Chronic debilitation in stranded loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States: Morphometrics and clinicopathological findings

Identifying biomarkers of pollutant exposure in ocean sentinels: Characterisation and optimisation of B-esterases in plasma from loggerhead turtles undergoing rehabilitation

Sea turtles are frequently proposed as indicator species for assessing ocean health. To faciliate the use of these species as bioindicators requires the development of tools for rapidly and effectively assessing individual health. Here, we collected 104 blood samples from 69 loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, undergoing rehabilitation to determine the connection between health status, the activity of B-esterases, and other biochemical parameters. To determine the optimal assay protocol for B-esterases, we measured the activity and kinetics of cholinesterases-(ChEs) and carboxylesterases (CEs) using 3 and 5 commercial substrates, respectively, at different assay conditions. IC50 values for the activity of B-esterases were calculated within a concentration range for model pesticide inhibitors. Turtles' health status was determined via routine veterinary procedures. During rehabilitation (which was associated with improving health status), we observed a decrease in the activity of most enzymes (especially in acetylcholinesterase) alongside an increase in CE when using p-nitrophenyl acetate as a substrate. As such, it is possible that the activity rates of plasmatic B-esterases could serve as an indicator of health status. There is also high potential that B-esterases could be specifically sensitive to marine pollutants although to further validate this would require future studies to specifically correlate B-esterarse activities to pollutant concentrations in blood or excreta.

RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF BLOOD CULTURES AND THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH CLINICAL FINDINGS AND OUTCOME IN GREEN SEA TURTLES (CHELONIA MYDAS) AT A FLORIDA SEA TURTLE REHABILITATION FACILITY, 2017-2020

Septicemia is commonly suspected of sea turtles entering rehabilitation. However, blood culture results of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) are infrequently reported in the literature. Aerobic blood cultures were performed for intake examinations of 167 green sea turtles undergoing rehabilitation at Brevard Zoo's Sea Turtle Healing Center, Melbourne, Florida, USA from 2017 to 2020. The incidence of positive cultures during intake examinations was 24% (40/167). The most common bacterial isolates identified were Vibrio alginolyticus, Shewanella algae, Achromobacter xylosoxidans, Photobacterium damselae, Sphingomonas paucimobilis, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. There was a statistically significant association (P < 0.05) between culture status and evidence of external injury. There was no significant association between culture status and Caryospora-like coccidia infection, or fibropapillomatosis. Culture-positive turtles had significantly lower (P < 0.05) total white blood cell, lymphocyte, monocyte, total protein, albumin, and calculated globulin values compared to turtles with negative blood cultures. Significantly more culture-positive turtles died in rehabilitation compared to culture-negative (P = 0.042). Positive blood cultures suggestive of septicemia are commonly found during intake examinations at a Florida sea turtle rehabilitation facility.

Balaenophilus manatorum in Debilitated and Bycatch-Derived Loggerhead Sea Turtles Caretta caretta from Northwestern Adriatic Sea

Balenophilus manatorum (Copepoda: Harpaticoida) is one of the few components of the epibiontic fauna of Caretta caretta that show a "true" parasitic association with their host. From rrosive to ulcerative cutaneous lesions may seldom appear as a consequence of the copepod feeding on keratin on turtles' skin. Debilitating Turtle Syndrome (DTS) is the final outcome of a chronic insufficient assumption of nutrients, generally occurring with the impairment of immune functions and high epibiota burdens. In this survey, the presence of B. manatorum in C. caretta from the Northwestern Adriatic Sea was investigated and the relation between infection indices and the co-occurrence of DTS was studied. Clinical examination was performed at the time of rescue, including routine hematological assessment; external parasites were isolated mechanically from turtles' skin and morphologically identified through observation with an optic microscope and SEM. Ten turtles were classified as affected by DTS, all of them being small juveniles with typical clinical and clinicopathological presentation. A higher prevalence, abundance, and density of infection were found in turtles affected by the syndrome. The presence of massive skin coverage by the burrowing barnacle Pletylepas hexastylos prevented a proper evaluation of the pathology associated with B. manatorum in turtles affected by DTS. In any event, eventual skin damages caused by the parasite may represent a port of entry for secondary infections in such immunocompromised animals. Therefore, infection by B. manatorum should not go overlooked in debilitated turtles and should be opportunely treated.

B-esterase measurements and other blood related biomarkers in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) as indicators of health status

The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) has been selected as sentinel species by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) descriptor 10 in relation to marine litter. In this, and other protected species, there is a need to develop conservative pollution biomarkers equally informative of chemical exposures to those traditionally carried out in metabolic organs, such as the liver. With this aim, plasma from turtles undergoing rehabilitation at the Fundació Oceanogràfic rescue centre (Arca del Mar) were selected and tested for B-esterase measurements. Hydrolysis rates of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and carboxylesterases (CEs) using four commercial substrates were undertaken on 191 plasma samples. Results indicated that acetylthiocholine was the most adequate substrate of cholinesterases and butyrate esters for CE measures. The correlation of these parameters with well-established blood biochemistry measurements was analysed. B-esterase measures in wild specimens were discussed in relation to age group, pathology on admission to the rescue centre and season; moreover, contrasts with long-term resident turtles were also made. Although this study provides baseline data on B-esterase measures in a large sample size for this species, more complementary information is still needed in terms of population genetics, chemical exposures, and in relation to other biochemical parameters before they can be confidently applied in wild specimens within the regulatory MSFD.

Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Each year in the United States, thousands of sick, injured, or displaced wild animals are presented to individuals or organizations who have either a federal or state permit that allows them to care for these animals with the goal of releasing them back to the wild. The purpose of this review is to demonstrate the complexity of considerations rehabilitators and veterinarians face while trying to optimize the welfare of wild animals in need of care and rehabilitation. The process of rehabilitation is inherently stressful for wildlife. Maintaining an animal's welfare during the rehabilitation process-from initial contact and tria+ge to the animal's euthanasia, release, or captive placement-requires deliberate, timely and humane decision making. The welfare of wild animals can be improved by preventing human-related causes of admission, providing resources and support for wildlife rehabilitation (almost all rehabilitation in the United States is privately funded and access to veterinary care is often limited); further developing evidence-based wildlife rehabilitation methods and welfare measures, attracting more veterinary professionals to the field, harmonizing regulatory oversight with standards of care, training, and accountability, and increasing public education.

Immunity in Sea Turtles: Review of a Host-Pathogen Arms Race Millions of Years in the Running

The immune system of sea turtles is not completely understood. Sea turtles (as reptiles) bridge a unique evolutionary gap, being ectothermic vertebrates like fish and amphibians and amniotes like birds and mammals. Turtles are ectotherms; thus, their immune system is influenced by environmental conditions like temperature and season. We aim to review the turtle immune system and note what studies have investigated sea turtles and the effect of the environment on the immune response. Turtles rely heavily on the nonspecific innate response rather than the specific adaptive response. Turtles' innate immune effectors include antimicrobial peptides, complement, and nonspecific leukocytes. The antiviral defense is understudied in terms of the diversity of pathogen receptors and interferon function. Turtles also mount adaptive responses to pathogens. Lymphoid structures responsible for lymphocyte activation and maturation are either missing in reptiles or function is affected by season. Turtles are a marker of health for their marine environment, and their immune system is commonly dysregulated because of disease or contaminants. Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a tumorous disease that afflicts sea turtles and is thought to be caused by a virus and an environmental factor. We aim, by exploring the current understanding of the immune system in turtles, to aid the investigation of environmental factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of this disease and provide options for immunotherapy.

Perturbation of the gut microbiome in wild-caught freshwater turtles (Emydura macquarii macquarii) exposed to elevated PFAS levels

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are environmentally persistent and pervasive. Understanding the toxicity of PFAS to wildlife is difficult, both due to the complexity of biotic and abiotic perturbations in the taxa under study and the practical and ethical problems associated with studying the impacts of environmental pollutants on free living wildlife. One avenue of inquiry into the effects of environmental pollutants, such as PFAS, is assessing the impact on the host gut microbiome. Here we show the microbial composition and biochemical functional outputs from the gut microbiome of sampled faeces from euthanised and necropsied wild-caught freshwater turtles (Emydura macquarii macquarii) exposed to elevated PFAS levels. The microbial community composition was profiled by 16S rRNA gene sequencing using a Nanopore MinION and the biochemical functional outputs of the gut microbiome were profiled using a combination of targeted central carbon metabolism metabolomics using liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (LC-QqQ-MS) and untargeted metabolomics using liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometer (LC-QToF-MS). Total PFAS was measured in the turtle serum using standard methods. These preliminary data demonstrated a 60-fold PFAS increase in impacted turtles compared to the sampled aquatic environment. The microbiome community was also impacted in the PFAS exposed turtles, with the ratio of Firmicutes-to-Bacteroidetes rising from 1.4 at the reference site to 5.5 at the PFAS impacted site. This ratio increase is indicative of host stress and dysfunction of the gut microbiome that was correlated with the biochemical metabolic function data, metabolites observed that are indications of stress and inflammation in the gut microbiome. Utilising the gut microbiome of sampled faeces collected from freshwater turtles provides a non-destructive avenue for investigating the impacts of PFAS in native wildlife, and provides an avenue to explore other contaminants in higher-order taxa within the environment.

Clinical Pathology of Freshwater Turtles

Freshwater turtles are physiologically unique in their adaptations to life on both land and freshwater habitats. Appropriate interpretation of laboratory values specific to these species is important for both conservation efforts in free-ranging populations and in captive populations, especially because these animals become increasingly popular as pets. Although normal physiology has been well characterized, understanding of clinicopathologic changes in response to disease processes in freshwater chelonian species is relatively limited. This article reviews the current knowledge of hematology, plasma biochemistry, and urinalysis specific to freshwater turtles, with correlates to other chelonian species when specific data are unavailable.

Loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta plasma biochemistry and proteome profile modulation during recovery

The aim of the study was to monitor and analyse injured and diseased loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) plasma proteome profiles and biochemistry parameters during their recovery period in rescue centre within different age and recovery period groups, and determine the potential biomarkers that can be used in diagnostics. The plasma biochemical parameters of total protein and glucose content, accompanied by aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and N-acetyl-cystein-activated creatinine kinase (CK-NAC) are highlighted as valuable and potential biomarkers of turtle's health status and condition. Using high throughput tandem mass tag (TMT)-based proteomic approach we identified 913 plasma proteins, 12 of which shown to be modulated in loggerheads age groups, and identified as a part of (i) platelet degranulation, (ii) neutrophil degranulation, and (iii) innate immune system pathways. The neurofascin (NFASC) is shown to be differentially abundant among all the age groups, and alpha-1-acid glycoprotein 2-like (ORM2) and alpha-1-antitrypsin-like (SERPINA1) proteins were recognized as members of all three above mentioned REACTOME pathways. Furthermore, 29 of plasma proteins were significantly differentially abundant in loggerheads age and recovery period groups. Out of 15 recognized pathways, those proteins were mostly included in three specific REACTOME pathways: (i) post-translational phosphorylation, (ii) regulation of Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) transport and uptake by Insulin-like Growth Factor Binding Proteins (IGFBPs), and (iii) platelet degranulation. The alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) was the only protein which showed statistically significant up-regulation patterns in all loggerhead age groups before release from the rescue centre, and the complement component 3 (C3) protein was the only protein modulated in all recovery period groups. Furthermore, C3 protein takes part in 9; and followed up with apolipoprotein A-I (APOA1) in 7; complement component 4 (C4), complement component 5 (C5) and kininogen-1 (KNG1) in 6 REACTOME pathways. Thereby, those proteins are highlighted and recommended as potential biomarkers of turtle's health status. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD029569. Finally, based on our results, we believe that comprehensive omics approach and routine plasma biochemical analysis, accompanied by proteins of acute phase, acid-base status and immune-response indicator analysis may significantly and reliably improve assessment of captive loggerheads rehabilitation and medication. SIGNIFICANCE: Monitoring and comparison of loggerhead sea turtles (C. caretta) blood plasma biochemistry parameters and plasma proteome profiles in relation to the age, and recovery period pointed out significantly differentially abundant proteins, along with certain biochemical parameter contents as potential biomarkers of turtle's fitness, health status and physiology.

Protein electrophoresis of non-traditional species: A review

EPH has been demonstrated to be a useful tool in companion animals while providing an opportunity to characterize globulinemias, including paraproteinemia. In EPH of non-traditional species, these same applications are important, but the primary use is to gauge the acute-phase and humoral immune responses. This includes the valid quantitation of albumin as well as the examination of fractions reflective of increases in acute-phase reactants and immunoglobulins. Agarose gel EPH and, more recently, capillary zone EPH have been applied to samples from these species. Performing these analyses provides special challenges in the placement of fraction delimits, generation of RIs, and interpretation of results. Recommended as part of routine bloodwork, EPH can also provide key results that are helpful in clinical and field-based health assessments as well as in prognostication.

Health and nutrition of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) are opportunistic carnivores that feed primarily on benthic invertebrates and fish. Sea turtle rehabilitation requires provision of a species-specific, balanced diet that supplies nutrition similar to that of a wild diet; this can be challenging because free-ranging loggerheads' diets vary depending on their life stage and geographic location, with predominant prey species dictated by local availability. The goal of this study was to better understand the nutritional needs of subadult and adult loggerheads in rehabilitation. This was accomplished by conducting a retrospective survey of stomach contents identified during gross necropsy of 153 deceased loggerheads that stranded in coastal Georgia, USA. A total of 288 different forage items were identified; the most frequently observed prey items belong to the subphylum Crustacea (N = 131), followed by bony fish (Osteichthyes; N = 45), gastropod mollusks (N = 40), bivalve mollusks (N = 23), and Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus; N = 15). The proportions of certain prey items differed significantly with turtle size; adult turtles ate proportionately more gastropods (p = 0.001), and subadults ate proportionately more fish (p = 0.01). Stomach contents information was used to determine common local prey items (blue crab, cannonball jellyfish, horseshoe crab, whelk), which were evaluated for nutritional content. Additionally, we compared hematology and plasma biochemistry profiles (including proteins, trace minerals, and vitamins) between four cohorts of loggerhead turtles, including free-ranging subadults and adults, nesting females, and loggerheads undergoing rehabilitation. This information was applied to inform a regionally specific, formulated diet for tube feeding, and a supplement containing vitamins and minerals for captive loggerheads, to more closely approximate the nutritional content of their natural diet. Assessing the regional and temporal variability in loggerhead diets is an important component in their effective conservation because resultant data can be used to help understand the impacts of environmental perturbations on benthic food webs.

PLASMA BIOCHEMISTRY PROFILES OF JUVENILE GREEN TURTLES (CHELONIA MYDAS) FROM THE BAHAMAS WITH A POTENTIAL INFLUENCE OF DIET

Plasma biochemistry profiles aid health assessment of marine turtles, but knowledge of the influence of regional biological factors (e.g., habitat, diet) on marine turtle blood plasma values is limited. To investigate the influence of diet on plasma biochemistry values in juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas), we used carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes to provide a quantitative estimate of forage items in green turtles feeding at two distinct areas (Bonefish Hole and South Flats) in Bimini, Bahamas. Plasma samples were obtained from 13 turtles in Bonefish Hole (a mangrove tidal estuary) and 15 turtles in South Flats (an open water seagrass bed) in 2018. All turtles appeared outwardly healthy. Sessile filter feeders contributed the largest proportion of diet in Bonefish Hole, and seagrass contributed the highest proportion of diet in South Flats. Turtles at Bonefish Hole presented significantly lower cholesterol, total protein, phosphorus, triglycerides, and aspartate transaminase compared to South Flats. Across all turtles, those feeding primarily on red algae presented the highest uric acid and alkaline phosphatase, and turtles with a seagrass-dominated diet had the highest cholesterol. Understanding dietary influence on plasma biochemistry may help explain variances seen in local health and nutritional evaluations, and the trends reported can aid the interpretation of plasma analyte values in marine turtles.

Disease risk analysis in sea turtles: A baseline study to inform conservation efforts

The impact of a range of different threats has resulted in the listing of six out of seven sea turtle species on the IUCN Red List of endangered species. Disease risk analysis (DRA) tools are designed to provide objective, repeatable and documented assessment of the disease risks for a population and measures to reduce these risks through management options. To the best of our knowledge, DRAs have not previously been published for sea turtles, although disease is reported to contribute to sea turtle population decline. Here, a comprehensive list of health hazards is provided for all seven species of sea turtles. The possible risk these hazards pose to the health of sea turtles were assessed and "One Health" aspects of interacting with sea turtles were also investigated. The risk assessment was undertaken in collaboration with more than 30 experts in the field including veterinarians, microbiologists, social scientists, epidemiologists and stakeholders, in the form of two international workshops and one local workshop. The general finding of the DRA was the distinct lack of knowledge regarding a link between the presence of pathogens and diseases manifestation in sea turtles. A higher rate of disease in immunocompromised individuals was repeatedly reported and a possible link between immunosuppression and environmental contaminants as a result of anthropogenic influences was suggested. Society based conservation initiatives and as a result the cultural and social aspect of interacting with sea turtles appeared to need more attention and research. A risk management workshop was carried out to acquire the insights of local policy makers about management options for the risks relevant to Queensland and the options were evaluated considering their feasibility and effectiveness. The sea turtle DRA presented here, is a structured guide for future risk assessments to be used in specific scenarios such as translocation and head-starting programs.

Red blood cell osmotic fragility in healthy loggerhead and green sea turtles

Loggerhead (Caretta caretta; Cc) and green sea (Chelonia mydas; Cm) turtles admitted to rehabilitation facilities may require blood transfusions for supportive treatment of disorders resulting in life-threatening anemia, but, considering the unique erythrocyte chemistry of sea turtles, standardized donor red blood cell (RBC) storage protocols have not been established. Prolonged cold storage and the effects of various anticoagulant-preservative solutions have been associated with increased RBC osmotic fragility across a broad range of species. Increased RBC fragility in stored RBC products has been associated with acute transfusion reactions. The osmotic fragility test is used to measure erythrocyte resistance to hemolysis while being exposed to a series of dilutions of a saline solution. We obtained baseline measurements for osmotic fragility in healthy Cc and Cm. Osmotic fragility testing was performed on samples from 10 Cc to 10 Cm. Fifty percent (50%) RBC hemolysis was identified at a mean NaCl concentration of 0.38% in both species. Results of our study will help guide future studies evaluating optimal storage solutions for sea turtle blood products.

Pre-/analytical factors affecting whole blood and plasma glucose concentrations in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

Blood glucose is vital for many physiological pathways and can be quantified by clinical chemistry analyzers and in-house point-of-care (POC) devices. Pre-analytical and analytical factors can influence blood glucose measurements. This project aimed to investigate pre-analytical factors on whole blood and plasma glucose measurements in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) by evaluating the effects of storage (refrigeration) up to 48h after sampling and of packed cell volume (PCV) on whole blood glucose analysis by POC glucometer (time series n = 13); and by evaluating the effects of storage (room temperature and refrigeration) on plasma glucose concentrations using a dry slide chemistry analyzer (DCA) at various conditions: immediate processing and delayed plasma separation from erythrocytes at 24h and 48h (time series n = 14). The POC glucometer had overall strong agreement with the DCA (CCC = 0.76, r = 0.84, C_b = 0.90), but consistently overestimated glucose concentrations (mean difference: +0.4 mmol/L). The POC glucometer results decreased significantly over time, resulting in a substantial decline within the first 2h (0.41±0.47 mmol/L; 8±9%) that could potentially alter clinical decisions, thereby highlighting the need for immediate analysis using this method. The effects of PCV on glucose could not be assessed, as the statistical significance was associated with one outlier. Storage method significantly affected plasma glucose measurements using DCA, with room temperature samples resulting in rapid decreases of 3.57±0.89 mmol/L (77±9%) over the first 48h, while refrigerated samples provided consistent plasma glucose results over the same time period (decrease of 0.26±0.23 mmol/L; 6±5%). The results from this study provide new insights into optimal blood sample handling and processing for glucose analysis in sea turtles, show the suitability of the POC glucometer as a rapid diagnostic test, and confirm the reliability of plasma glucose measurements using refrigeration. These findings emphasize the need to consider pre-/analytical factors when interpreting blood glucose results from loggerhead sea turtles.

Plasma antibacterial activities in ornate (Terrapene ornata) and eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina)

Chelonians are one of the most imperiled vertebrate taxa and many species are increasingly threatened by disease, however, the immune response in this group is understudied. We quantified the innate immune response of eastern (Terrapene carolina; EBT) and ornate (Terrapene ornate; OBT) box turtles using plasma antibacterial activity assays. Plasma from both species abolished or significantly reduced the growth of all eight bacterial species evaluated, including Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundi, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Staphylococcus aureus. Bactericidal capacity was greater in OBT compared to EBT, and OBT plasma retained high antibacterial activities at a broader temperature range (20-40°C) compared to EBT (30-40°C). Plasma antibacterial activity was abolished following treatment with heat, protease, and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, indicating that complement is likely responsible for the observed effects. Further characterization of the box turtle immune response may provide insight into the importance of infectious diseases for species conservation, enabling the development of more efficient and effective population management strategies.

A tale of two islands: evidence for impaired stress response and altered immune functions in an insular pit viper following ecological disturbance

The frequency and intensity of ecological perturbations affecting wild animal populations is expected to increase in the future with animals facing numerous global threats. Seahorse Key is a continental island off mainland Florida that has historically been a major rookery for several species of waterbirds. As a result of an unknown disturbance, the entire rookery abandoned Seahorse Key in April 2015 and shifted nesting activities to nearby Snake Key, resulting in an influx of food resources in the form of fish carrion to resident Florida cottonmouth snakes (Agkistrodon conanti), while snakes on Seahorse Key experienced a drastic reduction in food resources. Our objective was to assess plasma corticosterone concentrations, corticosterone negative feedback using dexamethasone, blood glucose, body condition, packed cell volume, natural antibody agglutination, white blood cell counts and ratios and erythrocyte sedimentation rate to characterize the long-term effects of differential resource availability in these two snake populations 3 years after this major ecological disturbance. We collected blood samples at three time points from cottonmouths on Seahorse Key (n = 6 individuals) and Snake Key (n = 13 individuals) in fall 2018. In due consideration of the small sample size, our study shows evidence that 3 years after the shift in waterbird nesting Seahorse Key cottonmouths exhibit a dampened acute stress response and presumptive impaired innate immune functions relative to cottonmouths on Snake Key. These results highlight the context-dependent nature of biomarkers and implicate the significant decrease in food resources on Seahorse Key in altering hormonal stress responses and innate immune functions, possibly leading to unknown long-term downstream effects. This study assessed the response of a wild population of pit viper to ecological disturbance in situ with the aim to improve our understanding of how animals cope with such perturbations and improve our capacity to make informed decisions for conservation.

Blood analytes of immature Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from Georgia, USA: reference intervals and body size correlations

Health assessments of wildlife species are becoming increasingly important in an ever-changing environment. Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii; hereafter, Kemp's ridleys) are critically endangered and incur several on-going threats to their population recovery; therefore, it is imperative to advance the understanding of baseline blood analyte data as a diagnostic and monitoring tool. For in-water, trawl-captured, immature Kemp's ridleys (minimum N = 31) from Georgia, USA, the objectives of this study were to (1) establish reference intervals (RIs) for packed cell volume (PCV) and 27 plasma biochemistry analytes and (2) determine length-specific relationships in blood analytes. We observed significant positive correlations between minimum straight carapace length and PCV, amylase, calcium:phosphorus ratio, cholesterol, magnesium, triglycerides, total solids, total protein and all protein fractions (e.g. alpha-, beta- and gamma-globulins); aspartate aminotransferase and chloride showed significant negative relationships. These results suggest that certain blood analytes in Kemp's ridleys change as these animals grow, presumptively due to somatic growth and dietary shifts. The information presented herein, in due consideration of capture technique that may have impacted glucose and potassium concentrations, represents the first report of blood analyte RIs for Kemp's ridley sea turtles established by guidelines of the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology and will have direct applications for stranded individuals in rehabilitative care and for future investigations into the health status of wild individuals from this population.

Twenty-three Years of Sea Turtle Stranding/ bycatch Research in Taiwan

Coastal sea turtle stranding and bycatch are common phenomena worldwide and have received more attention in recent years. They are caused by both natural and anthropogenic factors. One thousand and seventy-two turtles were reported to be victims of these phenomena from March 1997 to November 2019 in Taiwan. Number of stranding/bycatch were variable and infrequent for the first 14 years, but increased each year after 2012 and peaked in 2019 with 217 cases. Most turtles were juveniles to subadults. All five of Taiwan's species were reported in stranding and bycatch records, and the green turtle was reported the most common. The main reported seasons lasted from winter to spring, when the weather changes dramatically. The sex ratio (female: male) ranged from 7 in the hawksbill turtle to 0.7 in the olive ridley, with an average of 2.4 for all species. Green turtles were the dominant stranded species, and more loggerhead turtles were by-caught. The hotspots were the towns of Dougou and Tochen in Yilan County, and Gongliao District in New Taipei City, located in NE coast of Taiwan respectively. Stranding was the more common of the two phenomena reported, and 80% of all stranded turtles were subadult green turtles. Eighty percent of all stranded/bycaught turtles were dead. Pond-nets were the fishing gear that accounted for the most bycatch, and captured mainly living young and subadult green turtles as well as subadult loggerhead turtles. The hotspots for bycatch were the towns of Dongou and Tochen in Yilan County. The Coast Guard and concerned citizen were the main sources of reports. This is the first study to analyze the long-term stranding/bycatch of sea turtles in Taiwan.