Human recreation affects spatio-temporal habitat use patterns in red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Experimental recreationist noise alters behavior and space use of wildlife

Providing outdoor recreational opportunities to people and protecting wildlife are dual goals of many land managers. However, recreation is associated with negative effects on wildlife, ranging from increased stress hormones1,2 to shifts in habitat use3,4,5 to lowered reproductive success.6,7 Noise from recreational activities can be far reaching and have similar negative effects on wildlife, yet the impacts of these auditory encounters are less studied and are often unobservable. We designed a field-based experiment to both isolate and quantify the effects of recreation noise on several mammal species and test the effects of different recreation types and group sizes. Animals entering our sampling arrays triggered cameras to record video and broadcast recreation noise from speakers ∼20 m away. Our design allowed us to observe and classify behaviors of wildlife as they were exposed to acoustic stimuli. We found wildlife were 3.1-4.7 times more likely to flee and were vigilant for 2.2-3.0 times longer upon hearing recreation noise compared with controls (natural sounds and no noise). Wildlife abundance at our sampling arrays was 1.5 times lower the week following recreation noise deployments. Noise from larger groups of vocal hikers and mountain bikers caused the highest probability of fleeing (6-8 times more likely to flee). Elk were the most sensitive species to recreation noise, and large carnivores were the least sensitive. Our findings indicate that recreation noise alone caused anti-predator responses in wildlife, and as outdoor recreation continues to increase in popularity and geographic extent,8,9 noise from recreation may result in degraded or indirect wildlife habitat loss.

Effects of Human Harvesting, Residences, and Forage Abundance on Deer Spatial Distribution

It has been known that harvesting by humans strongly influences individual within-home range habitat selection of many deer species; however, little is known about the effect of harvesting on coarse-scale habitat selection (i.e., spatial distribution). We examined the summer spatial distribution of sika deer Cervus nippon in relation to human harvesting and other factors, such as human residences, forage abundance, and cover, using pellet group counts at Mount Fuji, central Japan, in 2018. In the study area, harvesting is conducted at medium elevation areas throughout the year, but not at high or low elevation areas where access is difficult or harvesting is prohibited. Spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to non-harvesting areas and far from residential areas, suggesting that they avoid riskier spaces by establishing a landscape of fear. High-quality food resources (deciduous broad-leaved trees and forbs) were more abundant in harvesting areas than in non-harvesting areas, suggesting that foraging pressure by deer reduce them. However, there were no differences in abundances of more fibrous dwarf bamboo between harvesting and non-harvesting areas, and spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to higher dwarf bamboo abundance areas, suggesting that the dwarf bamboo is an alternative food resource in non-harvesting areas where supplies of high-quality food were limited. Our results suggest that human harvesting pressure and residences shifted the spatial distribution of deer from the montane forests to subalpine/alpine zones, which may increase damage to vulnerable ecosystems due to severe foraging pressure.

A taste of wilderness: supplementary feeding of red deer (Cervus elaphus) increases individual bacterial microbiota diversity but lowers abundance of important gut symbionts

The gut microbiome plays a crucial role in the health and well-being of animals. It is especially critical for ruminants that depend on this bacterial community for digesting their food. In this study, we investigated the effects of management conditions and supplemental feeding on the gut bacterial microbiota of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. Fecal samples were collected from free-ranging deer, deer within winter enclosures, and deer in permanent enclosures. The samples were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing of the 16 S rRNA gene. The results showed that the gut bacterial microbiota differed in diversity, abundance, and heterogeneity within and between the various management groups. Free-ranging deer exhibited lower alpha diversity compared with deer in enclosures, probably because of the food supplementation available to the animals within the enclosures. Free-living individuals also showed the highest beta diversity, indicating greater variability in foraging grounds and plant species selection. Moreover, free-ranging deer had the lowest abundance of potentially pathogenic bacterial taxa, suggesting a healthier gut microbiome. Winter-gated deer, which spent some time in enclosures, exhibited intermediate characteristics between free-ranging and all-year-gated deer. These findings suggest that the winter enclosure management strategy, including supplementary feeding with processed plants and crops, has a significant impact on the gut microbiome composition of red deer. Overall, this study provides important insights into the effects of management conditions, particularly winter enclosure practices, on the gut microbiome of red deer. Understanding these effects is crucial for assessing the potential health implications of management strategies and highlights the value of microbiota investigations as health marker.

Habitat visibility affects the behavioral response of a large herbivore to human disturbance in forest landscapes

Wildlife can perceive humans as predators and human disturbance, whether lethal (e.g., hunting) or non-lethal (e.g., hiking, biking, and skiing), triggers antipredator behavior among prey. Visibility is the property that relates habitat structure to accessibility of visual information that allows animals to detect predators and evaluate predation risk. Thus, the visibility of a habitat (hereafter referred to as habitat visibility) for prey species alters the perceived risk of predation and therefore has a strong influence on their antipredator behavior. Yet, knowledge of how habitat visibility affects the response of animals to different types of human disturbance is limited, partly, because it is challenging to measure habitat visibility for animals at a fine spatial scale over a landscape, particularly in highly heterogeneous landscapes (e.g., forests). In this study, we employed a newly described approach that combines terrestrial and airborne LiDAR to contiguously measure fine-scale habitat visibility in a forested landscape. We applied the LiDAR-derived habitat visibility to examine how habitat visibility in forests affects the summer space use of 20 GPS-collared female red deer (Cervus elaphus) modeled with integrated step-selection functions in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany when exposed to various types of human disturbance including recreational activities, forest roads, hiking trails, and hunting. We found that red deer in our study area avoided areas with higher all types of human disturbance, especially during daylight hours. Furthermore, habitat visibility significantly modified the use of space by red deer in response to human recreational activities, forest roads, and hiking trails, but not to the hunting area. Red deer tended to tolerate a higher intensity of human recreational activities and to use areas closer to forest roads or hiking trails when they have lower habitat visibility (i.e., more cover). Our findings highlight the importance of considering visual perception when studying the response of wild animals to human disturbance. We emphasize the potential to mitigate negative consequences of human disturbance on wildlife, through measures such as maintaining vegetative buffers around recreational infrastructure (e.g., roads and skiing tracks) in order to reduce habitat visibility around areas frequented by humans.

Assessing the impacts of recreation on the spatial and temporal activity of mammals in an isolated alpine protected area

The management objectives of many protected areas must meet the dual mandates of protecting biodiversity while providing recreational opportunities. It is difficult to balance these mandates because it takes considerable effort to monitor both the status of biodiversity and impacts of recreation. Using detections from 45 camera traps deployed between July 2019 and September 2021, we assessed the potential impacts of recreation on spatial and temporal activity for 8 medium- and large-bodied terrestrial mammals in an isolated alpine protected area: Cathedral Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada. We hypothesised that some wildlife perceive a level of threat from people, such that they avoid 'risky times' or 'risky places' associated with human activity. Other species may benefit from associating with people, be it through access to anthropogenic resource subsidies or filtering of competitors/predators that are more human-averse (i.e., human shield hypothesis). Specifically, we predicted that large carnivores would show the greatest segregation from people while mesocarnivores and ungulates would associate spatially with people. We found spatial co-occurrence between ungulates and recreation, consistent with the human shield hypothesis, but did not see the predicted negative relationship between larger carnivores and humans, except for coyotes (Canis latrans). Temporally, all species other than cougars (Puma concolor) had diel activity patterns significantly different from that of recreationists, suggesting potential displacement in the temporal niche. Wolves (Canis lupus) and mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) showed shifts in temporal activity away from people on recreation trails relative to off-trail areas, providing further evidence of potential displacement. Our results highlight the importance of monitoring spatial and temporal interactions between recreation activities and wildlife communities, in order to ensure the effectiveness of protected areas in an era of increasing human impacts.

Horizontal viewsheds of large herbivores as a function of woodland structure

There is great potential for the use of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) to quantify aspects of habitat structure in the study of animal ecology and behaviour. Viewsheds-the area visible from a given position-influence an animal's perception of risk and ability to respond to potential danger. The management and conservation of large herbivores and their habitats can benefit greatly from understanding how vegetation structure shapes viewsheds and influences animal activity patterns and foraging behaviour. This study aimed to identify how woodland understory structure influenced horizontal viewsheds at deer eye height. Mobile TLS was used in August 2020 to quantify horizontal visibility-in the form of Viewshed Coefficients (VC)-and understory leaf area index (LAI) of 71 circular sample plots (15-m radius) across 10 woodland sites in North Wales (UK) where fallow deer (Dama dama) are present. The plots were also surveyed in summer for woody plant size structure, stem density and bramble (Rubus fruticosus agg.). Eight plots were re-scanned twice in winter to compare seasonal VC values and assess scan consistency. Sample plots with higher densities of small stems had significantly reduced VC 1 m from the ground. Other stem size classes, mean percentage bramble cover and understory LAI did not significantly affect VC. There was no difference in VC between summer and winter scans, or between repeated winter scans. The density of small stems influenced viewsheds at deer eye height and may alter behavioural responses to perceived risk. This study demonstrates how TLS technology can be applied to address questions in large herbivore ecology and conservation.

Logging, linear features, and human infrastructure shape the spatial dynamics of wolf predation on an ungulate neonate

Humans are increasingly recognized as important players in predator-prey dynamics by modifying landscapes. This trend has been well-documented for large mammal communities in North American boreal forests: logging creates early seral forests that benefit ungulates such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), while the combination of infrastructure development and resource extraction practices generate linear features that allow predators such as wolves (Canis lupus) to travel and forage more efficiently throughout the landscape. Disturbances from recreational activities and residential development are other major sources of human activity in boreal ecosystems that may further alter wolf-ungulate dynamics. Here, we evaluate the influence that several major types of anthropogenic landscape modifications (timber harvest, linear features, and residential infrastructure) have on where and how wolves hunt ungulate neonates in a southern boreal forest ecosystem in Minnesota, USA. We demonstrate that each major anthropogenic disturbance significantly influences wolf predation of white-tailed deer fawns (n = 427 kill sites). In contrast with the "human shield hypothesis" that posits prey use human-modified areas as refuge, wolves killed fawns closer to residential buildings than expected based on spatial availability. Fawns were also killed within recently-logged areas more than expected. Concealment cover was higher at kill sites than random sites, suggesting wolves use senses other than vision, probably olfaction, to detect hidden fawns. Wolves showed strong selection for hunting along linear features, and kill sites were also closer to linear features than expected. We hypothesize that linear features facilitated wolf predation on fawns by allowing wolves to travel efficiently among high-quality prey patches (recently logged areas, near buildings), and also increase encounter rates with olfactory cues that allow them to detect hidden fawns. These findings provide novel insight into the strategies predators use to hunt ungulate neonates and the many ways human activity alters wolf-ungulate neonate predator-prey dynamics, which have remained elusive due to the challenges of locating sites where predators kill small prey. Our research has important management and conservation implications for wolf-ungulate systems subjected to anthropogenic pressures, particularly as the range of overlap between wolves and deer expands and appears to be altering food web dynamics in boreal ecosystems.

Mammalian predator and prey responses to recreation and land use across multiple scales provide limited support for the human shield hypothesis

Outdoor recreation is widespread, with uncertain effects on wildlife. The human shield hypothesis (HSH) suggests that recreation could have differential effects on predators and prey, with predator avoidance of humans creating a spatial refuge 'shielding' prey from people. The generality of the HSH remains to be tested across larger scales, wherein human shielding may prove generalizable, or diminish with variability in ecological contexts. We combined data from 446 camera traps and 79,279 sampling days across 10 landscapes spanning 15,840 km2 in western Canada. We used hierarchical models to quantify the influence of recreation and landscape disturbance (roads, logging) on ungulate prey (moose, mule deer and elk) and carnivore (wolf, grizzly bear, cougar and black bear) site use. We found limited support for the HSH and strong responses to recreation at local but not larger spatial scales. Only mule deer showed positive but weak landscape-level responses to recreation. Elk were positively associated with local recreation while moose and mule deer responses were negative, contrary to HSH predictions. Mule deer showed a more complex interaction between recreation and land-use disturbance, with more negative responses to recreation at lower road density or higher logged areas. Contrary to HSH predictions, carnivores did not avoid recreation and grizzly bear site use was positively associated. We also tested the effects of roads and logging on temporal activity overlap between mule deer and recreation, expecting deer to minimize interaction with humans by partitioning time in areas subject to more habitat disturbance. However, temporal overlap between people and deer increased with road density. Our findings highlight the complex ecological patterns that emerge at macroecological scales. There is a need for expanded monitoring of human and wildlife use of recreation areas, particularly multi-scale and -species approaches to studying the interacting effects of recreation and land-use change on wildlife.

Human presence and infrastructure impact wildlife nocturnality differently across an assemblage of mammalian species

Wildlife species may shift towards more nocturnal behavior in areas of higher human influence, but it is unclear how consistent this shift might be. We investigated how humans impact large mammal diel activities in a heavily recreated protected area and an adjacent university-managed forest in southwest British Columbia, Canada. We used camera trap detections of humans and wildlife, along with data on land-use infrastructure (e.g., recreation trails and restricted-access roads), in Bayesian regression models to investigate impacts of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. We found moderate evidence that black bears (Ursus americanus) were more nocturnal in response to human detections (mean posterior estimate = 0.35, 90% credible interval = 0.04 to 0.65), but no other clear relationships between wildlife nocturnality and human detections. However, we found evidence that coyotes (Canis latrans) (estimates = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.46 to 1.17) were more nocturnal and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) (estimate = -0.87, 95% CI = -1.29 to -0.46) were less nocturnal in areas of higher trail density. We also found that coyotes (estimate = -0.87, 95% CI = -1.29 to -0.46) and cougars (Puma concolor) (estimate = -1.14, 90% CI = -2.16 to -0.12) were less nocturnal in areas of greater road density. Furthermore, coyotes, black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and snowshoe hares were moderately more nocturnal in areas near urban-wildland boundaries (estimates and 90% CIs: coyote = -0.29, -0.55 to -0.04, black-tailed deer = -0.25, -0.45 to -0.04, snowshoe hare = -0.24, -0.46 to -0.01). Our findings imply anthropogenic landscape features may influence medium to large-sized mammal diel activities more than direct human presence. While increased nocturnality may be a promising mechanism for human-wildlife coexistence, shifts in temporal activity can also have negative repercussions for wildlife, warranting further research into the causes and consequences of wildlife responses to increasingly human-dominated landscapes.

Spatial variation in red deer density in a transboundary forest ecosystem

Forests in Europe are exposed to increasingly frequent and severe disturbances. The resulting changes in the structure and composition of forests can have profound consequences for the wildlife inhabiting them. Moreover, wildlife populations in Europe are often subjected to differential management regimes as they regularly extend across multiple national and administrative borders. The red deer Cervus elaphus population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem, straddling the Czech-German border, has experienced forest disturbances, primarily caused by windfalls and bark beetle Ips typographus outbreaks during the past decades. To adapt local management strategies to the changing environmental conditions and to coordinate them across the international border, reliable estimates of red deer density and abundance are highly sought-after by policymakers, wildlife managers, and stakeholders. Covering a 1081-km² study area, we conducted a transnational non-invasive DNA sampling study in 2018 that yielded 1578 genotyped DNA samples from 1120 individual red deer. Using spatial capture-recapture models, we estimated total and jurisdiction-specific abundance of red deer throughout the ecosystem and quantified the role of forest disturbance and differential management strategies in shaping spatial heterogeneity in red deer density. We hypothesised that (a) forest disturbances provide favourable habitat conditions (e.g., forage and cover), and (b) contrasting red deer management regimes in different jurisdictions create a differential risk landscape, ultimately shaping density distributions. Overall, we estimated that 2851 red deer (95% Credible Interval = 2609-3119) resided in the study area during the sampling period, with a relatively even overall sex ratio (1406 females, 95% CI = 1229-1612 and 1445 males, 95% CI = 1288-1626). The average red deer density was higher in Czechia (3.5 km^-2, 95% CI = 1.2-12.3) compared to Germany (2 km^-2, 95% CI = 0.2-11). The effect of forest disturbances on red deer density was context-dependent. Forest disturbances had a positive effect on red deer density at higher elevations and a negative effect at lower elevations, which could be explained by partial migration and its drivers in this population. Density of red deer was generally higher in management units where hunting is prohibited. In addition, we found that sex ratios differed between administrative units and were more balanced in the non-intervention zones. Our results show that the effect of forest disturbances on wild ungulates is modulated by additional factors, such as elevation and ungulate management practices. Overall density patterns and sex ratios suggested strong gradients in density between administrative units. With climate change increasing the severity and frequency of forest disturbances, population-level monitoring and management are becoming increasingly important, especially for wide-ranging species as both wildlife and global change transcend administrative boundaries.

Red deer Cervus elaphus blink more in larger groups

Most animals need to spend time being vigilant for predators, at the expense of other activities such as foraging. Group-living animals can benefit from the shared vigilance effort of other group members, with individuals reducing personal vigilance effort as group size increases. Behaviors like active scanning or head lifting are usually used to quantify vigilance but may not be accurate measures of this. We suggest that measuring an animal's blinking rate gives a meaningful measure of vigilance: increased blinking implies reduced vigilance, as the animal cannot detect predators when its eyes are closed. We describe an observational study of a captive population of red deer, where we measured the blinking rates of individual deer from groups of differing sizes (where mean group size ranged between 1 and 42.7 individuals). We demonstrate that as group size increases in red deer, individuals increase their blink rate, confirming the prediction that vigilance should decrease. Blinking is a simple non-invasive measure and offers a useful metric for assessing the welfare of animals experiencing an increase in perceived predation risk or other stressors.

Wild Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Do Not Play a Role as Vectors or Reservoirs of SARS-CoV-2 in North-Eastern Poland

Several studies reported a high prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among white-tailed deer in North America. Monitoring cervids in all regions to better understand SARS-CoV-2 infection and circulation in other deer populations has been urged. To evaluate deer exposure and/or infection to/by SARS-CoV-2 in Poland, we sampled 90 red deer shot by hunters in five hunting districts in north-eastern Poland. Serum and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected, and then an immunofluorescent assay (IFA) to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was performed as well as real-time PCR with reverse transcription for direct virus detection. No positive samples were detected. There is no evidence of spillover of SARS-CoV-2 from the human to deer population in Poland.

A before−after assessment of the response of mammals to tourism in a Brazilian national park

Worldwide, nature-based tourism is becoming more popular and important economically. However, there is still debate regarding its impact on wildlife in protected areas. We conducted a quasi-experimental study to investigate the effects of tourism on the mammal community of Cavernas do Peruaçu National Park, a priority area for conservation in Brazil. We used camera traps to survey tourist and non-tourist trails during 2011–2017, encompassing periods before and after tourism started in the Park. We used four metrics for assessment: species richness, probability of using trails, activity levels and daily activity patterns. After tourism began in the Park there was no significant change in species richness and the probability of using tourist trails either increased or remained stable for five of the six species assessed. The rock cavy Kerodon rupestris was the only species to be displaced from tourist areas and to show reduced overall activity on tourist trails after tourism began. The ocelot Leopardus pardalis showed reduced diurnal activity on tourist trails, an indication of temporal adjustment. Overall, our results show that the initial years of visitation at the Park had limited negative impacts on the target mammal species, supporting the possibility of accommodating tourism activity and effective conservation of wildlife in the region. However, it is essential to continue monitoring in the Park because of the expected growth in tourism and potential time lags in responses of species.

Evaluation of a combined and portable light-ultrasound device with which to deter red deer

Human–wildlife conflicts are a growing problem in Northern Hemisphere where wild ungulates are one of the taxonomic groups most frequently involved. To mitigate these conflicts, it is essential to develop preventive actions able to avoid encounters between wildlife and human (activities). We here employed photo-trapping to evaluate the behaviour of red deer (Cervus elaphus) when confronted with dissuasive portable deterrents that function on the basis of changing patterns of light and ultrasound. This was done by following a before/after experimental design, with two phases: (i) a test phase, with active deterrents, and (ii) a control phase, without deterrents. When deterrents were activated they achieved a 48.96% reduction in the frequency of use by red deer (up to 66.64% when it was assessed on a thinner Sect. 10 m wide from the line of deterrents) and produced a reduction of 67.71% in the frequency of deterrent-line crossings. However, a habituation effect was detected since the use by red deer of the treatment area increased as time since treatment. These results indicate that these portable devices are effective as regards dissuading deer, mainly on short time scales. The deterrents tested here could be suitable for use at focal points for short periods or in combination with other methods to improve their effectiveness in vulnerability points. This device could potentially be used to mitigate conflicts caused by wildlife species and in response to relevant and timely situations, such as vehicle collisions and damage to crops, among others.

Green-up selection by red deer in heterogeneous, human-dominated landscapes of Central Europe

The forage maturation hypothesis (FMH) assumes that herbivores cope with the trade-off between digestibility and biomass in forage by selecting vegetation at intermediate growth. The green wave hypothesis (GWH) extends the FMH to suggest how spatiotemporal heterogeneity in plant quality shapes migratory movements of herbivores. Growing empirical support for these hypotheses mainly comes from studies in vast landscapes with large-scale habitat heterogeneity. It is unclear, however, to what extent ungulates surf green waves in human-altered landscapes with small-scale heterogeneity in terms of land use and topography. We used plant phenological proxies derived from Sentinel 2 satellite data to analyze the habitat selection of 93 collared red deer (Cervus elaphus) in montane and alpine habitats. Using a step selection analysis, we investigated how plant phenology, that is, the instantaneous rate of green-up (IRG) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and a set of variables describing topography and human presence influenced red deer resource selection in open habitats. We learned that red deer selected areas with high biomass at green-up and avoided habitats with possible exposure to human activity. Additionally, landscape structure and topography strongly influenced spatial behavior of red deer. We further compared cumulative access to high-quality forage across migrant strategies and found migrants gained better access than residents. Many migratory individuals surfed the green wave, and their surfing behavior, however, became less pronounced with decreasing distance to settlements. Within the constraints of topography and human land use, red deer track spring green-up on a fine spatiotemporal scale and follow the green wave across landscapes in migration movements. Thus, they benefit from high-quality forage even in human-dominated landscapes with small-scale heterogeneity and vegetation emerging in a heterogenic, dynamic mosaic.

Spatial and temporal variations in interspecific interaction: impact of a recreational landscape

Anthropogenic activities, such as outdoor recreation, have the potential to change complex interactions between wildlife and livestock, with further consequences for the management of both animals, the environment, and disease transmission. We present the interaction amongst wildlife, livestock, and outdoor recreationists as a three-way interaction. Little is known about how recreational activities alter the interaction between herbivores in areas extensively used for recreational purposes. We investigate how hiking activity affects spatio-temporal co-occurrence between domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). We used camera traps to capture the spatio-temporal distribution of red deer and sheep and used the distance from the hiking path as a proxy of hiking activity. We used generalized linear models to investigate the spatial distribution of sheep and deer. We analysed the activity patterns of sheep and deer and then calculated their coefficients of temporal overlap for each camera trap location. We compared these coefficients in relation to the distance from the hiking path. Finally, we used a generalized linear mixed-model to investigate which factors influence the spatio-temporal succession between deer and sheep. We do not find that sheep and red deer spatially avoid each other. The coefficient of temporal overlap varied with distance from the hiking trail, with stronger temporal co-occurrence at greater distances from the hiking trail. Red deer were more likely to be detected further from the path during the day, which increased the temporal overlap with sheep in these areas. This suggests that hiking pressure influences spatio-temporal interactions between sheep and deer, leading to greater temporal overlap in areas further from the hiking path due to red deer spatial avoidance of hikers. This impact of recreationists on the wildlife and livestock interaction can have consequences for the animals’ welfare, the vegetation they graze, their management, and disease transmission.

Smartphone app reveals that lynx avoid human recreationists on local scale, but not home range scale

Outdoor recreation is increasing and affects habitat use and selection by wildlife. These effects are challenging to study, especially for elusive species with large spatial requirements, as it is hard to obtain reliable proxies of recreational intensity over extensive areas. Commonly used proxies, such as the density of, or distance to, hiking paths, ignore outdoor recreation occurring on other linear feature types. Here we utilized crowdsourced data from the Strava training app to obtain a large-scale proxy for pedestrian outdoor recreation intensity in southeast Norway. We used the proxy and GPS-tracking data from collared Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) to investigate how recreation affects habitat selection at the home range scale and local scale by lynx during summer. We fitted resource selection functions at the two scales using conditional logistic regression. Our analysis revealed that lynx avoided areas of recreational activity at the local scale, but not at home range scale. Nonetheless, lynx frequently used areas associated with recreation, and to a greater degree at night than during the day. Our results suggest that local-scale avoidance of recreation and temporal adjustments of habitat use by lynx mitigate the need for a home range-scale response towards recreation. Scale-dependent responses and temporal adjustments in habitat use may facilitate coexistence between humans and large carnivores.

Variation in resting strategies across trophic levels and habitats in mammals

Mammals must carefully balance rest with other behaviors that influence fitness (e.g., foraging, finding a mate) while minimizing predation risk. However, factors influencing resting strategies and the degree to which resting strategies are driven by the activities of predators and/or prey remain largely unknown. Our goal was to examine how mammalian resting strategies varied with trophic level, body mass, and habitat. We reviewed findings from 127 publications and classified the resting strategies of terrestrial and aquatic mammalian species into three categories: social (e.g., resting in groups), temporal (e.g., resting during the day), or spatial (e.g., resting in burrows). Temporal strategies were most common (54% of cases), but the prevalence of strategies varied with body mass and among trophic levels. Specifically, lower trophic levels and smaller species such as rodents and lagomorphs used more spatial and social resting strategies, whereas top predators and larger species used mostly temporal resting strategies. Resting strategies also varied among habitat types (e.g., rainforest vs. grassland), but this was primarily because closely related species shared both habitats and resting strategies. Human presence also affected resting strategies at all trophic levels but most strongly influenced top predators through shifts in rest timing. Human-induced behavioral changes in rest patterns cascade to modify behaviors across multiple trophic levels. These findings advance our fundamental understanding of natural history and ecology in wild animals and provide a roadmap for future comparative studies.

Human and environmental associates of local species-specific abundance in a multi-species deer assemblage

Understanding how habitat, landscape context, and human disturbance influence local species-specific deer density provides evidence informing strategic management of increasing deer populations. Across an extensive (187 km2) heterogeneous forest-mosaic landscape in eastern England, spatially explicit density surface models of roe deer Capreolus capreolus and introduced muntjac Muntiacus reevesi were calibrated by thermal imaging distance sampling (recording 1590 and 400 muntjac and roe deer groups, respectively, on 567 km of driven transects). Models related deer density to local habitat composition, recreational intensity, and deer density (roe deer models controlled for muntjac density and vice versa) at a local grain across 1162 composite transect segments, incorporating geographical coordinates accounting for spatial autocorrelation. Abundance of both species was lower in localities with more grasslands (inter-quartile, IQ, effect size: roe −2.9 deer/km2; muntjac −2.9 deer/km2). Roe abundance (mean = 7 deer/km2, SD = 6) was greater in localities with more young stands (IQ effect size, + 1.3 deer/km2) and lower at localities with more recreationists (−1.1 deer/km2). Muntjac density (mean = 21 deer/km2, SD = 10) was greater in localities with more recreationists (+ 2.4 deer/km2), with more mature (≥ 46 years) stands (+ 1.5 deer/km2), or calcareous soil (+ 7.1 deer/km2). Comparison of models incorporating candidate variables and models comprising geographical coordinates only shows candidate variables to be weak predictors of deer densities. Adapting forest management to manipulate habitat and recreational access may influence local deer densities, but only subtly: effect sizes are not sufficient to mitigate deer impacts through planting vulnerable tree crops in areas avoided by deer. Effective culling remains the most viable management option.

Differences in social-space–time behaviour of two red deer herds (Cervus elaphus)

Social-space–time-behaviour has developed very differently (e.g. a, loner, a herd, a pack) in the animal kingdom and depends on many different factors, like food availability, competition, predator avoidance or disturbances. It is known, that red deer are differently distributed in human disturbed areas compared to areas with less anthropogenic influences. But knowledge about the potential influence of human presence on social associations and interactions is rare, albeit differences may result in changing impacts on the environment, such as habitat utilization and feeding damage. Therefore, we investigated differences in the space use and social association of red deer. We studied two radio-collared herds of non-migratory populations in two study areas, which were comparable in landscape structure and vegetation structure, but differed in accessibility for visitors and the extent of their presence. Between the two study sites we compared the home range size, the differences in the extent of home range overlap within each study site and the space–time association (Jacobs Index) of individuals. Additionally, we present data on seasonal variations of home range sizes and social association all year round. In order to compare human activity in the study sites, we used the data from our long-term camera trap monitoring. The herd in the area with more human activity had significantly smaller home ranges and had greater year-round social associations in almost all seasons, except summer. We assume that smaller home ranges and higher association between animals may result in a higher feeding pressure on plants and a patchier utilization in areas with higher disturbances.

How do red deer react to increased visitor numbers? A case study on human-deer encounter probability and its effect on cortisol stress responses

The numbers of visitors to greenspaces in the United Kingdom has increased over the last few years as the health benefits of spending time in greenspaces have become better known. This has led to problems for conservation ecologists due to increased numbers of reported human-wildlife encounters. Deer are often found in public spaces and are of particular concern. Previous research suggests elevated levels of stress hormones (e.g., cortisol) in deer is a result of increased human activity. This has been linked to several negative effects on the deer’s health. From a practitioner’s point of view, it is therefore important to implement effective management strategies that are based on scientific evidence to help ensure the welfare of managed deer populations. In an effort to identify the impact of visitor numbers on faecal cortisol concentrations, samples from 2 red deer (Cervus elaphus) herds in Lyme Park (Cheshire), United Kingdom, were collected and analysed. A predictive spatial model was developed based on logistic regression to identify areas within the park of low and high human-deer encounter probability. The faecal cortisol levels were found to be significantly higher on days with a high number of visitors. In addition, landscape features such as buildings and roads increased the probability of human-deer encounters, whereas woodland and scrub decreased the probability. However, human-deer encounter probability changed with distance to the features. By providing local park managers with this scientific data, these findings can directly inform current management efforts to reduce deer stress levels in Lyme Park. In addition, the spatial modelling method has the capacity to be implemented in other parks across the country with minimal cost and effort.

The relationship between landscape features and domestic species on the occupancy of native mammals in urban forests

Landscape features such as roads, hiking trails, and forest edge are prevalent features of urban forests. These features can negatively influence biodiversity through fragmentation and facilitate the penetration of invasive species, particularly predators such as domestic dogs and cats. This study examined how these landscape features affect the distribution of native and domestic mammals and how domestic species affect the occupancy and activity patterns of native mammals. To this end, we conducted camera trap surveys in forested urban and suburban parks in Indiana and Kentucky, USA, to record the presence of native species (deer, raccoons, coyote, and opossums) and non-native predators (domesticated cats and dogs) in relation to distance to nearest roads, hiking trails, and forest edge. We found negative correlations between proximity to roads, hiking trails, and forest edge and the occupancy of the native species with this effect extending up to 300 m. We also found evidence that the presence of dog and cat was negatively correlated with the occupancy for all native species. We recommend park management consider the impact of roads, hiking trails, and forest edge when designing parks and the enforcement of dog leash regulations for the conservation of large mammals in urban parks.

Winter severity and anthropogenic factors affect spatial behaviour of red deer in the Carpathians

Spatial ecology of red deer Cervus elaphus is shaped by both natural and anthropogenic factors. We used radio telemetry to investigate factors affecting habitat selection on two spatial scales, home range sizes and migratory behaviour of red deer (N = 8 individuals) in two mountain ranges of the western Carpathians in 2004–2007. The two study areas differed in terms of environmental conditions: Beskid Sądecki had higher altitudes, higher human population and road density and milder winters than Beskid Niski. Red deer in both areas selected forests and avoided agricultural habitats on both spatial scales. Elevation affected site selection only in Beskid Sądecki: deer selected higher altitudes for their home ranges, but lower altitudes within them. Deer avoided major roads when selecting their home ranges in both sites, but only in Beskid Sądecki, they also avoided roads within their home ranges. Deer in both study sites selected locations closer to supplementary feeding sites in winter. In years with more severe winters, deer in Beskid Niski displayed seasonal migration to south-facing slopes. Deer in Beskid Sadecki showed short-distance altitudinal movements from low elevations in winter to high elevations in summer, and a short-term descent to low elevations in August–September. Our results fit the general concept that climatic conditions and human-related factors shape spatial behaviour in ungulates, and that snow conditions are particularly important for migration. Climate change will likely contribute to diminishing migration in red deer in the Carpathians.

Aerial-hawking bats adjust their use of space to the lunar cycle

BACKGROUND

Animals change their habitat use in response to spatio-temporal fluctuation of resources. Some resources may vary periodically according to the moonphase. Yet it is poorly documented how animals, particularly nocturnal mammals, adjust their use of space in response to the moonphase.Here, we asked if an obligate nocturnal mammal, the aerial-hawking common noctule bat (Nyctalus noctula), adjusts its 3-dimensional flight behaviour and habitat use to the lunar period. Using miniaturized GPS loggers, we recorded 3-dimensional flight tracks of N. noctula and related these to a canopy height model derived from aerial laser scans to investigate whether bats adjust forest strata use to moonlight intensities.

RESULTS

Noctules frequently foraged above the canopy of coniferous forest at low moonlight intensities, but switched to using open grasslands and arable fields in nights with high moonlight intensities. During the few occasions when noctules used the forest during moonlit nights, they mostly restricted their use of space to flying below the canopy level. The median overall flight altitude of N. noctula equalled 13 ± 16 m but reached up to 71 m above ground (97.5% quantile).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings argue against general lunar phobic behaviour of aerial-hawking bats. We suggest that the preferred use of open fields around full moon may be a strategy of noctules to increase the success of hunting airborne insects at night. Specifically, the adjustment in use of space may allow bats to hunt for insects that emerge and disperse over open fields during bright moonlight.

Sharing the same slope: Behavioral responses of a threatened mesocarnivore to motorized and nonmotorized winter recreation

Winter recreation is a widely popular activity and is expected to increase due to changes in recreation technology and human population growth. Wildlife are frequently negatively impacted by winter recreation, however, through displacement from habitat, alteration of activity patterns, or changes in movement behavior. We studied impacts of dispersed and developed winter recreation on Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) at their southwestern range periphery in Colorado, USA. We used GPS collars to track movements of 18 adult lynx over 4 years, coupled with GPS devices that logged 2,839 unique recreation tracks to provide a detailed spatial estimate of recreation intensity. We assessed changes in lynx spatial and temporal patterns in response to motorized and nonmotorized recreation, as well as differences in movement rate and path tortuosity. We found that lynx decreased their movement rate in areas with high-intensity back-country skiing and snowmobiling, and adjusted their temporal patterns so that they were more active at night in areas with high-intensity recreation. We did not find consistent evidence of spatial avoidance of recreation: lynx exhibited some avoidance of areas with motorized recreation, but selected areas in close proximity to nonmotorized recreation trails. Lynx appeared to avoid high-intensity developed ski resorts, however, especially when recreation was most intense. We conclude that lynx in our study areas did not exhibit strong negative responses to dispersed recreation, but instead altered their behavior and temporal patterns in a nuanced response to recreation, perhaps to decrease direct interactions with recreationists. However, based on observed avoidance of developed recreation, there may be a threshold of human disturbance above which lynx cannot coexist with winter recreation.

Alpine glacial relict species losing out to climate change: The case of the fragmented mountain hare population (Lepus timidus) in the Alps

Alpine and Arctic species are considered to be particularly vulnerable to climate change, which is expected to cause habitat loss, fragmentation and-ultimately-extinction of cold-adapted species. However, the impact of climate change on glacial relict populations is not well understood, and specific recommendations for adaptive conservation management are lacking. We focused on the mountain hare (Lepus timidus) as a model species and modelled species distribution in combination with patch and landscape-based connectivity metrics. They were derived from graph-theory models to quantify changes in species distribution and to estimate the current and future importance of habitat patches for overall population connectivity. Models were calibrated based on 1,046 locations of species presence distributed across three biogeographic regions in the Swiss Alps and extrapolated according to two IPCC scenarios of climate change (RCP 4.5 & 8.5), each represented by three downscaled global climate models. The models predicted an average habitat loss of 35% (22%-55%) by 2100, mainly due to an increase in temperature during the reproductive season. An increase in habitat fragmentation was reflected in a 43% decrease in patch size, a 17% increase in the number of habitat patches and a 34% increase in inter-patch distance. However, the predicted changes in habitat availability and connectivity varied considerably between biogeographic regions: Whereas the greatest habitat losses with an increase in inter-patch distance were predicted at the southern and northern edges of the species' Alpine distribution, the greatest increase in patch number and decrease in patch size is expected in the central Swiss Alps. Finally, both the number of isolated habitat patches and the number of patches crucial for maintaining the habitat network increased under the different variants of climate change. Focusing conservation action on the central Swiss Alps may help mitigate the predicted effects of climate change on population connectivity.

Effect of human recreation on bird anti-predatory response

Wildlife perceive humans as predators, and therefore normally flushes. Flight initiation distance (FID) is the distance a human can approach an animal at a steady pace until it flushes. Recently, several studies showed differences in within-species FID according to human presence by comparing urban and rural habitats, with urban birds showing reduced FIDs. However, urban and rural habitats also differ in structure, which might affect FID. Therefore, in order to understand the real effect of human presence, we investigated whether differences in FID are also present in natural habitats (forests), differing only in the intensity of human use for recreation. We found that human frequentation had a distinct effect on bird escape responses, with shorter FIDs in forests more-heavily frequented by humans than in forests rarely visited by humans. Whether this finding is driven by non-random spatial distribution of personalities (shy vs. bold) or phenotypic plasticity (habituation to humans) cannot be assessed with our data. Studies relying on FIDs should also incorporate human recreation intensity, as this affects the measurements strongly.