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Hawke KV, Gavel EH, Bentley DJ, Logan-Sprenger HM. Menthol Mouth Rinsing Improves Cycling Performance in Trained Adolescent Males Under Heat Stress. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2024:1-9. [PMID: 39214518 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2024-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated the effect of menthol (MEN) mouth rinsing (MR) on cycling performance during a modified variable cycle test (M-VCT) in adolescent athletes under hot conditions (31.4 ± 0.9 °C, 23.4 ± 3.7% relative humidity). METHODS Trained adolescent male cyclists (n = 11, 16.7 ± 1.3 years, height 176.6 ± 8.8 cm, body mass 65.8 ± 11.6 kg, maximal oxygen uptake 62.97 ± 7.47 ml·kg-1·min-1) voluntarily completed three trials (familiarization and two experimental) of a 30-min M-VCT, which included five 6-min laps consisting of three 6-s accelerations and three 10-s sprints throughout each lap. In a randomized crossover design, MEN (0.01%) or placebo (PLA) (crystal-light), was swilled for 5 s before the start of each lap (total of 6 MR). Power output, distance (in kilometers), core temperature, heart rate, perceptual exertion, thermal stimulation (thermal comfort and thermal sensation), and blood lactate concentration were recorded. RESULTS MEN MR significantly improved M-VCT mean power output by 1.81 ± 1.57% compared to PLA (MEN, 177.8 ± 31.4 W; PLA, 174.7 ± 30.5 W, p < .001, 95% confidence interval [1.73, 4.46], d = 1.53). For maximal intermittent sprints, 6- and 10-s mean power output was significantly higher with MEN than PLA (6 s, p = .041, 95% confidence interval [0.73, 27.19], d = 0.71; 10 s, p = .002, 95% confidence interval [11.08, 35.22], d = 1.29). There was no significant difference in core temperature, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, or any perceptual measure between trials (p > .05) despite significantly higher work with MEN. CONCLUSION 64% of athletes (7/11) improved M-VCT performance with MEN. The results of this investigation suggest that a MEN MR may improve power output during a sport-specific stochastic cycling task in elite adolescent male cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kierstyn V Hawke
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - Erica H Gavel
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - David J Bentley
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
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Rebelo-Marques A, Coelho-Ribeiro B, De Sousa Lages A, Andrade R, Afonso J, Pereira R, Batista AS, Teixeira VH, Jácome C. Trends and Missing Links in (De)Hydration Research: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2024; 16:1709. [PMID: 38892642 PMCID: PMC11174495 DOI: 10.3390/nu16111709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of literature on (de)hydration in healthy individuals, many unanswered questions remain. To outline research and policy priorities, it is fundamental to recognize the literature trends on (de)hydration and identify current research gaps, which herein we aimed to pinpoint. From a representative sample of 180 (de)hydration studies with 4350 individuals, we found that research is mainly limited to small-scale laboratory-based sample sizes, with high variability in demographics (sex, age, and level of competition); to non-ecological (highly simulated and controlled) conditions; and with a focus on recreationally active male adults (e.g., Tier 1, non-athletes). The laboratory-simulated environments are limiting factors underpinning the need to better translate scientific research into field studies. Although, consistently, dehydration is defined as the loss of 2% of body weight, the hydration status is estimated using a very heterogeneous range of parameters. Water is the most researched hydration fluid, followed by alcoholic beverages with added carbohydrates (CHO). The current research still overlooks beverages supplemented with proteins, amino acids (AA), and glycerol. Future research should invest more effort in "real-world" studies with larger and more heterogeneous cohorts, exploring the entire available spectrum of fluids while addressing hydration outcomes more harmoniously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Rebelo-Marques
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
- Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal
- Magismed Innovation Institute, 4710-353 Braga, Portugal
| | - Bruna Coelho-Ribeiro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4806-909 Guimarães, Portugal
| | | | - Renato Andrade
- Clínica Espregueira—FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Dom Henrique Research Centre, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - José Afonso
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rogério Pereira
- Clínica Espregueira—FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Dom Henrique Research Centre, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Higher School of Health Fernando Pessoa, 4200-253 Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Vitor Hugo Teixeira
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
- Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure, CIAFEL, Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, FADEUP, 4200-540 Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health, ITR, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Jácome
- CINTESIS@RISE, MEDCIDS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
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Gavel EH, Hawke KV, Logan-Sprenger HM. The Effect of Menthol Mouth Rinsing and Fluid Temperature on Male Cycling Performance in Thermoneutral Conditions. Nutrients 2024; 16:1016. [PMID: 38613049 PMCID: PMC11013829 DOI: 10.3390/nu16071016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a menthol (MEN) mouth rinse (MR) on cycling time trial (TT) performance in thermoneutral conditions and to explore the impact of fluid temperature (cold water [CW] or thermoneutral water [TNW]) on MEN's effect on performance. METHODS Twelve trained male cyclists (VO2 peak, 61.4 ± 12.1 mL/kg/min) completed a cycling TT in thermoneutral conditions (21 ± 0.2 °C, 40 ± 0.6% relative humidity) with four different mouth rinses: (1) MEN + CW; (2) MEN + TNW; (3) CW; and (4) TNW. The time to complete the TT and the power output (W) were recorded. The ratings of perceived exertion (RPE, Borg 6-20), thermal sensation (TS), and thermal comfort (TC) were recorded prior to and throughout the TT. The core body temperature (Tc) and heart rate (HR) were recorded throughout. RESULTS The TT duration was not significantly different between trials (MEN + TNW: 38:11 ± 12:48, MEN + CW: 37:21 ± 13:00, CW: 38:12 ± 13:54, TNW: 36:06 ± 14:12 mins:secs, p < 0.05). The mean trial power output did not significantly differ between conditions (>0.05). The Tc, HR, RPE, TS, and TC were not significantly different between trials (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION The results suggest that a MEN MR with either CW or TNW does not significantly improve cycling TT performance in trained male cyclists compared to a CW or TNW MR in thermoneutral conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica H. Gavel
- Faculty of Science, Ontario Tech University, 2000 Simcoe St N, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada;
- Departments of Family Medicine and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Tanenbaum Institute for Science in Sport, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
| | - Kierstyn V. Hawke
- Faculty of Health Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada;
| | - Heather M. Logan-Sprenger
- Faculty of Science, Ontario Tech University, 2000 Simcoe St N, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada;
- Faculty of Health Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada;
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Roriz M, Brito J, Teixeira FJ, Spyrou K, Teixeira VH. The effect of menthol rinsing before intermittent exercise on physiological, physical, and thermo-behavioral responses of male football referees in hot and humid environment. Front Sports Act Living 2024; 6:1334739. [PMID: 38318484 PMCID: PMC10839052 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1334739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction In the current experiment, we aimed to evaluate whether eliciting pre-exercise non-thermal cooling sensations would alter perceptual measures, and physical and physiological responses in football referees. Methods Nine highly trained male football referees undertook two 45-minute intermittent exercise protocols in hot and humid conditions (34.2 ± 0.6°C, 62.5 ± 1.0% relative humidity). In a randomized counterbalanced crossover design, 1 of 2 beverages were given before the warm-up: a 0.01% menthol solution or a placebo noncaloric solution. Physical performance was quantified as total distance covered in each of the three 15-minute exercise blocks. Core temperature, heart rate, thermal sensation and thermal comfort were measured at rest and after each exercise block. Results No changes were observed between trials and over time for distance covered. No main effect of mouth rinse was observed for core temperature and heart rate, but both increased over time in all conditions (P < 0.001). Thermal sensation and thermal comfort were significantly improved with menthol after mouth-rinsing (P < 0.05), but with no differences at any other time-point. Discussion These results indicate that non-thermal cooling oral stimuli provide immediate behavioral changes but may not influence physiological or physical responses in football referees, during intermittent exercise in hot and humid environments. Clinical Trial Registration www.clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT05632692.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Roriz
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto (FCNAUP), Porto, Portugal
| | - João Brito
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Filipe J. Teixeira
- Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Human Performance (CIPER), Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Cruz-Quebrada, Portugal
- Atlântica, Instituto Universitário, Fábrica da Pólvora de Barcarena, Barcarena, Portugal
| | - Konstantinos Spyrou
- UCAM Research Center for High Performance Sport, UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Facultad de Deporte, UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Vitor Hugo Teixeira
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto (FCNAUP), Porto, Portugal
- Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto (FADEUP), Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Porto, Portugal
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Andrade MT, Wanner SP, Santos WME, Mendes TT, Nunes-Leite MMS, de Oliveira GGA, Carmo AAL, Carvalho MV, Silami Garcia E, Soares DD. Ad libitum ice slurry ingestion and half-marathon performance in a hot environment: A study comparing the effects of the amount and moment of ingestion between ice slurry and water at 37 °C. J Therm Biol 2024; 119:103781. [PMID: 38232473 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Ice slurry ingestion during prolonged exercises may improve performance in hot environments; however, the ideal amount and timing of ingestion are still uncertain. We determined whether ad libitum ice slurry ingestion influences physiological and perceptual variables and half-marathon performance while comparing the effects of the amount and moment of ingestion between ice slurry and water at 37 °C. Ten trained participants (28 ± 2 years; mean and SD) were required to run two half marathons while consuming either ice slurry (-1 °C; Ad-1) or water (37 °C; 37 CE) ad libitum. They then performed two other half marathons where, during one, they were required to ingest an amount of water equivalent to the amount consumed during the Ad-1 trial (Pro37), and in the other, to ingest ice slurry in the amount consumed during the 37 CE trial (Pro-1). During the half marathons, dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity were controlled at 33.1 ± 0.3 °C and 60 ± 3%, respectively. Ad-1 ingestion (349.6 ± 58.5 g) was 45% less than 37 CE ingestion (635.5 ± 135.8 g). Physical performance, heart rate, perceived exertion, body temperatures, and thermal perception were not influenced by the temperature or amount of beverage ingestion. However, a secondary analysis suggested that lower beverage ingestion was associated with improved performance (Ad-1 + Pro37 vs. 37 CE + Pro-1: -4.0 min, Cohen's d = 0.39), with a significant relationship between lower beverage ingestion and faster running time (b = 0.02, t = 4.01, p < 0.001). In conclusion, ice slurry ingestion does not affect performance or physiological or perceptual variables during a half marathon in a hot environment. Preliminary evidence suggests that lower beverage ingestion (ice slurry or warm water) is associated with improved performance compared to higher ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo T Andrade
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil; Psychology Program, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil.
| | - Samuel P Wanner
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
| | - Weslley M E Santos
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
| | - Thiago T Mendes
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil; Department of Physical Education, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, (BA), Brazil
| | - Matheus M S Nunes-Leite
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
| | - Gustavo G A de Oliveira
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
| | - Adriano A L Carmo
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
| | - Moisés V Carvalho
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil; Department of Human Movement Sciences, Universidade Do Estado de Minas Gerais, Ibirité, (MG), Brazil
| | - Emerson Silami Garcia
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
| | - Danusa D Soares
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, (MG), Brazil
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Miranda Neto M, Meireles ACF, Alcântara MA, de Magalhães Cordeiro AMT, Silva AS. Peppermint essential oil (Mentha piperita L.) increases time to exhaustion in runners. Eur J Nutr 2023; 62:3411-3422. [PMID: 37665425 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-023-03235-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to evaluate the capacity of peppermint essential oil to improve the physical performance of runners in running protocol until exhaustion. METHODS In a clinical, randomized, double-blind, cross-over and controlled study, fourteen male recreational runners (37.1 ± 2.0 years; 24 ± 1.1 kg/m2; 53.1 ± 1.7 mL kg min) performed two runs to exhaustion at 70% of VO2max, after intake of 500 mL of water added with 0.05 mL of peppermint essential oil (PEO) or placebo (PLA), plus 400 mL of the drink during the initial part of the exercise. Records were made of body temperature (BT), thermal sensation (TS), thermal comfort (TC), subjective perception of effort (SPE), sweat rate (SR), and urine volume and density. RESULTS Time to exhaustion was 109.9 ± 6.9 min in PEO and 98.5 ± 6.2 min in PLA (p = 0.009; effect size: 0.826). No significant changes were observed in the values of BT, TS, TC, SPE, SR, lost body mass, and urine volume and density (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Peppermint essential oil added to water before and during a race significantly increases the time to exhaustion of recreational runners but without altering BT, TS, TC, or hydration status, so the mechanisms involved were not clarified in this study. BRAZILIAN REGISTRY OF CLINICAL TRIALS (REBEC) RBR-75zt25z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoel Miranda Neto
- Postgraduate Program in Nutrition Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraíba, Campus I, University City, João Pessoa, Paraíba, 58059-900, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Freitas Meireles
- Laboratory of Physical Training Studies Applied to Performance and Health, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Maristela Alves Alcântara
- Food Technology Department, Center for Technology and Regional Development, Federal University of Paraíba, Campus I, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | | | - Alexandre Sérgio Silva
- Postgraduate Program in Nutrition Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraíba, Campus I, University City, João Pessoa, Paraíba, 58059-900, Brazil.
- Associate Postgraduate Program in Physical Education, University of Pernambuco/Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.
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Collado A, Rinaldi K, Hermand E, Hue O. Cumulative pre-cooling methods do not enhance cycling performance in tropical climate. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0291951. [PMID: 37824451 PMCID: PMC10569554 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0291951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to investigate the effect of mixed cooling techniques (combination of internal and external strategies, with and without menthol) during warm-up for a time trial in tropical climate. Seven heat-acclimatized trained male road cyclists participated in three experimental sessions consisting of 20-min cycling performances on a velodrome track in ecological hot and humid conditions (Guadeloupe, French West Indies; WBGT: 27.64±0.27°C; relative humidity: 76.43±2.19%), preceded by a standardized 30-min warm-up and the ingestion of cold menthol water (1) with a cooling vest soaked in ice water (ICE-VEST), (2) with a cooling vest soaked in ice menthol water (MEN-VEST), and (3) without a vest (NO-VEST). Cycling performance (total distance, distance traveled per 2-min block), physiological parameters (core body temperature recorded, heart rate) and perceptions (exertion, thermal comfort, thermal sensation) were assessed. No between-condition differences were found for physiological parameters, the total covered distance or the distance traveled per 2-min block. However, distance traveled per 2-min decreased with time (p = 0.03), with no difference between conditions, suggesting a variation in pace during the cycling performance trial (e.g., mean±SD: 1321±48.01m at T2; 1308±46.20m at T8, 1284±78.38m at T14, 1309±76.29m at T20). No between-condition differences were found for perception of exertion, thermal comfort and thermal sensation during the warm-up (11.83±3.34; 2.58±1.02; 4.39±0.94, respectively) and the performance (17.85±0.99; 2.70±1.25; 5.20±1.20, respectively) but the pairwise comparisons within condition revealed a significant increase of TS values from T0 (4.57±1.13) to T20 (6.00±0.58) only in NO-VEST condition (p = 0.04). The absence of modification of thermal sensation at the end of the cycling test under the mixed conditions (ICE-VEST and MEN-VEST) suggests a beneficial effect of wearing a cooling vest on thermal sensation although it had no effect on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Collado
- Université des Antilles, ACTES (UPRES EA 3596), UFR STAPS, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
| | | | - Eric Hermand
- Univ. Littoral Côte d’Opale, Univ. Artois, Univ. Lille, CHU LIlle, ULR 7369—URePSSS—Unité de Recherche Pluridisciplinaire Sport Santé Société, Dunkerque, France
| | - Olivier Hue
- Université des Antilles, ACTES (UPRES EA 3596), UFR STAPS, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
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Jerram ML, Baker D, Smith TB, Healey P, Taylor L, Black K. A 0.1% L-Menthol Mouth Swill in Elite Male Rugby Players Has Different Effects in Forwards and Backs. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:909-917. [PMID: 36689991 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Menthol mouth swills can improve endurance performance in the heat, which is attributed to attenuations in nonthermally derived thermal sensation (TS) and perception of effort. However, research in elite team-sport athletes is absent. Therefore, this study investigated the performance and TS responses to a 0.1% menthol mouth rinse (MR) or placebo (PLA) among elite male rugby union players. METHOD Twenty-seven (15 Forwards and 12 Backs) elite male Super Rugby players completed two 3-minute 15-a-side rugby-specific conditioning blocks, with MR or PLA provided at the start of training (baseline), at the start of each 3-minute block (swill 1 [S1] and swill 2 [S2]), and at the end of training (swill 3 [S3]). TS was assessed using the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 9-point Analog Sensation Scale after each swill and at baseline (preconditioning block). Acceptability was measured after baseline swill and S3 using a 5-question Likert scale. Physical performance was measured throughout training using global positioning system metrics. RESULTS MR attenuated TS from baseline to S1 (P = .003, SD = 1.01) and S2 (P = .002, SD = 1.09) in Forwards only, compared with PLA. Acceptability was higher only for Forwards in MR versus PLA at baseline (P = .003, SD = 1.3) and S3 (P = .004, SD = 0.75). MR had no effect on physical performance metrics (P > .05). CONCLUSION MR attenuated the rise in TS with higher acceptability at S1 and S3 (in Forwards only) with no effect on selected physical performance metrics. Longer-duration exercise (eg, a match) in hot-humid conditions eliciting markedly increased body temperatures could theoretically allow favorable changes in TS to enhance performance-these postulations warrant experimental investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia L Jerram
- Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin,New Zealand
| | - Dane Baker
- Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin,New Zealand
| | | | - Phil Healey
- Blues Super Rugby Franchise, Auckland,New Zealand
| | - Lee Taylor
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine (NCSEM), Loughborough University, Loughborough,United Kingdom
- Human Performance Research Centre, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Sydney, NSW,Australia
- Sport & Exercise Discipline Group, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Sydney, NSW,Australia
| | - Katherine Black
- Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin,New Zealand
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Roriz M, Brito P, Teixeira FJ, Brito J, Teixeira VH. Performance effects of internal pre- and per-cooling across different exercise and environmental conditions: A systematic review. Front Nutr 2022; 9:959516. [PMID: 36337635 PMCID: PMC9632747 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.959516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exercise in a hot and humid environment may endanger athlete's health and affect physical performance. This systematic review aimed to examine whether internal administration of ice, cold beverages or menthol solutions may be beneficial for physical performance when exercising in different environmental conditions and sports backgrounds. A systematic search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and SPORTDiscus databases, from inception to April 2022, to identify studies meeting the following inclusion criteria: healthy male and female physically active individuals or athletes (aged ≥18 years); an intervention consisting in the internal administration (i.e., ingestion or mouth rinse) of ice slush, ice slurry or crushed ice and/or cold beverages and/or menthol solutions before and/or during exercise; a randomized crossover design with a control or placebo condition; the report of at least one physical performance outcome; and to be written in English. Our search retrieved 2,714 articles in total; after selection, 43 studies were considered, including 472 participants, 408 men and 64 women, aged 18-42 years, with a VO2max ranging from 46.2 to 67.2 mL⋅kg-1⋅min-1. Average ambient temperature and relative humidity during the exercise tasks were 32.4 ± 3.5°C (ranging from 22°C to 38°C) and 50.8 ± 13.4% (varying from 20.0% to 80.0%), respectively. Across the 43 studies, 7 exclusively included a menthol solution mouth rinse, 30 exclusively involved ice slurry/ice slush/crushed ice/cold beverages intake, and 6 examined both the effect of thermal and non-thermal internal techniques in the same protocol. Rinsing a menthol solution (0.01%) improved physical performance during continuous endurance exercise in the heat. Conversely, the ingestion of ice or cold beverages did not seem to consistently increase performance, being more likely to improve performance in continuous endurance trials, especially when consumed during exercises. Co-administration of menthol with or within ice beverages seems to exert a synergistic effect by improving physical performance. Even in environmental conditions that are not extreme, internal cooling strategies may have an ergogenic effect. Further studies exploring both intermittent and outdoor exercise protocols, involving elite male and female athletes and performed under not extreme environmental conditions are warranted. Systematic review registration: [https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021268197], identifier [CRD42021268197].
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Roriz
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto (FCNAUP), Porto, Portugal
- Futebol Clube do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Brito
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CIDESD, University of Maia, ISMAI, Maia, Portugal
| | - Filipe J. Teixeira
- Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Human Performance (CIPER), Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Cruz-Quebrada, Portugal
- Atlântica, Instituto Universitário, Fábrica da Pólvora de Barcarena, Barcarena, Portugal
- Bettery Lifelab, Bettery S.A., Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Brito
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Vitor Hugo Teixeira
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto (FCNAUP), Porto, Portugal
- Futebol Clube do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto (FADEUP), Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Porto, Portugal
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10
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Morito A, Inami T, Hirata A, Yamada S, Shimomasuda M, Haramoto M, Kato K, Tahara S, Oguma Y, Ishida H, Kohtake N. Ice slurry ingestion improves physical performance during high-intensity intermittent exercise in a hot environment. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0274584. [PMID: 36107972 PMCID: PMC9477354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0274584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Ice slurry ingestion enhances exercise performance by lowering the core body temperature. However, an operational issue related to this ingestion is the requirement for a high intake of 7.5 g·kg-1 to produce the desired effects. We investigated the effects of the intake of low amounts of ice slurry at −2°C on the tympanic temperature and exercise performance during repeated high-intensity intermittent exercises in a hot environment. This study was a randomized, crossover study, with a 6-day washout period. Twelve university rugby union players performed two 30-min sessions of high-intensity intermittent exercises separated by a 15-min half-time break on a cycle ergometer in a hot environment (28.8°C ± 0.1°C, 49.5% ± 0.6% relative humidity). The participants ingested 450 g of −2°C-ice slurry (ICE), or a 30°C-beverage (CON) having the same composition as ICE, or 30°C-water (WAT) during the half-time break. The tympanic temperature and skin temperature were measured as the physiological data, and the peak power and mean power as the exercise performance data. The tympanic temperature at the half-time break and beginning of the 2nd session was significantly lower in the ICE group as compared with the CON and WAT groups. The skin temperature at the half-time break was significantly lower in the ICE group as compared with the WAT group. While the peak power and mean power during the 2nd session were significantly greater in the ICE group as compared with the CON and WAT groups. Our findings suggest that even the intake of lower amounts, as compared with those used in previous studies, of low-temperature ice slurry can reduce the body temperature and improve the peak power. These results suggest that intake of low-temperature ice slurry as a strategy for internal body cooling is useful for improving endurance exercise performance in hot environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihisa Morito
- Graduate School of System Design and Management, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
- R&D Laboratories, Self-Medication, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Saitama, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Takayuki Inami
- Institute of Physical Education, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Akihiro Hirata
- Graduate School of System Design and Management, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
- Sports Medicine Research Center, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Satoshi Yamada
- R&D Laboratories, Self-Medication, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Saitama, Japan
| | - Masatsugu Shimomasuda
- Research & Development Headquarters, Self-Medication, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Maki Haramoto
- Research & Development Headquarters, Self-Medication, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keita Kato
- R&D Laboratories, Self-Medication, Taisho Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Saitama, Japan
| | - Shigeyuki Tahara
- Graduate School of System Design and Management, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yuko Oguma
- Sports Medicine Research Center, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ishida
- Sports Medicine Research Center, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Naohiko Kohtake
- Graduate School of System Design and Management, Keio University, Kanagawa, Japan
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11
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Neuromuscular Activity during Cycling Performance in Hot/Dry and Hot/Humid Conditions. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11111149. [PMID: 34833025 PMCID: PMC8623245 DOI: 10.3390/life11111149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine the relationships between limiting factors and neuromuscular activity during a self-paced 20-km cycling time trial and evaluate the effect of environmental conditions on fatigue indices. Methods: Ten endurance-trained and heat-acclimated athletes performed in three conditions (ambient temperature, relative humidity): HUMID (30 °C, 90%), DRY (35 °C, 46%) and NEUTRAL (22 °C, 55%). Voluntary muscular contractions and electromagnetic stimulations were recorded before and after the time trials to assess fatigue. The data on performance, temperature, heat storage, electromyogram, heart rate and rating of perceived exertion data were analyzed. Results: Performance was impaired in DRY and HUMID compared with NEUTRAL environment (p < 0.05). The force developed by the vastus lateral muscle during stimulation of the femoral nerve remained unchanged across conditions. The percentage of integrated electromyogram activity, normalized by the value attained during the pre-trial maximal voluntary contraction, decreased significantly throughout the trial only in HUMID condition (p < 0.01). Neuromuscular activity in peripheral skeletal muscle started to fall from the 11th km in HUMID and the 15th km in DRY condition, although core temperature did not reach critical values. Conclusions: These alterations suggest that afferences from core/skin temperature regulate the central neural motor drive, reducing the active muscle recruited during prolonged exercise in the heat in order to prevent the system from hyperthermia.
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12
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Chabert C, Collado A, Hue O. Temperate Air Breathing Increases Cycling Performance in Hot and Humid Climate Environment. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11090911. [PMID: 34575060 PMCID: PMC8465945 DOI: 10.3390/life11090911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Practicing physical activity in a hot and humid climate (HHC) is becoming increasingly common due to anthropogenic climate change and the growing number of international sports events held in warm countries. The aim of this study was to understand the physiological and psychological effects of breathing two air temperatures during cycling exercise in HHC. Ten male athletes performed two sessions of exercise in HHC (T°: 32.0 ± 0.5 °C, relative humidity: 78.6 ± 0.7%) during which they breathed hot air (HA, 33.2 ± 0.06 °C) or temperate air (TA, 22.6 ± 0.1 °C). Each session was composed of 30 min of pre-fatigue cycling at constant intensity, followed by a 10 min self-regulated performance. During pre-fatigue, TA induced a better feeling score and a lower rating of perceived effort (respectively, +0.9 ± 0.2, p < 0.05; 1.13 ± 0.21; p < 0.05) with no changes in physiological parameters. During performance, oxygen consumption and mechanical workload were increased by TA (respectively, +0.23 ± 0.1 L min−1, p < 0.05 and +19.2 ± 6.1 W, p < 0.01), whereas no significant differences were observed for psychological parameters. Reducing the breathed air temperature decreased the discomfort induced by HHC during exercise and increased the performance capacity during self-regulated exercise. Thus, breathed air temperature perception is linked to the hardship of training sessions and directly contributes to the performance decrease in HHC.
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13
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Sports Dietitians Australia Position Statement: Nutrition for Exercise in Hot Environments. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2021; 30:83-98. [PMID: 31891914 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
It is the position of Sports Dietitians Australia (SDA) that exercise in hot and/or humid environments, or with significant clothing and/or equipment that prevents body heat loss (i.e., exertional heat stress), provides significant challenges to an athlete's nutritional status, health, and performance. Exertional heat stress, especially when prolonged, can perturb thermoregulatory, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal systems. Heat acclimation or acclimatization provides beneficial adaptations and should be undertaken where possible. Athletes should aim to begin exercise euhydrated. Furthermore, preexercise hyperhydration may be desirable in some scenarios and can be achieved through acute sodium or glycerol loading protocols. The assessment of fluid balance during exercise, together with gastrointestinal tolerance to fluid intake, and the appropriateness of thirst responses provide valuable information to inform fluid replacement strategies that should be integrated with event fuel requirements. Such strategies should also consider fluid availability and opportunities to drink, to prevent significant under- or overconsumption during exercise. Postexercise beverage choices can be influenced by the required timeframe for return to euhydration and co-ingestion of meals and snacks. Ingested beverage temperature can influence core temperature, with cold/icy beverages of potential use before and during exertional heat stress, while use of menthol can alter thermal sensation. Practical challenges in supporting athletes in teams and traveling for competition require careful planning. Finally, specific athletic population groups have unique nutritional needs in the context of exertional heat stress (i.e., youth, endurance/ultra-endurance athletes, and para-sport athletes), and specific adjustments to nutrition strategies should be made for these population groups.
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14
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Gavel EH, Hawke KV, Bentley DJ, Logan-Sprenger HM. Menthol Mouth Rinsing Is More Than Just a Mouth Wash-Swilling of Menthol to Improve Physiological Performance. Front Nutr 2021; 8:691695. [PMID: 34307438 PMCID: PMC8292615 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.691695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Interventions that solely act on the central nervous system (CNS) are gaining considerable interest, particularly products consumed through the oral cavity. The oropharyngeal cavity contains a wide array of receptors that respond to sweet, bitter, and cold tastants, all of which have been shown to improve physiological performance. Of late, the ergogenic benefits of carbohydrate (CHO) and caffeine (CAF) mouth rinsings (MRs) have been widely studied; however, less is known about menthol (MEN). That the physiological state and environmental conditions impact the response each product has is increasingly recognized. While the effects of CHO and CAF MRs have been thoroughly studied in both hot and thermoneutral conditions, less is known about MEN as it has only been studied in hot environments. As such, this review summarizes the current knowledge regarding the MEN MR and exercise modality, frequency of the mouth rinse, and mouth rinse duration and compares two different types of study designs: time trials vs. time to exhaustion (TTE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica H Gavel
- Faculty of Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - Kierstyn V Hawke
- Faculty of Health Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - David J Bentley
- Faculty of Health Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - Heather M Logan-Sprenger
- Faculty of Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada.,Faculty of Health Science, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada.,Canadian Sport Institute Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada
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15
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Riera F, Monjo R, Coudevylle GR, Meric H, Hue O. Face Cooling During Swimming Training in Tropical Condition. Front Psychol 2021; 12:622184. [PMID: 33967888 PMCID: PMC8102736 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.622184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the effect of face cooling with cold water (1.2 ± 0.7°C) vs. face cooling with neutral water (28.0 ± 3.0°C) during high-intensity swimming training on both the core temperature (Tco) and thermal perceptions in internationally ranked long-distance swimmers (5 men’s and 3 women’s) during 2 randomized swimming sessions. After a standardized warm-up of 1,200 m, the athletes performed a standardized training session that consisted of 2,000 m (5 × 400 m; start every 5’15”) at a best velocity then 600 m of aerobic work. Heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored during 5 × 400 m, whereas Tco, thermal comfort (TC), and thermal sensation (TS) were measured before and after each 400 m. Before and after each 400 m, the swimmers were asked to flow 200 mL of cold water (1.2°C) or neutral (22°C) water packaged in standardized bottles on their face. The swimmers were asked don’t drink during exercise. The velocity was significantly different between cold water and neutral water (p < 0.004 – 71.58 m.min–1 ± 2.32 and 70.52 m.min–1 ± 1.73, respectively). The Tco was increased by ±0.5°C at race pace, under both face cooling conditions with no significant difference. No significant changes were noted in mean HR (i.e., 115 ± 9 and 114 ± 15 bpm for NW and CW, respectively). TC was higher with Cold Cooling than Neutral Cooling and TS was lower with Cold cooling compared with Neutral cooling. The changes in perceptual parameters caused by face cooling with cold water reflect the psychological impact on the physical parameters. The mean velocity was less important with face cooling whereas the heat rate and Tco were the same in the both conditions. The mechanism leading to these results seems to involve brain integration of signals from physiological and psychological sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Riera
- Laboratory ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, University of the French West Indies, Point-à-Pitre, France.,Laboratory IMAGE, UMR ESPACE DEV 228, University of Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Roland Monjo
- Laboratory ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, University of the French West Indies, Point-à-Pitre, France
| | - Guillaume R Coudevylle
- Laboratory ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, University of the French West Indies, Point-à-Pitre, France
| | - Henri Meric
- Laboratory IMAGE, UMR ESPACE DEV 228, University of Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Olivier Hue
- Laboratory ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, University of the French West Indies, Point-à-Pitre, France
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16
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Périard JD, Eijsvogels TMH, Daanen HAM. Exercise under heat stress: thermoregulation, hydration, performance implications, and mitigation strategies. Physiol Rev 2021; 101:1873-1979. [PMID: 33829868 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00038.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A rise in body core temperature and loss of body water via sweating are natural consequences of prolonged exercise in the heat. This review provides a comprehensive and integrative overview of how the human body responds to exercise under heat stress and the countermeasures that can be adopted to enhance aerobic performance under such environmental conditions. The fundamental concepts and physiological processes associated with thermoregulation and fluid balance are initially described, followed by a summary of methods to determine thermal strain and hydration status. An outline is provided on how exercise-heat stress disrupts these homeostatic processes, leading to hyperthermia, hypohydration, sodium disturbances, and in some cases exertional heat illness. The impact of heat stress on human performance is also examined, including the underlying physiological mechanisms that mediate the impairment of exercise performance. Similarly, the influence of hydration status on performance in the heat and how systemic and peripheral hemodynamic adjustments contribute to fatigue development is elucidated. This review also discusses strategies to mitigate the effects of hyperthermia and hypohydration on exercise performance in the heat by examining the benefits of heat acclimation, cooling strategies, and hyperhydration. Finally, contemporary controversies are summarized and future research directions are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien D Périard
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Bruce, Australia
| | - Thijs M H Eijsvogels
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hein A M Daanen
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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17
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Development of a "Cooling" Menthol Energy Gel for Endurance Athletes: Effect of Menthol Concentration on Acceptability and Preferences. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2021; 31:40-45. [PMID: 33248439 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Menthol is effective at stimulating thermosensitive neurons that evoke pleasant cooling sensations. Internal application of menthol can be ergogenic for athletes, and hence, addition of menthol to sports nutrition products may be beneficial for athletes. The aim of this study was to develop a menthol energy gel for consumption during exercise and to determine acceptability and preferences for gels with different menthol concentrations. With a randomized, crossover, and double-blind placebo-controlled design, 40 endurance athletes (20 females) ingested an energy gel with a menthol additive at a high (0.5%; HIGH) or low concentration (0.1%; LOW), or a mint-flavored placebo (CON), on separate occasions during outdoor endurance training sessions. The athletes rated the gels for cooling sensation, mint flavor intensity, sweetness, and overall experience and provided feedback. Results are reported as median (interquartile range). Both menthol gels successfully delivered a cooling sensation, with a significantly greater response for HIGH (5.0 [4.0-5.0]) compared with LOW (3.5 [3.0-4.0]; p = .022) and CON (1.0 [1.0-2.0]; p < .0005), and LOW compared with CON (p < .0005). Ratings of mint flavor intensity followed the same trend as cooling sensation, while ratings of overall experience were significantly worse for HIGH (2.0 [1.0-3.0]) compared with LOW (4.0 [2.0-4.0]; p = .001) and CON (4.0 [3.0-4.0]; p < .0005). An energy gel with the addition of menthol at 0.1-0.5% provides a cooling sensation for athletes with a dose-response when ingested during exercise. The 0.1% concentration is recommended to maximize the overall experience of the gel.
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18
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Barwood MJ, Gibson OR, Gillis DJ, Jeffries O, Morris NB, Pearce J, Ross ML, Stevens C, Rinaldi K, Kounalakis SN, Riera F, Mündel T, Waldron M, Best R. Menthol as an Ergogenic Aid for the Tokyo 2021 Olympic Games: An Expert-Led Consensus Statement Using the Modified Delphi Method. Sports Med 2020; 50:1709-1727. [PMID: 32623642 PMCID: PMC7497433 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01313-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Menthol topical application and mouth rinsing are ergogenic in hot environments, improving performance and perception, with differing effects on body temperature regulation. Consequently, athletes and federations are beginning to explore the possible benefits to elite sport performance for the Tokyo 2021 Olympics, which will take place in hot (~ 31 °C), humid (70% RH) conditions. There is no clear consensus on safe and effective menthol use for athletes, practitioners, or researchers. The present study addressed this shortfall by producing expert-led consensus recommendations. METHOD Fourteen contributors were recruited following ethical approval. A three-step modified Delphi method was used for voting on 96 statements generated following literature consultation; 192 statements total (96/96 topical application/mouth rinsing). Round 1 contributors voted to "agree" or "disagree" with statements; 80% agreement was required to accept statements. In round 2, contributors voted to "support" or "change" their round 1 unaccepted statements, with knowledge of the extant voting from round 1. Round 3 contributors met to discuss voting against key remaining statements. RESULTS Forty-seven statements reached consensus in round 1 (30/17 topical application/rinsing); 14 proved redundant. Six statements reached consensus in round 2 (2/4 topical application/rinsing); 116 statements proved redundant. Nine further statements were agreed in round 3 (6/3 topical application/rinsing) with caveats. DISCUSSION Consensus was reached on 62 statements in total (38/24 topical application/rinsing), enabling the development of guidance on safe menthol administration, with a view to enhancing performance and perception in the heat without impairing body temperature regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Barwood
- Department of Sport, Health and Nutrition, Leeds Trinity University, Brownberrie Lane, Horsforth, Leeds, LS18 5HD, UK.
| | - O R Gibson
- Centre for Human Performance, Exercise and Rehabilitation (CHPER), Department Life Sciences, Division of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Brunel University London, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - D J Gillis
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Sport and Movement Science, Salem State University, Salem, MA, 01970, USA
| | - O Jeffries
- School of Biomedical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Catherine Cookson Building, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
| | - N B Morris
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - J Pearce
- Performance Nutrition Technical Lead, High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - M L Ross
- Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, 2617, Australia
- Mary Mackillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, 3000, Australia
| | - C Stevens
- School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Hogbin Dr, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia
| | - K Rinaldi
- Laboratoire ACTES (EA3596), Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, BP 250, 97157, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
- Arkea Samsic Pro Cycling Team, 35170, Bruz, France
| | - S N Kounalakis
- Faculty of Physical and Cultural Education, Evelpidon Hellenic Army Academy, Vari, Greece
| | - F Riera
- UPRES EA 35-96, UFR-STAPS, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, BP 250, 97157, Pointe à Pitre Cedex, France
- Laboratoire Performance Santé Altitude, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, UFR Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, 7 avenue Pierre de Coubertin, 66120, Font-Romeu, France
| | - T Mündel
- School of Sport Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston, New Zealand
| | - M Waldron
- College of Engineering, Applied Sports Science Technology and Medicine Research Centre (A-STEM), Swansea University Bay Campus, Swansea, Wales, UK
- School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
| | - R Best
- Centre for Sport Science and Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, 3200, New Zealand
- School of Health and Social Care, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, Tees Valley, TS1 3BX, UK
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20
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Abstract
Taste is a homeostatic function that conveys valuable information, such as energy density, readiness to eat, or toxicity of foodstuffs. Taste is not limited to the oral cavity but affects multiple physiological systems. In this review, we outline the ergogenic potential of substances that impart bitter, sweet, hot and cold tastes administered prior to and during exercise performance and whether the ergogenic benefits of taste are attributable to the placebo effect. Carbohydrate mouth rinsing seemingly improves endurance performance, along with a potentially ergogenic effect of oral exposure to both bitter tastants and caffeine although subsequent ingestion of bitter mouth rinses is likely required to enhance performance. Hot and cold tastes may prove beneficial in circumstances where athletes' thermal state may be challenged. Efficacy is not limited to taste, but extends to the stimulation of targeted receptors in the oral cavity and throughout the digestive tract, relaying signals pertaining to energy availability and temperature to appropriate neural centres. Dose, frequency and timing of tastant application likely require personalisation to be most effective, and can be enhanced or confounded by factors that relate to the placebo effect, highlighting taste as a critical factor in designing and administering applied sports science interventions.
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21
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Hue O, Chabert C, Collado A, Hermand E. Menthol as an Adjuvant to Help Athletes Cope With a Tropical Climate: Tracks From Heat Experiments With Special Focus on Guadeloupe Investigations. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1360. [PMID: 31736782 PMCID: PMC6834771 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Endurance and prolonged exercise are altered by hot climate. In hot and dry climate, thermoregulation processes, including evapotranspiration, normally maintain a relatively constant body core temperature. In hot and wet climate (usually called “tropical”), the decrease in evapotranspiration efficacy increases the sweating rate, which can rapidly induce severe hypohydration without efficiently reducing core temperature. The negative effects of tropical environment on long-duration exercise have been well documented, with clear demonstrations that they exceed the acclimation possibilities: both acclimated athletes and natives to tropical climate show impaired performances compared with that in neutral climate. New countermeasures, applicable during competitive events, are therefore needed to limit these negative effects. We studied the effects of several countermeasures in outdoor or natural tropical climates and noted that the easiest method to apply is cooling with cold (−1 to 3°C) beverage. Moreover, adding menthol increased the cold sensation induced by the beverage temperature, optimizing the positive effects on performance. We also demonstrated that efficient pre-cooling with cold menthol beverage requires drinking for 1 h instead of 30 min before the exercise. The optimal cooling method seems to be 1 h of cold + menthol pre-cooling ingestion followed by menthol + ice-slurry per-cooling. However, limitations should be noted: (1) the menthol concentration seems to be crucial, with positive effects for a 0.05% solution, whereas higher concentrations need to be explored; and (2) because it acts as a cold adjuvant without decreasing core temperature, menthol can lead to decreased thermoregulatory processes, thus inducing hyperthermia. Last, if menthol is added to cooling processes, athletes should first test them in training conditions for the maximal cooling effect to ensure optimal performance in competition in tropical climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Hue
- Laboratoire ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, UFR-STAPS, Université des Antilles, Guadeloupe, France
| | - Clovis Chabert
- Laboratoire ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, UFR-STAPS, Université des Antilles, Guadeloupe, France
| | - Aurélie Collado
- Laboratoire ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, UFR-STAPS, Université des Antilles, Guadeloupe, France
| | - Eric Hermand
- Laboratoire ACTES, UPRES-EA 3596, UFR-STAPS, Université des Antilles, Guadeloupe, France
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22
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Hermand E, Chabert C, Hue O. Ultra-endurance events in tropical environments and countermeasures to optimize performances and health. Int J Hyperthermia 2019; 36:753-760. [PMID: 31429600 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2019.1635718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical performance in a tropical environment, combining high heat and humidity, is a difficult physiological challenge that requires specific preparation. The elevated humidity of a tropical climate impairs the thermoregulatory mechanisms by limiting the rate of sweat evaporation. Hence, a proper management of whole-body temperature is required to complete an ultra-endurance event in such an environment. In these long-duration events, which can last from 8 to 20 h, held in hot and humid settings, performance is tightly linked to the ability in maintaining an optimal hydration status. Indeed, the rate of withdrawal in these longer races was associated with lower water intake, and the majority of finishers exhibited alterations in electrolyte balance (e.g., sodium). Hence, this work reviews the effects on performance of high heat and humidity in two representative ultra-endurance sports, ultramarathons and long-distance triathlons, and several countermeasures to counteract the impact of these harsh environmental stresses and maintain a high level of performance, such as hydration, cooling strategies and heat acclimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Hermand
- Laboratory « Adaptations au Climat Tropical, Exercice et Santé » (EA 3596 ACTES), French West Indies University , Pointe-à-Pitre , France.,Laboratory « Handicap, Activité, Vieillissement, Autonomie, Environnement » (EA 6310 HAVAE), University of Limoges , Limoges , France
| | - C Chabert
- Laboratory « Adaptations au Climat Tropical, Exercice et Santé » (EA 3596 ACTES), French West Indies University , Pointe-à-Pitre , France
| | - O Hue
- Laboratory « Adaptations au Climat Tropical, Exercice et Santé » (EA 3596 ACTES), French West Indies University , Pointe-à-Pitre , France
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Douzi W, Dugué B, Vinches L, Al Sayed C, Hallé S, Bosquet L, Dupuy O. Cooling during exercise enhances performances, but the cooled body areas matter: A systematic review with meta‐analyses. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2019; 29:1660-1676. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.13521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wafa Douzi
- Laboratoire Mobilité Vieillissement Exercice (MOVE)‐EA6314, Faculty of Sport Sciences University of Poitiers Poitiers France
| | - Benoit Dugué
- Laboratoire Mobilité Vieillissement Exercice (MOVE)‐EA6314, Faculty of Sport Sciences University of Poitiers Poitiers France
| | - Ludwig Vinches
- Department of Mechanical Engineering ‐ Ecole de Technologie Supérieure Montréal QC Canada
| | - Chady Al Sayed
- Department of Mechanical Engineering ‐ Ecole de Technologie Supérieure Montréal QC Canada
| | - Stéphane Hallé
- Department of Mechanical Engineering ‐ Ecole de Technologie Supérieure Montréal QC Canada
| | - Laurent Bosquet
- Laboratoire Mobilité Vieillissement Exercice (MOVE)‐EA6314, Faculty of Sport Sciences University of Poitiers Poitiers France
| | - Olivier Dupuy
- Laboratoire Mobilité Vieillissement Exercice (MOVE)‐EA6314, Faculty of Sport Sciences University of Poitiers Poitiers France
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Gibson OR, Wrightson JG, Hayes M. Intermittent sprint performance in the heat is not altered by augmenting thermal perception via L-menthol or capsaicin mouth rinses. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 119:653-664. [PMID: 30580384 PMCID: PMC6394657 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-4055-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Cooling sensations elicited by mouth rinsing with L-menthol have been reported as ergogenic. Presently, responses to L-menthol mouth rinsing during intermittent sprint performance (ISP) in the heat are unknown and the impact of increased thermal perception on ISP via capsaicin has also not been quantified. This experiment aimed to identify whether eliciting cooling/warming sensations via L-menthol/capsaicin would alter ISP in the heat. Method Fourteen participants (mass = 72 ± 9 kg, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\dot {V}{{\text{O}}_{2{\text{peak}}}}$$\end{document}V˙O2peak = 3.30 ± 0.90 L min−1), undertook four experimental trials, involving 40 min of ISP in hot conditions (40.2 ± 0.6 °C, 42 ± 2% R.H.) with mouth rinsing (25 mL, 6 s) at the protocol onset, and every 10 min thereafter. Cooling (0.01% L-menthol; MEN), warming (0.2% capsaicin; CAP), placebo (0.3 sham-CHO; PLA), and control (water; CON) mouth rinses were utilized. Performance was quantified via power (PP) and work done (WD) during sprints. Heart rate (HR), core (Trec) and skin (Tskin) temperature, perceived exertion (RPE), thermal sensation (Tsens), and comfort (Tcom) were measured at 10 min intervals. Sweat rate (whole-body sweat rate) was calculated from ∆mass. Result PP reduced over time (P < 0.05); however, no change was observed between trials for PP or WD (P > 0.05). Tcom increased over time and was lower in MEN (2.7 ± 1.1; P < 0.05) with no difference between CAP (3.1 ± 1.2), PLA (3.2 ± 1.3) and CON (3.1 ± 1.3). RPE, Tsens HR, Trec, and Tskin increased over time (P < 0.05) with no between trial differences (P > 0.05). Conclusion Despite improved thermal comfort via L-menthol, ISP did not improve. Capsaicin did not alter thermal perception or ISP. The reduction in ISP over time in hot conditions is not influenced by thermal perception. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00421-018-4055-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- O R Gibson
- Centre for Human Performance, Exercise and Rehabilitation, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK. .,Division of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Department of Life Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK.
| | - J G Wrightson
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - M Hayes
- Environmental Extremes Laboratory, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
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Rinaldi K, Trong TT, Riera F, Appel K, Hue O. Immersion with menthol improves recovery between 2 cycling exercises in hot and humid environment. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018. [PMID: 29533726 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2017-0525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Endurance exercise performance is impaired in a hot and humid environment. This study compared the effects of cold water immersion, with (CMWI) and without (CWI) menthol, on the recovery of cycling performance. Eight heat-acclimatized cyclists (age, 24.1 ± 4.4 years; mass, 65.3 ± 5.2 kg) performed 2 randomized sessions, each consisting of a 20-min cycling trial (T1) followed by 10 min of immersion during recovery and then a second 20-min cycling trial (T2). Mean power output and perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded for both trials. Rectal (Trec) and skin temperatures were measured before and immediately after T1, immersion, and T2. Perceived thermal sensation (TS) and comfort were measured immediately after T1 and T2. Power output was significantly improved in T2 compared with T1 in the CMWI condition (+15.6%). Performance did not change in the CWI condition. After immersion, Trec was lower in CWI (–1.17 °C) than in CMWI (–0.6 °C). TS decreased significantly after immersion in both conditions. This decline was significantly more pronounced in CMWI (5.9 ± 1 to 3.6 ± 0.5) than in CWI (5.6 ± 0.9 to 4.4 ± 1.2). In CMWI, RPE was significantly higher in T1 (6.57 ± 0.9) than in T2 (5.14 ± 1.25). However, there was no difference in TC. This study suggests that menthol immersion probably (i) improves the performance of a repeated 20-min cycling bout, (ii) decreases TS, and (iii) impairs thermoregulation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kévin Rinaldi
- Laboratoire ACTES (EA3596), Université des Antilles, BP 250, 97157 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, French West Indies
| | - Than Tran Trong
- Laboratoire ACTES (EA3596), Université des Antilles, BP 250, 97157 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, French West Indies
| | - Florence Riera
- Laboratoire LEPSA (EA4604), Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Font-Romeu, France
| | - Katharina Appel
- Laboratoire ACTES (EA3596), Université des Antilles, BP 250, 97157 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, French West Indies
| | - Olivier Hue
- Laboratoire ACTES (EA3596), Université des Antilles, BP 250, 97157 Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, French West Indies
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26
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Jeffries O, Goldsmith M, Waldron M. L-Menthol mouth rinse or ice slurry ingestion during the latter stages of exercise in the heat provide a novel stimulus to enhance performance despite elevation in mean body temperature. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:2435-2442. [PMID: 30128853 PMCID: PMC6182327 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3970-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Purpose This study investigated the effects of l-menthol mouth rinse and ice slurry ingestion on time to exhaustion, when administered at the latter stages (~ 85%) of baseline exercise duration in the heat (35 °C). Method Ten male participants performed four time to exhaustion (TTE) trials on a cycle ergometer at 70% Wmax. In a randomized crossover design, (1) placebo-flavored non-calorific mouth rinse, (2) l-menthol mouth rinse (0.01%), or (3) ice ingestion (1.25 g kg−1), was administered at 85% of participants’ baseline TTE. Time to exhaustion, core and skin temperature, heart rate, rating of perceived effort, thermal comfort and thermal sensation were recorded. Results From the point of administration at 85% of baseline TTE, exercise time was extended by 1% (placebo, 15 s), 6% (l-menthol, 82 s) and 7% (ice, 108 s), relative to baseline performance (P = 0.036), with no difference between l-menthol and ice (P > 0.05). Core temperature, skin temperature, and heart rate increased with time but did not differ between conditions (P > 0.05). Thermal sensation did not differ significantly but demonstrated a large effect size (P = 0.080; \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\eta _{{\text{p}}}^{2}$$\end{document}ηp2 = 0.260). Conclusion These results indicate that both thermally cooling and non-thermally cooling oral stimuli have an equal and immediate behavioral, rather than physiological, influence on exhaustive exercise in the heat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen Jeffries
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Cookson Building, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK. .,School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, London, UK.
| | - Matthew Goldsmith
- School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, London, UK
| | - Mark Waldron
- School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, London, UK.,School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
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Val-Laillet D, Elmore JS, Baines D, Naylor P, Naylor R. Long-term exposure to sensory feed additives during the gestational and postnatal periods affects sows' colostrum and milk sensory profiles, piglets' growth, and feed intake. J Anim Sci 2018; 96:3233-3248. [PMID: 29961882 PMCID: PMC6095397 DOI: 10.1093/jas/sky171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of feed supplementation in sows and/or their progeny with 2 sensory feed additives (FA1: limonene and cinnamaldehyde; FA2: menthol, carvone, and anethole) on sows' feed intake, body weight, fat deposition, and colostrum/milk composition, as well as piglets' feed intake growth and feed efficiency from birth to slaughter at postnatal day 160 (PND160). During the last third of gestation and the whole of lactation, sows were subjected to a control diet (C) or the same diet containing FA1 or FA2 at 0.1% of complete feed content. Colostrum/milk samples were taken at days 1, 14, and 28 of lactation for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses. After weaning, the progeny was subjected to a control diet (C) or experimental diets with a sweetener (0.015%) but no other additive (S), or to diets with a sweetener and the additive FA1 (FA1S) or FA2 (FA2S). There was no effect of dietary treatment on sows' feed intake, body weight, or adiposity (P > 0.15 for all), but the sensory characteristics of their colostrum/milk were modified by the diet and diet*time interaction. Limonene concentrations were higher in FA1 samples from PND1 to PND28, whereas carvone and anethole concentrations were higher in FA2 samples from PND1 to PND28. The concentration of these 3 compounds increased with time in the respective groups where they were mostly detected. Menthol concentrations were higher in FA2 samples at PND14 and PND28, but there was no time effect. Overall, cinnamaldehyde was always below the detection range. Piglets born from FA1 and FA2 sows had higher body weight (P = 0.034 at PND160), average daily gain (ADG; P = 0.036 for PND0-160), and average daily feed intake (ADFI; P = 0.006 for PND28-160) than piglets born from C sows. Overall, piglets that were never exposed to FA or only after weaning had lower ADG (P = 0.030 for PND0-160) and ADFI (P = 0.016 for PND28-160) than piglets that were exposed to FA only via the maternal diet, the condition combining both pre- and post-natal exposure being intermediary. In conclusion, FA1 and FA2 provided to gestating and lactating sows increased the progeny's feed intake and growth, suggesting nutritional programming and/or sensory conditioning during the perinatal period. Addition of FA only in the progeny's diet was not beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Val-Laillet
- INRA, INSERM, Univ Rennes, Nutrition Metabolisms and Cancer, NuMeCan, Saint-Gilles, France
| | - J Stephen Elmore
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, UK
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Abstract
The application of menthol has recently been researched as a performance-enhancing aid for various aspects of athletic performance including endurance, speed, strength and joint range of motion. A range of application methods has been used including a mouth rinse, ingestion of a beverage containing menthol or external application to the skin or clothing via a gel or spray. The majority of research has focussed on the use of menthol to impart a cooling sensation on athletes performing endurance exercise in the heat. In this situation, menthol appears to have the greatest beneficial effect on performance when applied internally. In contrast, the majority of investigations into the external application of menthol demonstrated no performance benefit. While studies are limited in number, menthol has not yet proven to be beneficial for speed or strength, and only effective at increasing joint range of motion following exercise that induced delayed-onset muscle soreness. Internal application of menthol may provoke such performance-enhancing effects via mechanisms related to its thermal, ventilatory, analgesic and arousing properties. Future research should focus on well-trained subjects and investigate the addition of menthol to nutritional sports products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Stevens
- School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Hogbin Drive, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia.
| | - Russ Best
- School of Social Sciences, Business and Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
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29
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30
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Abstract
Menthol is a compound of plant origin and has recently been used to aid exercise performance in hot, humid environments. Menthol creates a sensation of coolness when applied to the skin or mucosal surfaces stimulating the cold receptors. In these environments, fatigue is known to be accelerated and feelings of being hot are one of the main contributors to the early onset of fatigue. However, current research indicates that nonthermal perceptual cooling interventions could alter behavior in the heat by reducing thermal perception. This would allow the athlete to feel cooler when exercising at the same work rate in the heat. Menthol has been investigated as an internal and external intervention. Greater benefits have currently been found for internal interventions than external methods. Future research should focus on the mechanisms, dosage, and timing of both internal and external interventions, and the role menthol could play within speed or strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Rose Flood
- University of Chichester, UK College Lane University of Chichester, West Sussex, UNITED KINGDOM
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31
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Mejuto G, Chalmers S, Gilbert S, Bentley D. The effect of ice slurry ingestion on body temperature and cycling performance in competitive athletes. J Therm Biol 2018; 72:143-147. [PMID: 29496007 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2018.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The effects of pre cooling on endurance performance are widely known. In contrast, the approach of cooling during endurance exercise in combination with pre-exercise cooling has been poorly understood. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the effects of precooling and cooling during exercise enhance exercise performance compared to the ingestion of a thermo-neutral beverage (20 °C) or precooling alone in cycling performance. This was an experimental study using a randomised crossover design in which 7 cyclists underwent three trials comprising of 45 min steady state cycling (SS) at 70% VO2 max and a subsequent 10 km time trial (TT) in hot conditions (32 °C, 50% relative humidity). Rectal temperature (Tre), heat storage (HS), heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration (BLA) and thermal sensation (TS) were measured. The intervention consisted of: (1) ingestion of thermo-neutral beverage before and during SS cycling (TN), (2) ingestion of ice slurry beverage and application of iced towels (precooling) prior to exercise, and then ingestion of thermo-neutral beverage during SS (PRE) and (3) precooling strategy as above plus ice slurry ingestion during SS cycling (PRE + MID). The intake of thermo-neutral or ice slurry beverage (14 g/kg) occurred over 30 min before and every 15 min during SS cycling. There was no significant difference in TT performance between all the conditions (P =0.72). However, PRE and PRE + MID caused a significant decrease in Tre (P < 0.05) from TN during exercise. Accordingly, both precooling and a combination of precooling and mid-cooling during exercise in hot conditions may be a practical and effective way of reducing core temperature. Future studies should investigate longer distance events and timing of ice slurry ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Samuel Chalmers
- Western Sydney University, School of Science and Health, NSW, Australia; University of South Australia, Division of Health Sciences, SA, Australia
| | | | - David Bentley
- Flinders University, Faculty of Medicine Nursing and Health Sciences, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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32
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Best R, Payton S, Spears I, Riera F, Berger N. Topical and Ingested Cooling Methodologies for Endurance Exercise Performance in the Heat. Sports (Basel) 2018; 6:sports6010011. [PMID: 29910315 PMCID: PMC5969198 DOI: 10.3390/sports6010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess studies which have investigated cooling methodologies, their timing and effects, on endurance exercise performance in trained athletes (Category 3; VO2max ≥ 55 mL·kg·min−1) in hot environmental conditions (≥28 °C). Meta-analyses were performed to quantify the effects of timings and methods of application, with a narrative review of the evidence also provided. A computer-assisted database search was performed for articles investigating the effects of cooling on endurance performance and accompanying physiological and perceptual responses. A total of 4129 results were screened by title, abstract, and full text, resulting in 10 articles being included for subsequent analyses. A total of 101 participants and 310 observations from 10 studies measuring the effects of differing cooling strategies on endurance exercise performance and accompanying physiological and perceptual responses were included. With respect to time trial performance, cooling was shown to result in small beneficial effects when applied before and throughout the exercise bout (Effect Size: −0.44; −0.69 to −0.18), especially when ingested (−0.39; −0.60 to −0.18). Current evidence suggests that whilst other strategies ameliorate physiological or perceptual responses throughout endurance exercise in hot conditions, ingesting cooling aids before and during exercise provides a small benefit, which is of practical significance to athletes’ time trial performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russ Best
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities & Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough TS1 3BX, UK.
- Centre for Sports Science and Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton 3288, New Zealand.
| | | | - Iain Spears
- Pro-Football Support Ltd., Huddersfield HD7 5BQ, UK.
| | - Florence Riera
- Laboratoire ACTES⁻EA 3596, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, 97157 Pointe à Pitre, France.
- Laboratoire LEPSA⁻EA 4604, Université de Perpignan, 66120 Font Romeu, France.
| | - Nicolas Berger
- School of Social Sciences, Humanities & Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough TS1 3BX, UK.
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Otani H, Goto T, Goto H, Shirato M. Time-of-day effects of exposure to solar radiation on thermoregulation during outdoor exercise in the heat. Chronobiol Int 2017; 34:1224-1238. [PMID: 28910548 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2017.1358735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
High solar radiation has been recognised as a contributing factor to exertional heat-related illness in individuals exercising outdoors in the heat. Although solar radiation intensity has been known to have similar time-of-day variation as body temperature, the relationship between fluctuations in solar radiation associated with diurnal change in the angle of sunlight and thermoregulatory responses in individuals exercising outdoors in a hot environment remains largely unknown. The present study therefore investigated the time-of-day effects of variations in solar radiation associated with changing solar elevation angle on thermoregulatory responses during moderate-intensity outdoor exercise in the heat of summer. Eight healthy, high school baseball players, heat-acclimatised male volunteers completed a 3-h outdoor baseball trainings under the clear sky in the heat. The trainings were commenced at 0900 h in AM trial and at 1600 h in PM trial each on a separate day. Solar radiation and solar elevation angle during exercise continued to increase in AM (672-1107 W/m2 and 44-69°) and decrease in PM (717-0 W/m2 and 34-0°) and were higher on AM than on PM (both P < 0.001). Although ambient temperature (AM 32-36°C, PM 36-30°C) and wet-bulb globe temperature (AM 31-33°C, PM 34-27°C) also continued to increase in AM and decrease in PM, there were no differences between trials in these (both P > 0.05). Tympanic temperature measured by an infrared tympanic thermometer and mean skin temperature were higher in AM than PM at 120 and 180 min (P < 0.05). Skin temperature was higher in AM than PM at the upper arm and thigh at 120 min (P < 0.05) and at the calf at 120 and 180 min (both P < 0.05). Body heat gain from the sun was greater during exercise in AM than PM (P < 0.0001), at 0-60 min in PM than AM (P < 0.0001) and at 120-180 min in AM than PM (P < 0.0001). Dry heat loss during exercise was greater at 0-60 min (P < 0.0001), and lower at 60-120 min (P < 0.05) and 120-180 min (P < 0.0001) in AM than PM. Evaporative heat loss during exercise was greater in PM than AM at 120-180 min (P < 0.0001). Total (dry + evaporation) heat loss at the skin was greater during exercise in PM than AM (P < 0.0001), at 0-60 min in AM than PM (P < 0.0001) and at 60-120 and 120-180 min in PM than AM (P < 0.05 and 0.0001). Heart rate at 120-150 min was also higher in AM than PM (P < 0.05). Neither perceived thermal sensation nor rating of perceived exertion was different between trials (both P > 0.05). The current study demonstrates a greater thermoregulatory strain in the morning than in the afternoon resulting from a higher body temperature and heart rate in relation to an increase in environmental heat stress with rising solar radiation and solar elevation angle during moderate-intensity outdoor exercise in the heat. This response is associated with a lesser net heat loss at the skin and a greater body heat gain from the sun in the morning compared with the afternoon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidenori Otani
- a Faculty of Health Care Sciences , Himeji Dokkyo University , Himeji , Hyogo , Japan
| | - Takayuki Goto
- b National Institute of Technology , Akashi College , Akashi , Hyogo , Japan
| | - Heita Goto
- c Faculty of Sports Science, Kyushu Kyoritsu University , Kitakyushu , Fukuoka , Japan
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Stevens CJ, Bennett KJ, Sculley DV, Callister R, Taylor L, Dascombe BJ. A Comparison of Mixed-Method Cooling Interventions on Preloaded Running Performance in the Heat. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31:620-629. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Bongers CCWG, Hopman MTE, Eijsvogels TMH. Cooling interventions for athletes: An overview of effectiveness, physiological mechanisms, and practical considerations. Temperature (Austin) 2017; 4:60-78. [PMID: 28349095 PMCID: PMC5356217 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2016.1277003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Exercise-induced increases in core body temperature could negative impact performance and may lead to development of heat-related illnesses. The use of cooling techniques prior (pre-cooling), during (per-cooling) or directly after (post-cooling) exercise may limit the increase in core body temperature and therefore improve exercise performance. The aim of the present review is to provide a comprehensive overview of current scientific knowledge in the field of pre-cooling, per-cooling and post-cooling. Based on existing studies, we will discuss 1) the effectiveness of cooling interventions, 2) the underlying physiological mechanisms and 3) practical considerations regarding the use of different cooling techniques. Furthermore, we tried to identify the optimal cooling technique and compared whether cooling-induced performance benefits are different between cool, moderate and hot ambient conditions. This article provides researchers, physicians, athletes and coaches with important information regarding the implementation of cooling techniques to maintain exercise performance and to successfully compete in thermally stressful conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coen C W G Bongers
- Radboud Institute of Health Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Department of Physiology , Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Maria T E Hopman
- Radboud Institute of Health Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Department of Physiology , Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Thijs M H Eijsvogels
- Radboud Institute of Health Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Department of Physiology, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Research Institute for Sports and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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36
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Stevens CJ, Taylor L, Dascombe BJ. Cooling During Exercise: An Overlooked Strategy for Enhancing Endurance Performance in the Heat. Sports Med 2016; 47:829-841. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0625-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Hohenauer E, Clarys P, Baeyens JP, Clijsen R. The effect of local cryotherapy on subjective and objective recovery characteristics following an exhaustive jump protocol. Open Access J Sports Med 2016; 7:89-97. [PMID: 27579000 PMCID: PMC5001665 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s110991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this controlled trial was to investigate the effects of a single local cryotherapy session on the recovery characteristics over a period of 72 hours. Twenty-two young and healthy female (n=17; mean age: 21.9±1.1 years) and male (n=5;mean age: 25.4±2.8 years) adults participated in this study. Following an exhaustive jump protocol (3×30 countermovement jumps), half of the participants received either a single local cryotherapy application (+8°C) or a single local thermoneutral application (+32°C) of 20-minute duration using two thigh cuffs. Subjective measures of recovery (delayed-onset muscle soreness and ratings of perceived exertion) and objective measures of recovery (vertical jump performance and peak power output) were assessed immediately following the postexercise applications (0 hours) and at 24 hours, 48 hours, and 72 hours after the jump protocol. Local cryotherapy failed to significantly affect any subjective recovery variable during the 72-hour recovery period (P>0.05). After 72 hours, the ratings of perceived exertion were significantly lower in the thermoneutral group compared to that in the cryotherapy group (P=0.002). No significant differences were observed between the cryotherapy and the thermoneutral groups with respect to any of the objective recovery variables. In this experimental study, a 20-minute cryotherapy cuff application failed to demonstrate a positive effect on any objective measures of recovery. The effects of local thermoneutral application on subjective recovery characteristics were superior when compared to the effects of local cryotherapy application at 72 hours postapplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich Hohenauer
- Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Care, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Landquart, Switzerland; University College Physiotherapy, Thim van der Laan, Landquart, Switzerland; Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Peter Clarys
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jean-Pierre Baeyens
- University College Physiotherapy, Thim van der Laan, Landquart, Switzerland; Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ron Clijsen
- Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Care, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Landquart, Switzerland; University College Physiotherapy, Thim van der Laan, Landquart, Switzerland; Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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Stevens CJ, Kittel A, Sculley DV, Callister R, Taylor L, Dascombe BJ. Running performance in the heat is improved by similar magnitude with pre-exercise cold-water immersion and mid-exercise facial water spray. J Sports Sci 2016; 35:798-805. [PMID: 27267974 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1192294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This investigation compared the effects of external pre-cooling and mid-exercise cooling methods on running time trial performance and associated physiological responses. Nine trained male runners completed familiarisation and three randomised 5 km running time trials on a non-motorised treadmill in the heat (33°C). The trials included pre-cooling by cold-water immersion (CWI), mid-exercise cooling by intermittent facial water spray (SPRAY), and a control of no cooling (CON). Temperature, cardiorespiratory, muscular activation, and perceptual responses were measured as well as blood concentrations of lactate and prolactin. Performance time was significantly faster with CWI (24.5 ± 2.8 min; P = 0.01) and SPRAY (24.6 ± 3.3 min; P = 0.01) compared to CON (25.2 ± 3.2 min). Both cooling strategies significantly (P < 0.05) reduced forehead temperatures and thermal sensation, and increased muscle activation. Only pre-cooling significantly lowered rectal temperature both pre-exercise (by 0.5 ± 0.3°C; P < 0.01) and throughout exercise, and reduced sweat rate (P < 0.05). Both cooling strategies improved performance by a similar magnitude, and are ergogenic for athletes. The observed physiological changes suggest some involvement of central and psychophysiological mechanisms of performance improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Stevens
- a Applied Sports Science and Exercise Testing Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Information Technology , University of Newcastle , Ourimbah , Australia.,b School of Health and Human Sciences , Southern Cross University , Coffs Harbour , Australia
| | - Aden Kittel
- a Applied Sports Science and Exercise Testing Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Information Technology , University of Newcastle , Ourimbah , Australia
| | - Dean V Sculley
- c School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medicine , University of Newcastle , Callaghan , Australia
| | - Robin Callister
- c School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medicine , University of Newcastle , Callaghan , Australia
| | - Lee Taylor
- d Athlete Health and Performance Research Centre , ASPETAR, Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital , Doha , Qatar
| | - Ben J Dascombe
- a Applied Sports Science and Exercise Testing Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Information Technology , University of Newcastle , Ourimbah , Australia.,e Department of Rehabilitation, Nutrition and Sport , La Trobe University , Bundoora , Australia
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