgrass from a single population grown in marl or peat soils can mimic sawgrass phenotypes associated with marl vs. peat habitats. This plasticity is consistent with the hypothesis that Everglades marl prairies are relatively new habitats that support plant communities assembled after European colonization and subsequent landscape modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer H. Richards
- Department of Biological SciencesFlorida International UniversityMiamiFlorida33199USA
| | - Paulo C. Olivas
- Department of Biological SciencesFlorida International UniversityMiamiFlorida33199USA
- GIS/RS CenterFlorida International UniversityMiamiFlorida33199USA
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Zhao J, Malone SL, Oberbauer SF, Olivas PC, Schedlbauer JL, Staudhammer CL, Starr G. Intensified inundation shifts a freshwater wetland from a CO 2 sink to a source. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2019; 25:3319-3333. [PMID: 31148318 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Climate change has altered global precipitation patterns and has led to greater variation in hydrological conditions. Wetlands are important globally for their soil carbon storage. Given that wetland carbon processes are primarily driven by hydrology, a comprehensive understanding of the effect of inundation is needed. In this study, we evaluated the effect of water level (WL) and inundation duration (ID) on carbon dioxide (CO2 ) fluxes by analysing a 10-year (2008-2017) eddy covariance dataset from a seasonally inundated freshwater marl prairie in the Everglades National Park. Both gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER) rates showed declines under inundation. While GPP rates decreased almost linearly as WL and ID increased, ER rates were less responsive to WL increase beyond 30 cm and extended inundation periods. The unequal responses between GPP and ER caused a weaker net ecosystem CO2 sink strength as inundation intensity increased. Eventually, the ecosystem tended to become a net CO2 source on a daily basis when either WL exceeded 46 cm or inundation lasted longer than 7 months. Particularly, with an extended period of high-WLs in 2016 (i.e., WL remained >40 cm for >9 months), the ecosystem became a CO2 source, as opposed to being a sink or neutral for CO2 in other years. Furthermore, the extreme inundation in 2016 was followed by a 4-month postinundation period with lower net ecosystem CO2 uptake compared to other years. Given that inundation plays a key role in controlling ecosystem CO2 balance, we suggest that a future with more intensive inundation caused by climate change or water management activities can weaken the CO2 sink strength of the Everglades freshwater marl prairies and similar wetlands globally, creating a positive feedback to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junbin Zhao
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
- Division of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Ås, Norway
| | - Sparkle L Malone
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| | - Steven F Oberbauer
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| | - Paulo C Olivas
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
- GIS-RS Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| | - Jessica L Schedlbauer
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Gregory Starr
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
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Symes E, van Ogtrop FF. The effect of pre-industrial and predicted atmospheric CO 2 concentrations on the development of diazotrophic and non-diazotrophic cyanobacterium: Dolichospermum circinale and Microcystis aeruginosa. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 88:101536. [PMID: 31582161 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Photoautotrophs are capable of consuming high quantities of CO2, yet scant research exists examining the influence of different CO2 concentrations on the growth of freshwater diazotrophic or non-diazotrophic cyanobacteria. In this study, we cultured two cyanobacteria taxa (Dolichospermum circinale and Microcystis aeruginosa) within controlled atmospheric CO2 chambers at pre-industrial, and post-industrial concentrations. Biovolume and chlorophyll a (Chl-a) differed as a consequence of the adjusted CO2 gradients. Significantly higher biovolume measurements were observed in the elevated CO2 treatment for the diazotrophic species in the initial experiment. However, a follow-up experiment, with a corrected culture replenishment regime showed Chl-a measurements were greater for the diazotrophic and non-diazotrophic species in the elevated CO2 treatment. Increasing CO2 presents a risk to already compromised eutrophic and hyper-eutrophic ecosystems, and we reason increasing CO2 concentrations could affect photosynthetic performance and CO2 assimilation of surface dwelling cyanobacteria. Further experimental work is required to establish ecological thresholds for freshwater ecosystems, as pH levels showed a measurable reduction within the elevated CO2 treatments. As cyanobacteria species may respond quite differently to future CO2 concentrations similar comparative studies should be carried out that focus on CO2 dynamics and pH. The findings of the study indicate diazotrophic cyanobacteria growth in particular may benefit from elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Symes
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Sydney, Biomedical Building, 1 Central Avenue, Australian Technology Park, Eveleigh NSW, Australia
| | - Floris F van Ogtrop
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Sydney, Biomedical Building, 1 Central Avenue, Australian Technology Park, Eveleigh NSW, Australia.
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Wilson BJ, Servais S, Mazzei V, Kominoski JS, Hu M, Davis SE, Gaiser E, Sklar F, Bauman L, Kelly S, Madden C, Richards J, Rudnick D, Stachelek J, Troxler TG. Salinity pulses interact with seasonal dry-down to increase ecosystem carbon loss in marshes of the Florida Everglades. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 28:2092-2108. [PMID: 30376192 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Coastal wetlands are globally important sinks of organic carbon (C). However, to what extent wetland C cycling will be affected by accelerated sea-level rise (SLR) and saltwater intrusion is unknown, especially in coastal peat marshes where water flow is highly managed. Our objective was to determine how the ecosystem C balance in coastal peat marshes is influenced by elevated salinity. For two years, we made monthly in situ manipulations of elevated salinity in freshwater (FW) and brackish water (BW) sites within Everglades National Park, Florida, USA. Salinity pulses interacted with marsh-specific variability in seasonal hydroperiods whereby effects of elevated pulsed salinity on gross ecosystem productivity (GEP), ecosystem respiration (ER), and net ecosystem productivity (NEP) were dependent on marsh inundation level. We found little effect of elevated salinity on C cycling when both marsh sites were inundated, but when water levels receded below the soil surface, the BW marsh shifted from a C sink to a C source. During these exposed periods, we observed an approximately threefold increase in CO2 efflux from the marsh as a result of elevated salinity. Initially, elevated salinity pulses did not affect Cladium jamaicense biomass, but aboveground biomass began to be significantly decreased in the saltwater amended plots after two years of exposure at the BW site. We found a 65% (FW) and 72% (BW) reduction in live root biomass in the soil after two years of exposure to elevated salinity pulses. Regardless of salinity treatment, the FW site was C neutral while the BW site was a strong C source (-334 to -454 g C·m-2 ·yr-1 ), particularly during dry-down events. A loss of live roots coupled with annual net CO2 losses as marshes transition from FW to BW likely contributes to the collapse of peat soils observed in the coastal Everglades. As SLR increases the rate of saltwater intrusion into coastal wetlands globally, understanding how water management influences C gains and losses from these systems is crucial. Under current Everglades' water management, drought lengthens marsh dry-down periods, which, coupled with saltwater intrusion, accelerates CO2 loss from the marsh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Wilson
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - Shelby Servais
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - Viviana Mazzei
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - John S Kominoski
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - Minjie Hu
- College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | | | - Evelyn Gaiser
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - Fred Sklar
- South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida, 33406, USA
| | - Laura Bauman
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - Stephen Kelly
- South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida, 33406, USA
| | - Christopher Madden
- South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida, 33406, USA
| | - Jennifer Richards
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
| | - David Rudnick
- Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida, 33034, USA
| | - Joseph Stachelek
- South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida, 33406, USA
- Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824, USA
| | - Tiffany G Troxler
- Department of Biological Sciences and Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
- Sea Level Solutions Center, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA
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Mo Y, Kearney M, Momen B. Drought-associated phenological changes of coastal marshes in Louisiana. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Mo
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology; University of Maryland; College Park Maryland 20742 USA
| | - Michael Kearney
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology; University of Maryland; College Park Maryland 20742 USA
| | - Bahram Momen
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology; University of Maryland; College Park Maryland 20742 USA
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Wei Y, Huang Y, Li X, Ma Y, Tao X, Wu X, Yang Z. Climate variability, animal reservoir and transmission of scrub typhus in Southern China. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005447. [PMID: 28273079 PMCID: PMC5358896 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives We aimed to evaluate the relationships between climate variability, animal reservoirs and scrub typhus incidence in Southern China. Methods We obtained data on scrub typhus cases in Guangzhou every month from 2006 to 2014 from the Chinese communicable disease network. Time-series Poisson regression models and distributed lag nonlinear models (DLNM) were used to evaluate the relationship between risk factors and scrub typhus. Results Wavelet analysis found the incidence of scrub typhus cycled with a period of approximately 8–12 months and long-term trends with a period of approximately 24–36 months. The DLNM model shows that relative humidity, rainfall, DTR, MEI and rodent density were associated with the incidence of scrub typhus. Conclusions Our findings suggest that the incidence scrub typhus has two main temporal cycles. Determining the reason for this trend and how it can be used for disease control and prevention requires additional research. The transmission of scrub typhus is highly dependent on climate factors and rodent density, both of which should be considered in prevention and control strategies for scrub typhus. Scrub typhus has been endemic in southern China for several decades. In recent years, it has been increasingly reported and has become a significant health concern in China. The incidence of scrub typhus, a vector-borne disease, is influenced by the density of rats and changes in climate. Several studies have focused on the influence of climate and rat density on scrub typhus independent of one another; however, few studies investigate such factors simultaneously. Furthermore, global climate events such as El Niño have not been considered in any study of scrub typhus risk factors. This study reports novel factor research of scrub typhus in southern China. Data of climate, rat density and cases were collected on a monthly basis. Time-series Poisson regression models and distributed lag nonlinear models (DLNM) were used to evaluate the relationship between risk factors and scrub typhus. Finally, relative humidity, rainfall, DTR, MEI and rodent density were identified as risk factors of the incidence of scrub typhus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuehong Wei
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yong Huang
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xiaoning Li
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yu Ma
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xia Tao
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xinwei Wu
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zhicong Yang
- Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- * E-mail:
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Malone SL, Keough C, Staudhammer CL, Ryan MG, Parton WJ, Olivas P, Oberbauer SF, Schedlbauer J, Starr G. Ecosystem resistance in the face of climate change: a case study from the freshwater marshes of the Florida Everglades. Ecosphere 2015. [DOI: 10.1890/es14-00404.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sparkle L. Malone
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487 USA
- Rocky Mountain Research Station, United States Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526 USA
| | - Cynthia Keough
- Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 USA
| | | | - Michael G. Ryan
- Rocky Mountain Research Station, United States Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526 USA
- Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 USA
| | - William J. Parton
- Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Paulo Olivas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199 USA
| | - Steven F. Oberbauer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199 USA
| | - Jessica Schedlbauer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199 USA
- Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, Pennsylvania 19383 USA
| | - Gregory Starr
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487 USA
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