Potential of the Desert Locust Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) as an Unconventional Source of Dietary and Therapeutic Sterols

We are what we eat: Implications of host plant suitability on sustainable production of silkworm pupae as novel ingredient with dietary and health benefits

Although, the impact of mulberry leaves on mortality of Bombyx mori [silkworm] and cocooning rates has been investigated, limited research has exploited the influence on the quality of B. mori pupae. This study evaluated the effects of four mulberry cultivars (Ichinose, Noi-EX-Thailand, Ex-Thika and Victory1) on the nutritional quality of B. mori pupae. The proximate composition, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals of different mulberry cultivars and silkworm pupae were analyzed using standard methods. Silkworms fed on Noi-EX-Thailand and Ex-Thika cultivars exhibited the highest crude protein (57.9%) and fat content (44.3%), respectively. Eight essential amino acids were identified in silkworm pupae, with histidine (6.02-7.12 μg/100mg) being the most abundant, followed by significant amounts of lysine (1.40-5.03 μg/100 mg), leucine (1.96-2.47μg/100 mg), and valine (0.89-2.03 μg/100 mg). Pupae raised on Noi-Ex-Thailand leaves had the highest total amino acid content (23.01 μg/100 mg). Potassium was the major mineral in pupae (505.62-665.30 mg/100 mg), with the highest levels observed in those fed on Noi-EX-Thailand. Vitamin C levels ranged from 28.84 to 61.88 mg/100 g, with pupae fed on Victory1 showing the highest concentration. There was a strong positive correlation between magnesium, crude protein and nitrogen-free extracts of mulberry leaves that mirrored the corresponding levels in silkworm pupae. These results underscore the importance of mulberry leaf composition in determining silkworm pupae quality, especially when considering their use as sustainable ingredient for the food, feed and pharmaceutical industry.

Edible caterpillars (Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja) as emerging source of nutrients and bioactive compounds

Globally, despite the commercial and cultural importance of edible caterpillars (Gynanisa maja and Gonimbrasia belina), comprehensive information on their dietary and therapeutic benefits has not been fully explored. The study was aimed at evaluating the nutritional composition and bioactive compounds profile of two important edible caterpillars (Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja) in Africa. Our results demonstrated that G. belina and G. maja are capable of amplifying host plant protein (17 %) by 4.3-folds [72.8 %] and 3.6-folds [61.3 %], respectively. Lysine (32.6 mg/g), methionine (12.5-27.1 mg/g) and valine (7.7-25.4 mg/g) value were significantly harnessed. Substantial amounts of ω-3 fatty acids (methyl 5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoate and methyl 9Z,12Z,15Z-octadecatrienoate), minerals [iron (3.6-21.2 mg/100 g), zinc (7.1-17.3 mg/100 g), calcium (55.1-60.4 mg/100 g)] and vitamins [retinol (0.02-0.03 mg/kg), γ tocopherol (0.05-0.07 mg/kg) and α-tocopherol (1.2 mg/kg)] were detected. Important phytochemical [flavonoids: rutin (7.8-20.4 ng/g), quercetin (7.2-9.0 ng/g), luteolin (7.4-7.5 ng/g), apigenin (20.8-28.6 ng/g) and kaempferol (3.3-6.5 ng/g)] and phytosterols [stigmasta-3,5-diene, campesterol and sitosterol] were identified. These findings suggests that both edible caterpillars contain sufficient nutrients and therapeutic compounds, which when integrated into human food products, either whole, in-part, or processed will greatly contribute towards countering nutritional insecurity and improve livelihoods of people in many countries.

Vitamin D fortification of selected edible insect species through UVB-treatment

Edible insects are attracting increased interest worldwide, because they are arguably more sustainable than more established animal foods. Apart from being rich in protein and minerals, they can also form vitamin D3 after treatment with UVB light (290-315 nm). However, only limited research, which has almost exclusively been conducted on living insects, reared under UVB lamps, has been done in this regard. As research on mushrooms has shown, that vitamin D formation is much more effective and less time consuming, when a previously sliced or ground product is treated with UVB light, it would likely be more practical to treat powdered insects with UVB light, rather than rearing them under UVB lamps. Therefore, the aim of this work was to confirm the presence of vitamin D3 in powdered UVB-treated yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria) and two-spotted crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus) as well as to subsequently quantify potential vitamin D content. Samples were analyzed via HPLC, and presence of vitamin D3 was verified via standard addition and spectrum analysis. UVB-treated migratory locusts and two-spotted crickets did not contain quantifiable amounts of vitamin D3. However, UVB-treated mealworms showed substantial amounts of vitamin D3 (8.95-18.24 µg/g dry matter). Thus, the UVB-treatment of powdered mealworm is an effective approach via which to enhance their vitamin D3 content and even modest serving sizes can supply the recommended daily intake of vitamin D.

Research Progress and Production Status of Edible Insects as Food in China

Based on the background of the exacerbating food shortage in the world, it is particularly important to diversify food resources in every possible direction. Among the choices available, edible insects have become an important alternative source of animal food with their high nutritional and functional (pharmacological) values, partially replacing normally consumed animal and livestock protein food sources. The utilization of edible insects has been an ancient custom since the dawn of civilization, attributed to their rich nutrition, alternate protein source, medicinal values, and presence of diverse secondary metabolites and alkaloids. This review provides an introduction to three key aspects of edible insects as food: freshness, long-term preservation, and medicinal value. It also provides details on the food source and products of edible insect species, their detailed nutritional composition and medicinal values, and their potential in producing alternative protein sources. Additionally, the review also encompasses rearing and producing technologies, resource utilization, and industrial development in China. Simultaneously, the problems and challenges faced in the artificial rearing and production development of edible insects, the production advantages over traditional livestock, and the farming evaluation and prospects of edible insects, as well as the lack of specific legislation on edible insects in China, are discussed. This review will be helpful in scientific knowledge propagation regarding edible insects for the public, guiding consumers to establish a diverse perception of sustainable agriculture and food sources in the world that has, as yet, been thwarted by food insecurity. Moreover, though edible insects could potentially serve as part of a commercial and industrial agri-enterprise that could generate a huge income, artificial rearing technology and edible insect product manufacturing and processing have not received sufficient attention from the government on a policy level, thereby leaving an open space for extensive research on edible insects as an alternate food source as well as an examination of the industrial prospects of edible insect products.

Physicochemical properties of edible cricket oils: Implications for use in pharmaceutical and food industries

The prevailing global market demands locally produced, sustainable oils for biomedical applications. This study focused on evaluating the quality of cricket-derived oils and meals from Scapsipedus icipe Hugel, Tanga, and Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer common delicacy in Africa, following standard methods for physicochemical properties, fatty acid composition, and phytochemicals (oxalates, phytates, tannins, and polyphenols). The cricket oils physicochemical properties aligned with Codex Alimentarius standards for edible oils, including low solidification temperature (< 2 °C), a high refractive index (1.46), and a specific gravity of 0.88. Notably, peroxide values (1.9 to 2.5 mg mEq O2/kg), acid values (1.1 to 2.2 mg KOH/g), and saponification values (234-246 mg KOH/g) all are indicative of lightness and unsaturated fatty acids. Nutritionally, cricket powder was rich in protein (56.8-56.9% -) and fat (31.7-33.5% -of dry matter), with significant amounts of essential omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Predominant saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids were palmitic (23.9-31.2 mg/100 g-) and oleic acids (10.9-11.4 mg/100 g- of oil), respectively. Antioxidant values (48.0 to 65.0 mg/100 g), inferred from total polyphenols, suggests a stable oil with long shelf-life. These results highlight the promising and sustainable potential of cricket-derived oils for applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Unravelling the nutritional and health benefits of marketable winged termites (Macrotermes spp.) as sustainable food sources in Africa

Termites are widely distributed globally and serve as a valuable food source in many countries. However, information on the myriad nutritional benefits of processed termite products in African markets remain largely unexploited. This study evaluated the phytochemicals, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals, vitamins and proximate composition of the edible winged termites (Macrotermes spp.) from three major Counties of Kenya. A total of 9 flavonoids, 5 alkaloids, and 1 cytokinin were identified. The oil content varied from 33 to 46%, exhibiting significant levels of beneficial omega 3 fatty acids, such as methyl (9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadecatrienoate and methyl (5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)-eicosapentaenoate, ranging from 82.7-95.1 to 6.3-8.1 µg/g, respectively, across the different regions. Four essential and cereal-limiting amino acids lysine (1.0-1.3 mg/g), methionine (0.08-0.1 mg/g), leucine (0.6-0.9 mg/g) and threonine (0.1-0.2 mg/g), were predominant. Moreover, termites had a rich profile of essential minerals, including iron (70.7-111.8 mg/100 g), zinc (4.4-16.2 mg/100 g) and calcium (33.1-53.0 mg/100 g), as well as vitamins A (2.4-6.4 mg/kg), C (0.6-1.9 mg/kg) and B12 (10.7-17.1 mg/kg). The crude protein (32.2-44.8%) and fat (41.2-49.1%) contents of termites from the various Counties was notably high. These findings demonstrated the promising nutrients potential of winged termites and advocate for their sustainable utilization in contemporary efficacious functional food applications to combat malnutrition.

Dietary and Therapeutic Benefits of Edible Insects: A Global Perspective

Edible insects are gaining traction worldwide for research and development. This review synthesizes a large and well-established body of research literature on the high nutritional value and variety of pharmacological properties of edible insects. Positive benefits of insect-derived products include immune enhancement; gastrointestinal protection; antitumor, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory capacities; antibacterial activities; blood lipid and glucose regulation; lowering of blood pressure; and decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of these active components of edible insects in humans have received limited research attention. In addition, we discuss health risks (safety); application prospects; regulations and policies governing their production and consumption with a view to promote innovations, intraglobal trade, and economic development; and suggestions for future directions for further pharmacological functional studies. The aim is to review the current state of knowledge and research trends on edible insects as functional ingredients beneficial to the nutrition and health of humans and animals (livestock, aquatic species, and pets).

Insects as food and medicine: a sustainable solution for global health and environmental challenges

Insects are a significant source of food for millions of people worldwide. Since ancient times, insects in medicine have been contributing to the treatment of diseases in humans and animals. Compared to conventional animal farming, the production of insects for food and feed generates significantly less greenhouse gas emissions and uses considerably less land. Edible insects provide many ecosystem services, including pollination, environmental health monitoring, and the decomposition of organic waste materials. Some wild edible insects are pests of cash crops. Thus, harvesting and consuming edible insect pests as food and utilizing them for therapeutic purposes could be a significant progress in the biological control of insect pests. Our review discusses the contribution of edible insects to food and nutritional security. It highlights therapeutic uses of insects and recommends ways to ensure a sustainable insect diet. We stress that the design and implementation of guidelines for producing, harvesting, processing, and consuming edible insects must be prioritized to ensure safe and sustainable use.

Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Composition of Nut Bars with Addition of Various Edible Insect Flours

Edible insects represent a new functional source of nutrients that can contribute to solving nutritional deficiency problems. The antioxidant potential and bioactive compounds of nut bars with the addition of three edible insects were evaluated. Acheta domesticus L., Alphitobius diaperinus P. and Tenebrio molitor L. flours were used. A 30% share of insect flour in the bars resulted in significantly greater antioxidant activity (TPC increased from 190.19 for standard bars to 309.45 mg catechin/100 g for bars with 30% addition of cricket flour). Insect flour contributed significantly to an increase in 2,5-dihydrobenzoic acid (from 0.12 for bars with a 15% share of buffalo worm flour to 0.44 mg/100 g in the case of bars with a 30% share of cricket flour) and chlorogenic acid in all bars (from 0.58 for bars with a 15% share of cricket flour to 3.28 mg/100 g for bars with a 30% addition of buffalo worm flour), compared to the standard. The highest content of tocopherols was found in bars with cricket flour, compared to standard bars (43.57 and 24.06 mg/100 g of fat, respectively). The dominant sterol in bars enriched with insect powder was cholesterol. The highest amount of it was found in cricket bars, and the lowest in mealworm bars (64.16 and 21.62 mg/100 g of fat, respectively). The enrichment of nut bars with insect flours raises the levels of valuable phytosterols in the final product. The addition of edible insect flours reduced the perception of most sensory attributes of the bars, compared to the standard bar.

Indigenous knowledge system associated with the uses of insects for therapeutic or medicinal purposes in two main provinces of Burkina Faso, West Africa

BACKGROUND

Some insects are harmful to humans, plants and animals, but some of them can also be a source of proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals and be of therapeutic value. The therapeutic potential requires that medicinal insects and their derived products need to be scrutinized. This study highlights the indigenous knowledge related to their use of medicinal insects in peri-urban and urban areas of Burkina Faso.

METHODS

The survey was carried out among 60 traditional healers spread across two phytogeographical zones of Burkina Faso. The questionnaire focused on medicinal insects used by experienced traditional healers. Chi-square tests and principal component analysis were performed to test for significant differences regarding knowledge of how insects in phytogeographically different areas were used therapeutically in connection with different disease categories.

RESULTS

A total of 19 species of medicinal insects belonging to 6 orders were cited in connection with treatments of at least 78 pathologies and symptoms. Most frequently mentioned was gastroenteritis. Our study showed that 48.78% of the insects and their products were associated with 46 plant species for the treatment of pathologies. In addition, honey, beeswax and nests were the most widely insect products used.

CONCLUSION

The current study allows us to identify medicinal insects as well as their products used in the treatment of pathologies and symptoms, suggesting the presence of a considerable diversity of therapeutically important insect species. These insects are used alone and/or with their products but often in association with medicinal plants. The results constitute a useful database for future studies of medicinal insects in central and western parts of Burkina Faso.

Noninvasive examination of the cardiac properties of insect embryos enabled by optical coherence tomography

Understanding the cardiac properties of insect embryos at different development stages is important, however, few works have been conducted probably due to the lack of effective tools. Using locust embryos as an example, here we show, for the first time, that optical coherence tomography (OCT) is capable of obtaining detailed information of embryos' heart activities and irregularities, such as the heart rate, cardiac cycle, diastolic and systolic diameters, hemolymph pumping rate and ejection fraction at different stages of embryonic development and at different temperatures. We develop algorithms and mathematical methods for extracting and analyzing cardiac behavior information of locust embryos. We discover that locust embryos experienced suspended development (quiescence) caused by cold storage have a heart rate 20% more than that of embryos without experiencing quiescence and that the hemolymph pumping rate of the two types of embryos behaves differently as the embryos grow. In addition, using OCT as an accurate cardiac activity examination tool, we show that the heart rates of locust embryos are effectively reduced due to nitric oxide synthase gene silencing by RNA interference, indicating potential application of using locust embryos as a good model organism to study cardiovascular diseases, including the congenital heart disease and arrhythmia. Finally, the capabilities offered by OCT in the studies of locust embryonic development may also prove helpful to promote locust reproduction for nutritions or restrain locust reproduction for pest control.

Nutrient quality and maturity status of frass fertilizer from nine edible insects

Globally, there is growing interest to recycle organic waste using insect larvae into high-quality frass fertilizer through circular economy approach. This paper presents the first comparative report on the nutrient concentrations, fertilizing indices, nutrient supply potentials and compost maturity of nine edible insect frass fertilizers. Our results revealed that frass fertilizers from all the insect species had adequate concentrations and contents of macronutrients [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K)], secondary nutrients (calcium, magnesium, and sulphur) and micro-nutrients (manganese, copper, iron, zinc, boron, and sodium). The fertilizing indices of the frass fertilizers were above 3. However, black soldier fly (BSF) frass fertilizer had significantly higher N (20-130%) and K (17-193%) concentrations compared to others. The P concentration of Gryllus bimaculatus frass fertilizer was 3-800% higher compared to those of frass fertilizers from other insect species. The potential N and K supply capacities of BSF frass fertilizer was 19-78% and 16-190% higher, respectively. The P supply capacity of cricket frass fertilizer was 17-802% higher compared to others. The highest seed gemination rate (> 90%) and germination index (267%) were observed in seeds treated with BSF frass fertilizer. Frass fertilizer obtained from the other eight insect species showed medium to high phytotoxicity. These findings demonstrate that insect frass fertilizers are promising alternatives to existing commercial fertilizers (i.e., mineral, and organic) for improved soil health and crop yield.

Cultural significance of locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets in sub-Saharan Africa

BACKGROUND

In sub-Saharan Africa, there is a wealth of information about insects which is often only orally available. The purpose of the study was to remedy this shortcoming and make an overview of how orthopteran species are utilised, perceived and experienced in daily life across sub-Saharan Africa.

METHOD

Ethno-entomological information on Orthoptera in sub-Saharan Africa was collected by (1) interviews with more than 300 people from about 120 ethnic groups in 27 countries in the region; (2) library studies in Africa, London, Paris and Leiden; and (3) using web search engines.

RESULTS

More than 126 species of crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts have been identified as edible in sub-Saharan Africa. Some toxic species, such as Zonocerus spp., are eaten by some groups who use processing and detoxifying techniques. The katydid Ruspolia differens is very popular as food in central and eastern Africa and is captured by indigenous and commercial methods. Vernacular names refer to their morphology, behaviour, characteristics or the beliefs associated with the insect. The aposematic pyrgomorphid species, such as Zonocerus spp., are often used as medicine. Children play with grasshoppers, by for instance herding them like cattle, and they consider cricket-hunting for food as a game. The doctrine of signatures probably plays a role, as crickets, because of their chirping, are used to improve the sound of a music instrument, or as medicine to treat earache. Locust plagues are considered a punishment which requires repentance, but also an opportunity to acquire food. Proverbs and stories relate to using the orthopterans as food or to the underground lives of the crickets. Possible explanations are given as to why so many practices, beliefs and stories about orthopterans are so widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. The relevance of recording such ethno-entomological practices is discussed.

CONCLUSION

Grasshoppers, locusts and crickets, although they may be agricultural pests, are very popular as food. They are also used in medicine, and as toys, and they play a role in religion, art and literature.

The metabolism and role of free fatty acids in key physiological processes in insects of medical, veterinary and forensic importance

Insects are the most widespread group of organisms and more than one million species have been described. These animals have significant ecological functions, for example they are pollinators of many types of plants. However, they also have direct influence on human life in different manners. They have high medical and veterinary significance, stemming from their role as vectors of disease and infection of wounds and necrotic tissue; they are also plant pests, parasitoids and predators whose activities can influence agriculture. In addition, their use in medical treatments, such as maggot therapy of gangrene and wounds, has grown considerably. They also have many uses in forensic science to determine the minimum post-mortem interval and provide valuable information about the movement of the body, cause of the death, drug use, or poisoning. It has also been proposed that they may be used as model organisms to replace mammal systems in research. The present review describes the role of free fatty acids (FFAs) in key physiological processes in insects. By focusing on insects of medical, veterinary significance, we have limited our description of the physiological processes to those most important from the point of view of insect control; the study examines their effects on insect reproduction and resistance to the adverse effects of abiotic (low temperature) and biotic (pathogens) factors.

Fatty acid profile, minor bioactive constituents and physicochemical properties of insect-based oils: A comprehensive review

Insect-based food or ingredients have received tremendous attention worldwide because of their potential to ensure food and nutrition security, mitigating the reliance on land-dependent agricultural products. Indeed, insect-farming has low environmental impacts with reduced land, water and energy input. More importantly, insects are rich in high quality proteins and fats. They are also excellent sources of minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds. Insect-based lipids are intriguing because they may contain high levels of unsaturated fatty acids particularly linoleic and α-linolenic acids. Besides, the insect-based lipids also show a considerable amount of bioactive components such as tocols, sterols and carotenoids. However, their fatty acid compositions and the nutritional values may vary depending on species, feed composition, developmental stage, geographical locations, and extraction techniques. Therefore, the present article aims to provide a comprehensive review on the fatty acid composition, the minor bioactive constituents and the physicochemical properties of fats and oils derived from insects of different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera). The various parameters affecting the nutritional compositions of the insect-based lipids will also be highlighted. These information will definitely provide a detailed insight on the potential applications of these fats in various food systems based on their unique properties.

Benefits and Challenges in the Incorporation of Insects in Food Products

Edible insects are being accepted by a growing number of consumers in recent years not only as a snack but also as a side dish or an ingredient to produce other foods. Most of the edible insects belong to one of these groups of insects such as caterpillars, butterflies, moths, wasps, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, bees, and ants. Insect properties are analyzed and reported in the articles reviewed here, and one common feature is nutrimental content, which is one of the most important characteristics mentioned, especially proteins, lipids, fiber, and minerals. On the other hand, insects can be used as a substitute for flour of cereals for the enrichment of snacks because of their high content of proteins, lipids, and fiber. Technological properties are not altered when these insects-derived ingredients are added and sensorial analysis is satisfactory, and only in some cases, change in color takes place. Insects can be used as substitute ingredients in meat products; the products obtained have higher mineral content than traditional ones, and some texture properties (like elasticity) can be improved. In extruded products, insects are an alternative source of proteins to feed livestock, showing desirable characteristics. Isolates of proteins of insects have demonstrated bioactive activity, and these can be used to improve food formulations. Bioactive compounds, as antioxidant agents, insulin regulators, and anti-inflammatory peptides, are high-value products that can be obtained from insects. Fatty acids that play a significant role in human health and lipids from insects have showed positive impacts on coronary disease, inflammation, and cancer. Insects can be a vector for foodborne microbial contamination, but the application of good manufacturing practices and effective preservation techniques jointly with the development of appropriate safety regulations will decrease the appearance of such risks. However, allergens presented in some insects are a hazard that must be analyzed and taken into account. Despite all the favorable health-promoting characteristics present in insects and insects-derived ingredients, willingness to consume them has yet to be generalized.

An Overview of Antimicrobial Compounds from African Edible Insects and Their Associated Microbiota

The need for easily biodegradable and less toxic chemicals in drug development and pest control continues to fuel the exploration and discovery of new natural molecules. Like certain plants, some insects can also respond rapidly to microbial infections by producing a plethora of immune-induced molecules that include antibacterial and antifungal peptides/polypeptides (AMPs), among other structurally diverse small molecules. The recent recognition that new natural product-derived scaffolds are urgently needed to tackle life-threatening pathogenic infections has been prompted by the health threats posed by multidrug resistance. Although many researchers have concentrated on the discovery of AMPs, surprisingly, edible insect-produced AMPs/small molecules have received little attention. This review will discuss the recent advances in the identification and bioactivity analysis of insect AMPs, with a focus on small molecules associated with the microbiota of selected African edible insects. These molecules could be used as templates for developing next-generation drugs to combat multidrug-resistant pathogens.

Gastrointestinally Digested Protein from the Insect Alphitobius diaperinus Stimulates a Different Intestinal Secretome than Beef or Almond, Producing a Differential Response in Food Intake in Rats

In this study we compare the interaction of three protein sources—insect, beef, and almond—with the gastrointestinal tract. We measured the enterohormone secretion ex vivo in human and pig intestine treated with in vitro digestions of these foods. Insect and beef were the most effective in inducing the secretion of CCK, while almond was the most effective in inducing PYY in pig duodenum. In the human colon, almond was also the most effective in inducing PYY, and GLP-1 levels were increased by insect and beef. The three digested proteins reduced ghrelin secretion in pig duodenum, while only insect reduced ghrelin secretion in human colon. We also found that food intake in rats increased in groups fed a raw insect pre-load and decreased when fed raw almond. In conclusion, the insect Alphitobius diaperinus modulates duodenal and colonic enterohormone release and increases food intake in rats. These effects differ from beef and almond.

Chemistry and Sensory Characterization of a Bakery Product Prepared with Oils from African Edible Insects

Globally, there is growing interest to integrate insect-derived ingredients into food products. Knowledge of consumer perception to these food products is growing rapidly in the literature, but similar knowledge on the use of oils from African edible insects remains to be established. In this study, we (1) compared the chemistry of the oils from two commonly consumed grasshoppers, the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria and the African bush-cricket Ruspolia differens with those of olive and sesame oils; (2) compared the proximate composition of a baked product (cookie) prepared from the oils; (3) identified the potential volatiles and fatty acids contributing to the aroma and taste; and (4) examined acceptance and willingness to pay (WTP) for the baked product among consumers with no previous experience of entomophagy. Our results showed that the insect oils were compositionally richer in omega-3 fatty acids, flavonoids, and vitamin E than the plant oils. Proximate analysis and volatile chemistry revealed that differences in aroma and taste of the cookies were associated with their sources of oils. Consumers' acceptance was high for cookies prepared with R. differens (95%) and sesame (89%) oils compared to those with olive and S. gregaria oils. Notably, cookies prepared with insect oils had more than 50% dislike in aroma and taste. Consumers' willingness to pay for cookies prepared with insect oils was 6-8 times higher than for cookies containing olive oil, but 3-4 times lower than cookies containing sesame oil. Our findings show that integrating edible insect oils into cookies, entices people to ''take the first step" in entomophagy by decreasing insect-based food products neophobia, thereby, contributing to consumers' acceptance of the baked products. However, future research should explore the use of refined or flavored insect oils for bakery products to reduce off-flavors that might have been perceived in the formulated food products.

Schistocerca piceifrons piceifrons (Orthoptera: Acrididae) as a Source of Compounds of Biotechnological and Nutritional Interest

The Central American locust, Schistocerca piceifrons piceifrons (Walker) is a major agricultural pest in Mexico and Central America. Control measures against this pest have generated much environmental damage and substantial financial costs because chemical insecticides are used. Yet various Orthoptera species also appear to be a potential source of nutrients and a source of bioactive metabolites. Here, we studied the presence of secondary metabolites in the adult stage of S. p. piceifrons by applying different colorimetric techniques. Adults were collected from the southern region of Tamaulipas, Mexico, during September-December 2017. These samples were subjected to sequential processes of eviscerating, drying, pulverizing, extracting, and detecting of metabolites. Extractions were carried out in water, 50% ethanol, and absolute ethanol. The presence of phenolic compounds, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and quantity of antioxidants against the DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2, 2'-azino-bis, 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radicals were determined and reported. Proximate analysis showed that S. p. piceifrons has a high protein content (80.26%), low fat content (6.21%), and fiber content (12.56%) similar to other Orthoptera species. Chitin and chitosan contents of S. p. piceifrons were 11.88 and 9.11%, respectively; the recovery percentage of chitosan from chitin was 76.71%. Among the Orthoptera, the protein content of this pest is among the highest while its contents of chitin and chitosan are similar to those of other insect species (e.g., Bombix mori Linnaeus [Lepidoptera: Bombycidae]). Our results suggest this pest species is a potential source of bioactive compounds of biotechnological interest for use by pharmaceutical and food industries.

The nutritive value of black soldier fly larvae reared on common organic waste streams in Kenya

In Africa, livestock production currently accounts for about 30% of the gross value of agricultural production. However, production is struggling to keep up with the demands of expanding human populations, the rise in urbanization and the associated shifts in diet habits. High costs of feed prevent the livestock sector from thriving and to meet the rising demand. Insects have been identified as potential alternatives to the conventionally used protein sources in livestock feed due to their rich nutrients content and the fact that they can be reared on organic side streams. Substrates derived from organic by-products are suitable for industrial large-scale production of insect meal. Thus, a holistic comparison of the nutritive value of Black Soldier Fly larvae (BSFL) reared on three different organic substrates, i.e. chicken manure (CM), brewers’ spent grain (SG) and kitchen waste (KW), was conducted. BSFL samples reared on every substrate were collected for chemical analysis after the feeding process. Five-hundred (500) neonatal BSFL were placed in 23 × 15 cm metallic trays on the respective substrates for a period of 3–4 weeks at 28 ± 2 °C and 65 ± 5% relative humidity. The larvae were harvested when the prepupal stage was reached using a 5 mm mesh size sieve. A sample of 200 grams prepupae was taken from each replicate and pooled for every substrate and then frozen at −20 °C for chemical analysis. Samples of BSFL and substrates were analyzed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), ether extracts (EE), ash, acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), amino acids (AA), fatty acids (FA), vitamins, flavonoids, minerals and aflatoxins. The data were then subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using general linear model procedure. BSFL differed in terms of nutrient composition depending on the organic substrates they were reared on. CP, EE, minerals, amino acids, ADF and NDF but not vitamins were affected by the different rearing substrates. BSFL fed on different substrates exhibited different accumulation patterns of minerals, with CM resulting in the largest turnover of minerals. Low concentrations of heavy metals (cadmium and lead) were detected in the BSFL, but no traces of aflatoxins were found. In conclusion, it is possible to take advantage of the readily available organic waste streams in Kenya to produce nutrient-rich BSFL-derived feed.

Fostering Strategies to Expand the Consumption of Edible Insects: The Value of a Tripartite Coalition between Academia, Industry, and Government

Although many insect-based foods are nutritious and often an inexpensive option for human and domesticated animal consumption, there remains a negligible market for such foods in many countries. Several environmental and economic considerations underscore the potential value of insect-based foods, and emerging science suggests that diets incorporating such foods might also convey some genuine health benefits. However, if expanded markets for insect-based foods in cultures naïve to entomophagy are to be pursued, it will be important to develop multifaceted and coordinated strategies to 1) delineate authentic health benefits, 2) explore means of optimizing insect husbandry and food processing, 3) examine cultural barriers to acceptance, 4) formulate workable approaches to marketing, and 5) address relevant food regulations. We sought to construct a multidisciplinary coalition whose goals are to investigate the above-mentioned 5 issues. Eighteen individuals from government, industry, and academia, with collective expertise in the fields of entomology, insect husbandry, human nutrition, sustainable agriculture, entomophagy, consumer product development and marketing, food-processing technologies, food regulatory affairs, and the anthropology of food selection, convened a 1-d summit and formed a tripartite organization to integrate their varied perspectives. Collaborative efforts are underway among members of this coalition to accomplish these multiple goals. Coordinating efforts between accomplished experts in relevant fields of academia, government, and industry will greatly expand our knowledge of and appreciation for the potential benefits of insect-based foodstuffs to individuals, to society, and to the sustainability of the global food supply, and thereby inform us as to how to proceed in a judicious and intelligent manner.

Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy

BACKGROUND

According to many recent studies, the use of insects as food seems to be convenient, sustainable, economical and healthy. The objective of this study is to analyze the possible effects of insect consumption on human and animal health.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed using the PubMed, Scopus and CAB databases.

RESULTS

Of the 6026 items initially retrieved, 70 were eligible for inclusion; 40 studies analyzed the use of insects in human foods or drugs, while 30 analyzed the use of insects in animal feed. In humans, the most commonly analyzed risks are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, chemical and microbiological contamination and allergy risk. Studies of animals focus on growth alteration, nutrient malabsorption and hematic and qualitative meat alteration.

CONCLUSION

In recent years, researchers have shifted their focus from the possible use of edible insects in animal feed to their use as possible nutrient sources for humans. The results suggest that, if properly treated and preserved, products derived from insects are safe and efficient sources of nutrients for animals. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible effects of prolonged insect consumption on human health.

Insects: an underrepresented resource for the discovery of biologically active natural products

Nature has been the source of life-changing and -saving medications for centuries. Aspirin, penicillin and morphine are prime examples of Nature׳s gifts to medicine. These discoveries catalyzed the field of natural product drug discovery which has mostly focused on plants. However, insects have more than twice the number of species and entomotherapy has been in practice for as long as and often in conjunction with medicinal plants and is an important alternative to modern medicine in many parts of the world. Herein, an overview of current traditional medicinal applications of insects and characterization of isolated biologically active molecules starting from approximately 2010 is presented. Insect natural products reviewed were isolated from ants, bees, wasps, beetles, cockroaches, termites, flies, true bugs, moths and more. Biological activities of these natural products from insects include antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.

Aflatoxin Contamination Detected in Nutrient and Anti-Oxidant Rich Edible Stink Bug Stored in Recycled Grain Containers

Recently, there has been multi-agency promotion of entomophagy as an environmentally-friendly source of food for the ever increasing human population especially in the developing countries. However, food quality and safety concerns must first be addressed in this context. We addressed these concerns in the present study using the edible stink bug Encosternum delegorguei, which is widely consumed in southern Africa. We analysed for mycotoxins, and health beneficials including antioxidants, amino acids and essential fatty acids using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-Qtof-MS) and coupled gas chromatography (GC)-MS. We also performed proximate analysis to determine nutritional components. We identified the human carcinogen mycotoxin (aflatoxin B₁) at low levels in edible stink bugs that were stored in traditonally woven wooden dung smeared baskets and gunny bags previously used to store cereals. However, it was absent in insects stored in clean zip lock bags. On the other hand, we identified 10 fatty acids, of which 7 are considered essential fatty acids for human nutrition and health; 4 flavonoids and 12 amino acids of which two are considered the most limiting amino acids in cereal based diets. The edible stink bug also contained high crude protein and fats but was a poor source of minerals, except for phosphorus which was found in relatively high levels. Our results show that the edible stink bug is a nutrient- and antioxidant-rich source of food and health benefits for human consumption. As such, use of better handling and storage methods can help eliminate contamination of the edible stink bug with the carcinogen aflatoxin and ensure its safety as human food.