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Supanta J, Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Punturee K, Towiboon P, Somboon N, Khonmee J. Physiological changes in captive elephants in northern Thailand as a result of the COVID-19 tourism ban-stress biomarkers. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1351361. [PMID: 38406629 PMCID: PMC10884277 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1351361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The international travel ban instituted by the Thai government in March 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how tourist camp elephants were managed, with reductions in exercise opportunities, longer chaining hours, and diminished food provisioning. This study was conducted to determine how those changes affected health and welfare biomarkers in individual elephants over the 2 years of the countrywide lockdown (April 2020-April 2022). Blood and fecal samples were collected from 58 elephants at six camps (monthly in Year 1, quarterly in Year 2) and analyzed for stress biomarkers - fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), serum oxidative stress [malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)], and stress leukograms. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased within the first few months and remained higher than pre-COVID levels, as did the H/L ratio, a measure affected by cortisol. Serum 8-OHdG, an indicator of DNA oxidative damage, also increased over time, while monocytosis and lymphopenia further suggested alterations in immune function as a result of stress. By contrast, another marker of oxidative stress, serum MDA, declined, possibly in response to reduced roughage and supplement intake. A notable finding was a seasonal pattern of fGCM that was significantly different from previous studies. Whereas higher fGCM during the rainy season were observed in this study, previously, concentrations were highest during the winter, high tourist season. Thus, ironically, both the presence and absence of tourists have been associated with increased fGCM concentrations, albeit for different reasons. Camp management factors negatively affecting stress outcomes included shorter chain lengths, longer chain hours, lack of exercise, and reduced roughage and supplements. Overall, it was clear that camps struggled to maintain adequate care for elephants during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the importance of tourist income and need for contingency plans to cope with potential future disruptions to tourism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarawee Supanta
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Center for Species Survival, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Khanittha Punturee
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nopphamas Somboon
- Small Animal Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Supanta J, Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Punturee K, Somboon N, Towiboon P, Khonmee J. Physiological changes in captive elephants in Northern Thailand as a result of the COVID-19 tourism ban - muscle, liver, metabolic function, and body condition. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1303537. [PMID: 38179326 PMCID: PMC10764436 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1303537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The international travel ban initiated in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how captive elephants were managed in Thailand. A lack of tourists and associated income meant elephants were chained longer with reduced food provisions, had fewer mahouts, and limited exercise like riding, which likely affected health and welfare. Fifty-eight elephants from six tourist camps were assigned a body condition score (BCS) and blood samples were collected monthly for 2 years during the travel ban to measure: (1) muscle enzymes [creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST)]; (2) liver enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)]; (3) lipids [total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low (LDL) and high (HDL) density lipoproteins]; and metabolic function [glucose, insulin, fructosamine]. Serum CK concentrations were lower at the end of the study, possibly due to no tourist activities like riding. Changes in liver function included increased AST and ALP, also possibly due to physical inactivity. Feeding less bananas and sugar cane was associated with fewer elephants in the obese category and lower TG concentrations. However, increases in glucose, insulin and fructosamine were observed as local people returned to feed elephants after lifting travel restrictions. In sum, changes in several health biomarkers were observed in association with restricted activities and food resources. Camps need better plans to meet the health and welfare needs of elephants during any future disruptions to the tourism industry, although reduced feeding of sweet treats appeared to have positive effects on body condition and metabolic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarawee Supanta
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Khanittha Punturee
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nopphamas Somboon
- Small Animal Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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LaDue CA, Hunt KE, Kiso WK, Freeman EW. Hormonal variation and temporal dynamics of musth in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) are associated with age, body condition and the social environment. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 11:coad019. [PMID: 38026805 PMCID: PMC10660383 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coad019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
The sustainability of endangered Asian elephants in human care is threatened in part by low breeding success and concerns over individual animal wellbeing. Male elephants have received less research attention compared to females, yet males deserve special consideration due to their unique reproductive biology (particularly the sexual state of "musth") and the complex interaction of physiological, environmental, and social pressures they face. We measured fecal androgen metabolites (FAMs), fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs), and fecal triiodothyronine metabolites (FT3s) collected weekly over approximately 12 months from 26 male Asian elephants housed in zoos across the US, hypothesizing that FAM, FGM, and FT3 concentrations would be associated with temporal correlates of musth and would vary further with intrinsic (musth status, age, body condition) and extrinsic (social environment) factors. The duration of each musth episode was positively associated with exposure to male conspecifics and negatively associated with body condition. Further, elevated FAM concentrations were associated with social exposure, age, and body condition, and FGM concentrations also varied with age and body condition. FT3 concentrations were not associated with any factor we measured. We also identified periods of lower FAM concentration than confirmed musth episodes (but still higher than baseline FAM concentrations) that we termed "elevated FAM episodes." The durations of these episodes were negatively correlated with exposure to other male elephants. Together, these results provide evidence that hormone profiles (including those that are predicted to change around musth) vary significantly between male Asian elephants in a way that may be attributed to intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Studies like these serve to enhance the sustainability of ex-situ populations by providing wildlife managers with information to enhance the health, welfare, and reproduction of threatened species like Asian elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase A LaDue
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, 4400 University Drive, MSN 5F2, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
- Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden, 2000 Remington Place, Oklahoma City, OK 73111, USA
| | - Kathleen E Hunt
- Department of Biology, George Mason University, 10900 University Boulevard, Manassas, VA 20110, USA
- Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Wendy K Kiso
- White Oak Conservation Foundation, 581705 White Oak Road, Yulee, FL 32097, USA
- Colossal Biosciences, 3309 Elm Street, Dallas, TX 75226, USA
| | - Elizabeth W Freeman
- School of Integrative Studies, 4400 University Drive, MSN 5D3, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
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Yang Y, Tummaruk P, Angkawanish T, Langkaphin W, Chatdarong K. Seasonal Effects on Body Condition and Characteristics of the Estrous Cycle in Captive Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) in Thailand: A Retrospective Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071133. [PMID: 37048389 PMCID: PMC10093222 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of season on the body condition score (BCS), the characteristics of the estrous cycle (luteal phase [LPL], follicular phase [FPL], estrous cycle [ECL] lengths, and the start of the luteal phase [SLP] and follicular phase [SFP]), and progesterone levels (baseline and peak) of eight captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. From 2014 to 2019, blood samples were collected weekly for serum progesterone enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). Estrous cycles (n = 70), including the luteal and follicular phases, and BCS (n = 70) were recorded. Based on the BCS, the LPL, FPL, and ECL were assigned to the following two groups: normal (BCS = 3.0-4.0, n = 38) and overweight (BCS = 4.5-5.0, n = 32). The findings demonstrated that there was no difference in LPL between the groups. However, in the normal group, the ECL was one week longer (14.9 ± 1.7 vs. 13.9 ± 1.7 weeks; p < 0.05), and the FPL also tended to be one week longer (7.2 ± 1.7 vs. 6.4 ± 1.5 weeks; p = 0.06) than in the overweight group. The mean progesterone level during the rainy, hot, and cool seasons was not statistically different. Based on the yearly averaged BCS from three seasons, the baseline and peak levels of progesterone were classified into the normal (n = 16) and overweight (n = 12) groups. Females with a normal BCS tended to exhibit higher progesterone peak levels (p = 0.08). The majority of peaks appeared during the rainy season (53.57%). The BCS was highest during the hot (4.47) and rainy (4.38) seasons, but not during the cool (4.12) season. The LPL, FPL, and ECL were not affected by the season in which the luteal phase occurred. On the other hand, the rainy season had a significant effect on the SFP, resulting in a longer LPL (p < 0.05) and ECL (p = 0.01); both were the longest during the rainy season. In conclusion, the effects of season on BCS may be related to characteristics of the estrous cycle and peak progesterone levels. Ultimately, these findings provide ground knowledge to assist elephant managers and owners in planning breeding activities using seasonal effects and BCS measurements in tropical climates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Yang
- Research Unit of Obstetrics and Reproduction in Animals, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Padet Tummaruk
- Research Unit of Obstetrics and Reproduction in Animals, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Taweepoke Angkawanish
- The Thai Elephant Conservation Center, National Elephant Institute of Thailand, The Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
| | - Warangkhana Langkaphin
- The Thai Elephant Conservation Center, National Elephant Institute of Thailand, The Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
| | - Kaywalee Chatdarong
- Research Unit of Obstetrics and Reproduction in Animals, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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Supanta J, Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Khonmee J. Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and international travel ban on elephant tourist camp management in northern Thailand. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1038855. [PMID: 36532337 PMCID: PMC9755861 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1038855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the tourism industry, especially in Thailand. Starting in April 2020, the Thai government banned international travel and all elephant tourist camps closed. A wide variety of management changes were implemented because of the lack of income from tourists. This study surveyed 30 camps that cared for >400 elephants in northern Thailand to obtain information on camp, elephant, and mahout management during the COVID-19 pandemic from April 2020 to 2022 compared to the year before. The survey consisted of questionnaires that interviewed elephant camp owners, managers, veterinarians, and mahouts, and captured information on changes in camp operations, including numbers of tourists, elephants and mahouts, elephant and mahout activities, and veterinary care. Results revealed significant changes in camp structure, elephant work activities and general care. Staff layoffs led to a decrease in the ratio of mahouts to elephants from 1:1 to 1:2. Elephant activities, distance walked, and amounts of food were reduced when compared to pre-COVID-19, while chain hours were increased due to reduced activity. Overall, the COVID-19 crisis altered elephant management significantly, potentially affecting animal welfare resulting from changes in nutrition, health, exercise, and numbers of mahouts. We hope to use these data to develop better management plans and guidelines for elephant camps in Thailand so they can cope with the current and potential imminent pandemics that result in decreased tourism income. A follow-up study will measure health and welfare markers in relation to COVID-19 induced changes to determine if any camps adapted management to still meet elephant health and welfare needs, and could serve as models for responding to future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarawee Supanta
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Characterization of Longitudinal Testosterone, Cortisol, and Musth in Male Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus), Effects of Aging, and Adrenal Responses to Social Changes and Health Events. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12101332. [PMID: 35625178 PMCID: PMC9137588 DOI: 10.3390/ani12101332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The conservation of endangered species and sustainability of managed populations requires good health and welfare of individuals. Male elephants experience a biological phenomenon called “musth”, characterized by a suite of physiological and behavioral changes which serve to facilitate copulation between the sexes, but can also pose unique challenges under human care. This study characterized longitudinal patterns of circulating testosterone and cortisol in relation to musth in four adult Asian elephant bulls and assessed age-related effects on musth activity and adrenal responses to social changes and clinical health events. All bulls exhibited regular annual musth cycles, and there was no clear evidence of chronically elevated cortisol secretion outside of musth. Circulating cortisol covaried positively with testosterone and musth, highlighting intrinsic patterns that should be considered when evaluating the impact of changes on adrenal glucocorticoid activity. Testosterone decreased with age in sexually mature bulls, whereas age-related changes in cortisol varied across individuals, with the three older bulls showing the greatest rate of change during musth. Changes in cortisol were associated with treatment for Mycobacterium tuberculosis in two bulls, but not with activation of disease. In contrast to physiological factors, there was no evidence that social changes involving male herdmates impacted adrenal glucocorticoid activity in the short term. This study highlights the importance of longitudinal hormone monitoring to track changes in physiological function and identify factors that may influence welfare, which is important for making more informed decisions on how to manage male elephants under varying degrees of human care. Abstract The conservation of endangered species and sustainability of managed populations requires considerations to ensure the health and welfare of individuals. Male elephants experience a biological phenomenon called “musth”, which is characterized by increased testosterone production, temporal gland secretion and urine dribbling, heightened aggression and sexual behavior, and therefore can pose unique challenges for human safety and animal welfare. This study characterized longitudinal (9 to 22 years) patterns of circulating testosterone and cortisol in relation to musth in four adult Asian elephant bulls spanning ages from 12 to 54 years. Age-related effects on musth activity and adrenal responses to social changes and clinical health events were also examined. All bulls exhibited regular annual musth cycles. Circulating cortisol covaried positively with testosterone and musth, highlighting intrinsic patterns that should be considered when evaluating the impact of social, health, and environmental changes on adrenal glucocorticoid activity. Except for an end-of-life cortisol increase in one bull, there was no clear evidence of chronically elevated cortisol secretion outside of musth in any individual. Testosterone decreased with age in sexually mature bulls, whereas age-related changes in cortisol varied across individuals, with the three older bulls showing the greatest rate of change during musth versus inter-musth periods. In contrast to physiological factors, there was no evidence of social factors, such as addition of a new male and death of male herdmates, impacting adrenal glucocorticoid activity in these bulls in the short term. Changes in cortisol were associated with treatment for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) in two bulls, increasing after start of treatment and decreasing with cessation of treatment, but were not clearly associated with activation of disease. This study highlights the importance of longitudinal hormone monitoring to track changes in physiological function and responses to social, health, and environmental change in elephant bulls, which is important for making more informed decisions on how to manage male elephants under varying degrees of human care to ensure welfare and safety.
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Nokkaew W, Intarapuk A, Sakulthai A, Wajjwalku W, Thongtip N. Study of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in captive Asian elephants in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. Vet World 2022; 15:647-654. [PMID: 35497973 PMCID: PMC9047137 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.647-654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Over the past two decades, the number of elephant camps in Thailand has increased considerably, and captive elephants have become more popular within the tourism industry. Tourist activities involving elephant exhibitions and trekking potentially affect animal health and welfare. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between a novel stress biomarker, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), and various factors (sex, age, weather season, tourist season, and elephant usage patterns), monitoring the fGCM concentration during and after trekking activities ceased. Materials and Methods: Fecal samples of 20 captive Asian elephants from two camps in Kanchanaburi Province were collected monthly for 1 year. The fGCM concentrations were measured using enzyme immunoassay and evaluated relative to individual demography, season, and tourist trekking activity. The mean differences of fGCMs concentrations were compared by analysis of variance and t-test statistics according to data types with p<0.5. Results: Significant differences in mean fGCM concentrations were found between age categories (p=0.001), trekking and non-trekking animals (p=0.039), and during and after trekking (p=0.023). The mean fGCM concentration of elephants aged during 0-44 years (136.7 ng/g) was significantly higher than for animals over 44 years old (107.7 ng/g), and the elephant trekking group (144.9 ng/g) was significantly higher than the other group (124.7 ng/g). Within the trekking group, the mean fGCM concentrations gradually declined to 129.13 ng/g within 8 months of trekking cessation. Conclusion: Elephant’s ages and activities co-influenced the variance of fGCM concentrations. In addition, permanent tourist activity, especially trekking, can increase elephant stress. This study’s findings can be applied to the health status monitoring of captive elephants and result in improved animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weerapun Nokkaew
- Graduate Program in Bio-Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.,Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mahanakorn University of Technology, Nong Chok, Bangkok 10530, Thailand
| | - Apiradee Intarapuk
- Public Health Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mahanakorn University of Technology, Nong Chok, Bangkok 10530, Thailand
| | - Apichaya Sakulthai
- Department of Farm Technology Management, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Panyapiwat Institute of Management, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Worawidh Wajjwalku
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Thasala, Nakhonsithammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Nikorn Thongtip
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand.,Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand.,Center of Excellence on Agricultural Biotechnology (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE), Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
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Seltmann MW, Jackson J, Lynch E, Brown JL, Htut W, Lahdenperä M, Lummaa V. Sex-specific links between the social landscape and faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in semi-captive Asian elephants. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2022; 319:113990. [PMID: 35151724 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2022.113990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although social behaviour is common in group-living mammals, our understanding of its mechanisms in long-lived animals is largely based on studies in human and non-human primates. There are health and fitness benefits associated with strong social ties, including increased life span, reproductive success, and lower disease risk, which are attributed to the proximate effects of lowered circulating glucocorticoid hormones. However, to deepen our understanding of health-social dynamics, we must explore species beyond the primate order. Here, using Asian elephants as a model species, we combine social data generated from semi-captive timber elephants in Myanmar with measurements of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations. These data enable a "natural experiment" because individuals live in work groups with different demographic compositions. We examine sex-specific FGM concentrations for four different aspects of an individuals' social world: general sociality, work group size, sex ratio and the presence of immatures (<5 years) within the work group. Males experienced lower FGM concentrations when engaged in more social behaviours and residing in female-biased work groups. Surprisingly, females only exhibited lower FGM concentrations when residing with calves. Together, our findings highlight the importance of sociality on individual physiological function among elephants, which may have broad implications for the benefits of social interactions among mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Jackson
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark; Deparmtent of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Emily Lynch
- The North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC 27205, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institue, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mirkka Lahdenperä
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20014 Turku, Finland; Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
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How Tourist Preference and Satisfaction Can Contribute to Improved Welfare Standards at Elephant Tourism Venues in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11041094. [PMID: 33921302 PMCID: PMC8069915 DOI: 10.3390/ani11041094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tourists who visit elephant tourism venues (ETVs), and other wildlife attractions, can influence the activities offered at these venues by positive and negative word-of-mouth. When a person has a good experience and they tell their family and friends, or leave reviews online, this can influence people to participate in the activity. The same is also true when a person has a bad experience; although, in this instance, they can influence people not to participate in the activity, limiting the possible success of that venue. Generally, tourists seem to prefer to visit ETVs that allow elephants to behave naturally over those that make their elephants entertain tourists. Therefore, we visited twelve ETVs in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and compared the opinions of tourists who visited riding and non-riding venues towards the use of captive elephants for entertainment. We found that tourists who reported a preference for ETVs with higher welfare standards had personally seen elephants being treated poorly. Additionally, higher welfare standards may positively affect tourists’ satisfaction with their experience. Therefore, tourists can influence the activities offered at ETVs by demanding better living conditions for elephants and only financially supporting ETVs with higher welfare standards. Abstract Consumer satisfaction and preference can be integral in influencing and solidifying change in user-driven industries such as tourism. High satisfaction rates are imperative to the continual success of a venue as satisfaction determines the likelihood of repeat business and positive recommendations to friends, family and online review forums. Tourist preference for ecocentric tourism venues, over anthropocentric ones, appears to be increasing in elephant tourism venues (ETVs) in Thailand. To explore this, we visited twelve ETVs in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and compared the preferences and satisfaction of tourists who visited riding and non-riding venues toward the use of captive elephants in an entertainment setting. We found that tourists visited riding and non-riding ETVs for similar reasons, primarily due to recommendations from friends and reviews, and because the venue had a good reputation. Tourist preference for higher welfare standards was observed at venues where participants directly observed poor treatment of the elephants. Tourist satisfaction may be impacted by higher elephant welfare standards; therefore, tourists have the ability to influence the elephant tourism industry by demanding better living conditions for elephants and only financially supporting ETVs with higher welfare standards.
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Chusyd DE, Nagy TR, Golzarri-Arroyo L, Dickinson SL, Speakman JR, Hambly C, Johnson MS, Allison DB, Brown JL. Adiposity, reproductive and metabolic health, and activity levels in zoo Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus). J Exp Biol 2021; 224:224/2/jeb219543. [PMID: 33500325 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.219543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Many captive Asian elephant populations are not self-sustaining, possibly due in part to obesity-related health and reproductive issues. This study investigated relationships between estimated body composition and metabolic function, inflammatory markers, ovarian activity (females only) and physical activity levels in 44 Asian elephants (n=35 females, n=9 males). Deuterium dilution was used to measure total body water from which fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) could be derived to estimate body composition. Serum was analyzed for progestagens and estradiol (females only), deuterium, glucose, insulin and amyloid A. Physical activity was assessed by an accelerometer placed on the elephant's front leg for at least 2 days. Relative fat mass (RFM) - the amount of fat relative to body mass - was calculated to take differences in body size between elephants into consideration. Body fat percentage ranged from 2.01% to 24.59%. Male elephants were heavier (P=0.043), with more FFM (P=0.049), but not FM (P>0.999), than females. For all elephants, estimated RFM (r=0.45, P=0.004) was positively correlated with insulin. Distance walked was negatively correlated with age (r=-0.46, P=0.007). When adjusted for FFM and age (P<0.001), non-cycling females had less fat compared with cycling females, such that for every 100 kg increase in FM, the odds of cycling were 3 times higher (P<0.001). More work is needed to determine what an unhealthy amount of fat is for elephants; however, our results suggest higher adiposity may contribute to metabolic perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniella E Chusyd
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA .,Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Tim R Nagy
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.,Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.,Nathan Shock Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Lilian Golzarri-Arroyo
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Stephanie L Dickinson
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - John R Speakman
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK.,Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Catherine Hambly
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Maria S Johnson
- Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - David B Allison
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
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11
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Plangsangmas T, Towiboon P, Punyapornwithaya V, Silva-Fletcher A, Thitaram C, Khonmee J, Edwards KL, Somgird C. Effect of Tourist Activities on Fecal and Salivary Glucocorticoids and Immunoglobulin A in Female Captive Asian Elephants in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101928. [PMID: 33096598 PMCID: PMC7589861 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary How tourist camp activities affect individual elephant welfare is an important and highly debated topic. Saliva and fecal samples were collected monthly for 1 year from 44 female Asian elephants that participated in three programs (saddle-, bareback-, or no-riding), and analyzed for glucocorticoids (GC) and immunoglobulin A (IgA). The hypothesis was that better welfare would be associated with low GC and high IgA concentrations. Both biomarkers showed significant variation with respect to camp size, riding activities, tourist-to-elephant ratios and seasonality, but not always consistently between feces and saliva, and not always in the predicted direction. However, there was no clear indication that riding per se negatively affected these two biomarkers. The lack of consistent responses highlights the difficulty in interpreting physiological data in relation to management factors, and suggests more work is needed to differentiate between potential chronic (feces) and acute (saliva) responses. Abstract Asian elephants have been an important part of wildlife ecotourism in Thailand for over two decades. Elephants in tourist camps are exposed to a variety of management styles and daily activities that can potentially affect health and welfare. This study investigated relationships between a novel welfare biomarker, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and daily camp activities, and compared results to glucocorticoid (GC) measures. Often no-riding camps are portrayed as providing better welfare than camps that offer riding. Therefore, we predicted that elephants at no-riding camps would have lower GC and higher IgA concentrations, and a low GC/IgA ratio. Forty-four female elephants from six elephant camps were divided into three groups based on riding activities: saddle-riding, bareback-riding, and no-riding. Fecal and salivary samples were collected monthly for 1 year along with evaluations of body condition, foot health, and wounding. Camp environment and management varied among camps, although the major difference was in riding activities. Concentrations of GCs and IgA varied among the working groups, but not always consistently between sample matrices. Overall fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were lowest in the saddle-riding group. Only in one bareback-riding camp did the elephants exhibit a potentially positive welfare response with a low GC/IgA ratio over time. Other results varied between the two biomarkers, with considerable variability across camps, suggesting there is more to good welfare than whether elephants participate in riding or not. Several other human-induced stressors, like chaining, ankus use, and limited social opportunities are likely to be impacting well-being and should be considered to ensure management practices meet physical and psychological welfare needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Master’s Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand;
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA; (J.L.B.); (K.L.E.)
| | - Tithipong Plangsangmas
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Faculty of VeterinaryMedicine and Applied Zoology, HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, Lak Si, Bangkok 10210, Thailand
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand;
- Veterinary Public Health Centre and Food Safety for Asia Pacific (VPHCAP), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Ayona Silva-Fletcher
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK;
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Katie L. Edwards
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA; (J.L.B.); (K.L.E.)
- North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Chester CH2 1LH, UK
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-53948-015
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12
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Bansiddhi P, Brown JL, Thitaram C. Welfare Assessment and Activities of Captive Elephants in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E919. [PMID: 32466411 PMCID: PMC7341207 DOI: 10.3390/ani10060919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Thailand is the epicenter of elephant tourism and visiting an elephant camp is a popular activity according to the Tourist Authority of Thailand. However, the welfare of these elephants has been questioned by animal activist groups, international tour operators, and the public. Conclusions that the vast majority of captive elephants are abused often are based on anecdotal evidence and not solid science. So, it is difficult to tease apart emotion, opinion, and fact with regard to what practices are good or bad for elephant welfare. The aim of this paper was to: 1) describe the unique status of captive elephants in Thailand and associated regulations, 2) summarize current issues and challenges facing elephant tourism, 3) review studies conducted on welfare of tourist elephants in Thailand, and 4) offer recommendations for how elephants can be properly cared for under captive conditions in tourist camps. We conclude there are many ways to manage these elephants, and that not all tourist activities are bad for welfare. However, it is essential they be managed in a way that meets physical, physiological and psychological needs, and that management decisions are based on objective data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.L.B.)
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.L.B.)
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.L.B.)
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
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13
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Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Khonmee J, Thitaram C. Commonalities in Management and Husbandry Factors Important for Health and Welfare of Captive Elephants in North America and Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E737. [PMID: 32340256 PMCID: PMC7222785 DOI: 10.3390/ani10040737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract: This review paper is a synthesis of results from multiple studies that we have conducted over the past several years using similar methodologies to identify factors related to welfare of captive populations of elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. Using multiple conservation physiology tools, we found that, despite vastly disparate management systems, there are commonalities in how environmental and husbandry factors affect physical and physiological outcomes. Elephants appear to have better welfare, based on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analyses, when housed under conditions that provide a more enriched, stimulating, and less restrictive environment. We also found it is essential to balance diet and exercise for good body condition and metabolic function. In Thailand, use of tools to control elephants, such as the ankus (i.e., guide, hook) and chains, did not equate to poor welfare per se, nor did riding; however, improper uses were associated with higher wound scores and FGM concentrations. Foot health was good overall in both regions, with cracks being the most common problem, and better foot scores were found in elephants kept on softer substrates. Based on these findings, science-based guidelines are being developed in Thailand, while in North America, changes are being incorporated into elephant standards and husbandry resource guides. Management across venues can be improved by encouraging elephant exploration and exercise, establishing socially compatibility groups, ensuring proper use of tools, and providing balanced diets. We contend there is no "one-size-fits-all" management strategy to guarantee good welfare for elephants, but there are essential needs that must be met regardless of where or how they are managed. Future studies are needed to find ways to better socialize elephants; determine how temperament affects coping styles and resilience; study the importance of good handler-elephant relationships; identify more ways for elephants to engage with the environment; and assess the effect of life history on subsequent physiological and psychological well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.K.)
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.K.)
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.K.)
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (P.B.); (J.K.)
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
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14
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Bansiddhi P, Brown JL, Khonmee J, Norkaew T, Nganvongpanit K, Punyapornwithaya V, Angkawanish T, Somgird C, Thitaram C. Management factors affecting adrenal glucocorticoid activity of tourist camp elephants in Thailand and implications for elephant welfare. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221537. [PMID: 31574099 PMCID: PMC6771993 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations and camp management factors (work routine, walking, restraint, rest area, foraging), and to other welfare indicators (stereotypic behaviors, body condition, foot health, and skin wounds). Data were obtained on 84 elephants (18 males and 66 females) from 15 elephant camps over a 1-year period. Elephants were examined every 3 months and assigned a body condition score, foot score, and wound score. Fecal samples were collected twice monthly for FGM analysis. Contrary to some beliefs, elephants in the observation only program where mahouts did not carry an ankus for protection had higher FGM concentrations compared to those at camps that offered riding with a saddle and shows. Elephants that were tethered in the forest at night had lower FGM concentrations compared to elephants that were kept in open areas inside the camps. There was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and occurrence of stereotypy, which was not anticipated. Thus, assessing adrenal activity via monitoring of FGM concentrations can provide important information on factors affecting the well-being of elephants. Results suggest that more naturalistic housing conditions and providing opportunities to exercise may be good for elephants under human care in Thailand, and that a no riding, no hook policy does not necessarily guarantee good welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States of America
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Treepradab Norkaew
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Excellent Center of Veterinary Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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