Positive role of promyelocytic leukemia protein in type I interferon response and its regulation by human cytomegalovirus

Human neurotropic polyomavirus, JC virus, late coding region encodes a novel nuclear protein, ORF4, which targets the promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) and modulates their reorganization

We previously reported the discovery and characterization of two novel proteins (ORF1 and ORF2) generated by the alternative splicing of the JC virus (JCV) late coding region. Here, we report the discovery and partial characterization of three additional novel ORFs from the same coding region, ORF3, ORF4 and ORF5, which potentially encode 70, 173 and 265 amino acid long proteins respectively. While ORF3 protein exhibits a uniform distribution pattern throughout the cells, we were unable to detect ORF5 expression. Surprisingly, ORF4 protein was determined to be the only JCV protein specifically targeting the promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) and inducing their reorganization in nucleus. Although ORF4 protein has a modest effect on JCV replication, it is implicated to play major roles during the JCV life cycle, perhaps by regulating the antiviral response of PML-NBs against JCV infections and thus facilitating the progression of the JCV-induced disease in infected individuals.

Membraneless Organelles and Condensates Orchestrate Innate Immunity Against Viruses

The cellular defense against viruses involves the assembly of oligomers, granules and membraneless organelles (MLOs) that govern the activation of several arms of the innate immune response. Upon interaction with specific pathogen-derived ligands, a number of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) undergo phase-separation thus triggering downstream signaling pathways. Among other relevant condensates, inflammasomes, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain (ASC) specks, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) foci, protein kinase R (PKR) clusters, ribonuclease L-induced bodies (RLBs), stress granules (SGs), processing bodies (PBs) and promyelocytic leukemia protein nuclear bodies (PML NBs) play different roles in the immune response. In turn, viruses have evolved diverse strategies to evade the host defense. Viral DNA or RNA, as well as viral proteases or proteins carrying intrinsically disordered regions may interfere with condensate formation and function in multiple ways. In this review we discuss current and hypothetical mechanisms of viral escape that involve the disassembly, repurposing, or inactivation of membraneless condensates that govern innate immunity. We summarize emerging interconnections between these diverse condensates that ultimately determine the cellular outcome.

Triple motif proteins 19 and 38 correlated with treatment responses and HBsAg clearance in HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B patients during peg-IFN-α therapy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether the expression of triple motif protein 19/38 (TRIM19/38) mRNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers is associated with the response to pegylated interferon alpha (peg-IFN-α) treatment and HBsAg clearance.

METHODS

In this prospective study, HBeAg-negative chronic HBV carriers treated with peg-IFN-α completed 48 weeks of follow-up. After treatment with peg-IFN-α, the patients were divided into responders (R group) and nonresponders (NR group) according to the changes in HBV DNA and HBsAg levels at week 48 of treatment. According to whether serum HBsAg loss or seroconversion occurred, the patients were divided into a serological response group (SR group) and a nonserological response group (NSR group). The level of TRIM19/38 mRNA in PBMCs was detected by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR. The diagnostic performance of TRIM19/38 was analysed by calculating the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and area under the ROC curve (AUC).

RESULTS

43 HBeAg-negative chronic HBV carriers, 35 untreated CHB patients and 19 healthy controls were enrolled in this study. We found that TRIM19/38 mRNA levels were significantly lower in untreated CHB patients than in healthy controls. In HBeAg-negative chronic HBV carriers who underwent prospective follow-up, TRIM19/38 mRNA levels were negatively correlated with HBV DNA and ALT at baseline. Among the patients treated with peg-IFN-α, 16 patients achieved a treatment response (R group) and 27 patients did not achieve a treatment response (NR group). Compared with baseline, HBsAg levels in the R group decreased significantly at 12 and 24 weeks of treatment; at the early stage of peg-IFN-α treatment, the dynamic changes in TRIM19/38 mRNA levels in the R and NR groups were different, and the TRIM19/38 mRNA levels in the R group were significantly higher than those in the NR group, especially at 24 weeks of treatment. ROC curve analysis showed that the changes in mRNA levels of TRIM19 and TRIM38 predicted the treatment response, with AUCs of 0.694 and 0.757, respectively. Among the patients treated with peg-IFN-α, 11 patients achieved a serological response (SR group) and 32 patients did not achieve a serological response (NSR group). Compared with baseline, HBsAg levels in the SR group decreased significantly at 12 and 24 weeks of treatment; TRIM19/38 mRNA levels were significantly higher in the SR group than in the NSR group at week 24.

CONCLUSION

The higher level of TRIM19/38 mRNA in PBMCs of HBeAg-negative chronic HBV carriers may be related to the early treatment effect of peg-IFN-α and HBsAg clearance. TRIM19 and TRIM38 have clinical significance in predicting virological response and guiding treatment regimens.

Human Cytomegalovirus UL23 Antagonizes the Antiviral Effect of Interferon-γ by Restraining the Expression of Specific IFN-Stimulated Genes

Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) is a critical component of innate immune responses in humans to combat infection by many viruses, including human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). IFN-γ exerts its biological effects by inducing hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). In this study, RNA-seq analyses revealed that HCMV tegument protein UL23 could regulate the expression of many ISGs under IFN-γ treatment or HCMV infection. We further confirmed that among these IFN-γ stimulated genes, individual APOL1 (Apolipoprotein-L1), CMPK2 (Cytidine/uridine monophosphate kinase 2), and LGALS9 (Galectin-9) could inhibit HCMV replication. Moreover, these three proteins exhibited a synergistic effect on HCMV replication. UL23-deficient HCMV mutants induced higher expression of APOL1, CMPK2, and LGALS9, and exhibited lower viral titers in IFN-γ treated cells compared with parental viruses expressing full functional UL23. Thus, UL23 appears to resist the antiviral effect of IFN-γ by downregulating the expression of APOL1, CMPK2, and LGALS9. This study highlights the roles of HCMV UL23 in facilitating viral immune escape from IFN-γ responses by specifically downregulating these ISGs.

Nucleic DHX9 cooperates with STAT1 to transcribe interferon-stimulated genes

RNA helicase DHX9 has been extensively characterized as a transcriptional regulator, which is consistent with its mostly nucleic localization. It is also involved in recognizing RNA viruses in the cytoplasm. However, there is no in vivo data to support the antiviral role of DHX9; meanwhile, as a nuclear protein, if and how nucleic DHX9 promotes antiviral immunity remains largely unknown. Here, we generated myeloid-specific and hepatocyte-specific DHX9 knockout mice and confirmed that DHX9 is crucial for host resistance to RNA virus infections in vivo. By additional knockout MAVS or STAT1 in DHX9-deficient mice, we demonstrated that nucleic DHX9 plays a positive role in regulating interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression downstream of type I interferon. Mechanistically, upon interferon stimulation, DHX9 is directly bound to STAT1 and recruits Pol II to the ISG promoter region to participate in STAT1-mediated transcription of ISGs. Collectively, these findings uncover an important role for nucleic DHX9 in antiviral immunity.

Antiretroviral therapy restores the homeostatic state of microglia in SIV-infected rhesus macaques

Microglia and macrophages are essential for homeostatic maintenance and innate immune response in the brain. They are the first line of defense against infections such as HIV/SIV in the brain. However, they are susceptible to infection and function as viral reservoirs even under effective viral suppression. While current antiretroviral regimens successfully suppress viremia and improve quality of life and lifespan, neurologic complications persist and are in part attributed to activated microglia. We sought to test the hypothesis that brain microglia return to a more homeostatic-like state when viremia is suppressed by combination antiretroviral therapy. Using the SIV-rhesus macaque model, we combined single-cell RNA sequencing, bioinformatics, and pathway analysis to compare gene expression profiles of brain myeloid cells under 4 conditions: uninfected, SIV infected, SIV infected with cART suppression, and SIV encephalitis (SIVE). Our study reveals greater myeloid diversity and an elevated proinflammatory state are associated with untreated SIV infection compared with uninfected animals. The development of encephalitis and suppression of viremia both reduced myeloid diversity. However, they had converse effects on the activation state of microglia and inflammation. Notably, suggestive of a restoration of a homeostatic state in microglia, gene expression and activation of pathways related to inflammation and immune response in cART-suppressed monkeys were most similar to that in uninfected monkeys. Untreated SIV infection shared characteristics, especially in brain macrophages to SIVE, with SIVE showing dramatic inflammation. In support of our hypothesis, our study demonstrates that cART indeed restores this key component of the brain's homeostatic state. Summary: ScRNA-seq of rhesus monkey microglia reveals clusters of cells in activated states in the setting of SIV infection, which is primarily reversed by suppressing viremia with combination antiretroviral therapy.

The chromatin remodeling protein ATRX positively regulates IRF3-dependent type I interferon production and interferon-induced gene expression

The chromatin remodeling protein alpha thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome X-linked (ATRX) is a component of promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) and thereby mediates intrinsic immunity against several viruses including human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). As a consequence, viruses have evolved different mechanisms to antagonize ATRX, such as displacement from PML-NBs or degradation. Here, we show that depletion of ATRX results in an overall impaired antiviral state by decreasing transcription and subsequent secretion of type I IFNs, which is followed by reduced expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). ATRX interacts with the transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and associates with the IFN-β promoter to facilitate transcription. Furthermore, whole transcriptome sequencing revealed that ATRX is required for efficient IFN-induced expression of a distinct set of ISGs. Mechanistically, we found that ATRX positively modulates chromatin accessibility specifically upon IFN signaling, thereby affecting promoter regions with recognition motifs for AP-1 family transcription factors. In summary, our study uncovers a novel co-activating function of the chromatin remodeling factor ATRX in innate immunity that regulates chromatin accessibility and subsequent transcription of interferons and ISGs. Consequently, ATRX antagonization by viral proteins and ATRX mutations in tumors represent important strategies to broadly compromise both intrinsic and innate immune responses.

ATRX is a member of a family of chromatin remodeling proteins required for deposition of the histone variant H3.3 at specific genomic regions. This is important to maintain silencing at these sites. Furthermore, ATRX represents a component of PML nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) which are considered as enigmatic nuclear protein accumulations exhibiting a tight link to cell-intrinsic restriction of viral infections. Previous studies demonstrated that many viruses target ATRX by either displacement or degradation. So far, it is believed that this serves to alleviate ATRX-instituted silencing of viral gene expression. Our results reveal a novel and unexpectedly broad function of ATRX as a co-activator of the innate immune response. We show that ATRX is required for both DNA and RNA sensing pathways to activate interferon (IFN) gene expression as well as for upregulation of a distinct set of interferon-stimulated genes. Assessment of chromatin accessibility detected that IFN acts as a switch to regulate the function of ATRX in heterochromatin remodeling. ATRX positively modulates chromatin accessibility specifically upon IFN signaling, thereby affecting promoter regions with recognition motifs for AP-1 family transcription factors. Loss of ATRX due to viral infection or due to tumor mutations may thus broadly compromise cellular innate immunity.

Tripartite motif family proteins in inflammatory bowel disease: Mechanisms and potential for interventions

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent gastrointestinal inflammatory disease that poses a heavy burden to the global healthcare system. However, the current paucity of mechanistic understanding of IBD pathogenesis hampers the development of aetiology‐directed therapies. Novel therapeutic options based on IBD pathogenesis are urgently needed for attaining better long‐term prognosis for IBD patients. The tripartite motif (TRIM) family is a large protein family including more than 70 structurally conservative members, typically characterized by their RBCC structure, which primarily function as E3 ubiquitin ligases in post‐translational modification. They have emerged as regulators of a broad range of cellular mechanisms, including proliferation, differentiation, transcription and immune regulation. TRIM family proteins are involved in multiple diseases, such as viral infection, cancer and autoimmune disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease. This review provides a comprehensive perspective on TRIM proteins' involvement in the pathophysiology and progression of IBD, in particular, on intestinal mucosal barriers, gene susceptibility and opportunistic infections, thus providing novel therapeutic targets for this complicated disease. However, the exact mechanisms of TRIM proteins in IBD pathogenesis and IBD‐related carcinogenesis are still unknown, and more studies are warranted to explore potential therapeutic targets of TRIM proteins in IBD.

Dual signaling via interferon and DNA damage response elicits entrapment by giant PML nuclear bodies

PML nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) are dynamic interchromosomal macromolecular complexes implicated in epigenetic regulation as well as antiviral defense. During herpesvirus infection, PML-NBs induce epigenetic silencing of viral genomes, however, this defense is antagonized by viral regulatory proteins such as IE1 of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Here, we show that PML-NBs undergo a drastic rearrangement into highly enlarged PML cages upon infection with IE1-deficient HCMV. Importantly, our results demonstrate that dual signaling by interferon and DNA damage response is required to elicit giant PML-NBs. DNA labeling revealed that invading HCMV genomes are entrapped inside PML-NBs and remain stably associated with PML cages in a transcriptionally repressed state. Intriguingly, by correlative light and transmission electron microscopy (EM), we observed that PML cages also entrap newly assembled viral capsids demonstrating a second defense layer in cells with incomplete first line response. Further characterization by 3D EM showed that hundreds of viral capsids are tightly packed into several layers of fibrous PML. Overall, our data indicate that giant PML-NBs arise via combined interferon and DNA damage signaling which triggers entrapment of both nucleic acids and proteinaceous components. This represents a multilayered defense strategy to act in a cytoprotective manner and to combat viral infections.

SUMOylation in Viral Replication and Antiviral Defense

SUMOylation is a ubiquitination-like post-translational modification that plays an essential role in the regulation of protein function. Recent studies have shown that proteins from both RNA and DNA virus families can be modified by SUMO conjugation, which facilitates viral replication. Viruses can manipulate the entire process of SUMOylation through interplay with the SUMO pathway. By contrast, SUMOylation can eliminate viral infection by regulating host antiviral immune components. A deeper understanding of how SUMOylation regulates viral proteins and cellular antiviral components is necessary for the development of effective antiviral therapies. In the present review, the regulatory mechanism of SUMOylation in viral replication and infection and the antiviral immune response, and the consequences of this regulation for viral replication and engagement with antiviral innate immunity are summarized. The potential therapeutic applications of SUMOylation in diseases caused by viruses are also discussed.

Virus-host protein interactions as footprints of human cytomegalovirus replication

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a pervasive β-herpesvirus that causes lifelong infection. The lytic replication cycle of HCMV is characterized by global organelle remodeling and dynamic virus-host interactions, both of which are necessary for productive HCMV replication. With the advent of new technologies for investigating protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid interactions, numerous critical interfaces between HCMV and host cells have been identified. Here, we review temporal and spatial virus-host interactions that support different stages of the HCMV replication cycle. Understanding how HCMV interacts with host cells during entry, replication, and assembly, as well as how it interfaces with host cell metabolism and immune responses promises to illuminate processes that underlie the biology of infection and the resulting pathologies.

Histone deacetylase 3 contributes to the antiviral innate immunity of macrophages by interacting with FOXK1 to regulate STAT1/2 transcription

It is well known that interferon (IFN)-α/-β activates the JAK/STAT signaling pathway and suppresses viral replication through the induction of IFN stimulated genes (ISGs). Here, we report that knockout of HDAC3 from macrophages results in the decreased expression of STAT1 and STAT2, leading to defective antiviral immunity in cells and mice. Further studies show that HDAC3 interacts with a conserved transcription factor Forkhead Box K1 (FOXK1), co-localizes with FOXK1 at the promoter of STAT1 and STAT2, and is required for protecting FOXK1 from lysosomal system-mediated degradation. FOXK1-deficient macrophages also show low STAT1 and STAT2 expression with defective responses to viruses. Thus, our studies uncover the biological importance of HDAC3 in regulating the antiviral immunity of macrophages through interacting with FOXK1 to regulate the expression of STAT1 and STAT2.

A tripartite motif protein (CgTRIM1) involved in CgIFNLP mediated antiviral immunity in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

Tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins are a large family of E3 ubiquitin ligases involved in many biological processes, such as inflammation and antiviral immunity. In the present study, a novel TRIM protein homolog named CgTRIM1 was identified from Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. The open reading frame (ORF) of CgTRIM1 was of 1914 bp encoding a putative polypeptide of 637 amino acid residues. There were three classical domains in the predicted CgTRIM1 protein, including one RING domain, two b-box domains and one coiled-coil domain in N-terminal. For the lack of C-terminal domains, the CgTRIM1 was classified as the member of C-V TRIM subfamily. The mRNA transcripts of CgTRIM1 were detected in all the tested tissues and haemocytes, with the highest expression level in gill. The mRNA and protein levels of CgTRIM1 in gill were significantly up-regulated at 6 h after poly (I:C) stimulation. Moreover, the nuclear translocation of CgTRIM1 was observed in haemocytes of oysters after poly (I:C) stimulation. After IFN-like protein (CgIFNLP) was knocked down by RNA interference (RNAi), the expression of CgTRIM1 in gill was markedly inhibited in both mRNA (0.14-fold, p < 0.001) and protein levels after poly (I:C) stimulation. Furthermore, after knocking down of CgTRIM1, the mRNA expression levels of IFN-stimulated genes, including myxovirus resistance of oyster (CgMx) and Interferon-induced protein 44 (CgIFI44) were significantly down-regulated post poly (I:C) stimulation, while no significant change of the CgIFNLP expression was observed. These results indicated that CgTRIM1 participated in the antiviral response of C. gigas by regulating the mRNA expressions of IFN-stimulated genes.

A Tale of Usurpation and Subversion: SUMO-Dependent Integrity of Promyelocytic Leukemia Nuclear Bodies at the Crossroad of Infection and Immunity

Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML NBs) are multi-protein assemblies representing distinct sub-nuclear structures. As phase-separated molecular condensates, PML NBs exhibit liquid droplet-like consistency. A key organizer of the assembly and dynamics of PML NBs is the ubiquitin-like SUMO modification system. SUMO is covalently attached to PML and other core components of PML NBs thereby exhibiting a glue-like function by providing multivalent interactions with proteins containing SUMO interacting motifs (SIMs). PML NBs serve as the catalytic center for nuclear SUMOylation and SUMO-SIM interactions are essential for protein assembly within these structures. Importantly, however, formation of SUMO chains on PML and other PML NB-associated proteins triggers ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation which coincide with disruption of these nuclear condensates. To date, a plethora of nuclear activities such as transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, apoptosis, senescence, cell cycle control, DNA damage response, and DNA replication have been associated with PML NBs. Not surprisingly, therefore, SUMO-dependent PML NB integrity has been implicated in regulating many physiological processes including tumor suppression, metabolism, drug-resistance, development, cellular stemness, and anti-pathogen immune response. The interplay between PML NBs and viral infection is multifaceted. As a part of the cellular antiviral defense strategy, PML NB components are crucial restriction factors for many viruses and a mutual positive correlation has been found to exist between PML NBs and the interferon response. Viruses, in turn, have developed counterstrategies for disarming PML NB associated immune defense measures. On the other end of the spectrum, certain viruses are known to usurp specific PML NB components for successful replication and disruption of these sub-nuclear foci has recently been linked to the stimulation rather than curtailment of antiviral gene repertoire. Importantly, the ability of invading virions to manipulate the host SUMO modification machinery is essential for this interplay between PML NB integrity and viruses. Moreover, compelling evidence is emerging in favor of bacterial pathogens to negotiate with the SUMO system thereby modulating PML NB-directed intrinsic and innate immunity. In the current context, we will present an updated account of the dynamic intricacies between cellular PML NBs as the nuclear SUMO modification hotspots and immune regulatory mechanisms in response to viral and bacterial pathogens.

PML-NB-dependent type I interferon memory results in a restricted form of HSV latency

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) establishes latent infection in long-lived neurons. During initial infection, neurons are exposed to multiple inflammatory cytokines but the effects of immune signaling on the nature of HSV latency are unknown. We show that initial infection of primary murine neurons in the presence of type I interferon (IFN) results in a form of latency that is restricted for reactivation. We also find that the subnuclear condensates, promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), are absent from primary sympathetic and sensory neurons but form with type I IFN treatment and persist even when IFN signaling resolves. HSV-1 genomes colocalize with PML-NBs throughout a latent infection of neurons only when type I IFN is present during initial infection. Depletion of PML prior to or following infection does not impact the establishment latency; however, it does rescue the ability of HSV to reactivate from IFN-treated neurons. This study demonstrates that viral genomes possess a memory of the IFN response during de novo infection, which results in differential subnuclear positioning and ultimately restricts the ability of genomes to reactivate.

Viruses, SUMO, and immunity: the interplay between viruses and the host SUMOylation system

The conjugation of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) proteins to substrates is a well-described post-translational modification that regulates protein activity, subcellular localization, and protein-protein interactions for a variety of downstream cellular activities. Several studies describe SUMOylation as an essential post-translational modification for successful viral infection across a broad range of viruses, including RNA and DNA viruses, both enveloped and un-enveloped. These viruses include but are not limited to herpes viruses, human immunodeficiency virus-1, and coronaviruses. In addition to the SUMOylation of viral proteins during infection, evidence shows that viruses manipulate the SUMO pathway for host protein SUMOylation. SUMOylation of host and viral proteins greatly impacts host innate immunity through viral manipulation of the host SUMOylation machinery to promote viral replication and pathogenesis. Other post-translational modifications like phosphorylation can also modulate SUMO function. For example, phosphorylation of COUP-TF interacting protein 2 (CTIP2) leads to its SUMOylation and subsequent proteasomal degradation. The SUMOylation of CTIP2 and subsequent degradation prevents CTIP2-mediated recruitment of a multi-enzymatic complex to the HIV-1 promoter that usually prevents the transcription of integrated viral DNA. Thus, the "SUMO switch" could have implications for CTIP2-mediated transcriptional repression of HIV-1 in latency and viral persistence. In this review, we describe the consequences of SUMO in innate immunity and then focus on the various ways that viral pathogens have evolved to hijack the conserved SUMO machinery. Increased understanding of the many roles of SUMOylation in viral infections can lead to novel insight into the regulation of viral pathogenesis with the potential to uncover new targets for antiviral therapies.

Human Cytomegalovirus UL23 Attenuates Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 1 Phosphorylation and Type I Interferon Response

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), the human beta-herpesvirus, can cause severe syndromes among both immunocompromised adult patients and newborns. Type I interferon (IFN-I) exerts an important effect to resist infections caused by viruses such as HCMV, while IFN evasion may serve as a key determining factor for viral dissemination and disease occurrence within hosts. In this study, UL23, a tegument protein of HCMV, was confirmed to be a key factor for negatively regulating the type I IFN immune response. A detailed analysis indicated that the viral UL23 protein increases the IFN-I antiviral resistance during HCMV infections. Furthermore, UL23 was shown to significantly reduce the levels of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) and promoter activity of IFN-I-stimulated response element. Mechanically, UL23 was discovered to impair the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) phosphorylation, although it was not found to affect phosphorylation and expression of STAT2, Janus activated kinase 1, or tyrosine kinase 2, which are associated with IFN-I signal transduction pathway. Additionally, a significantly reduced nuclear expression of STAT1 but not of IFN regulatory factor 9 or STAT2 was observed. Findings of this study indicate that HCMV UL23 is a viral antagonist that acts against the cellular innate immunity and reveal a possible novel effect of UL23 on IFN-I signaling.

Role of Alternative Splicing in Regulating Host Response to Viral Infection

The importance of transcriptional regulation of host genes in innate immunity against viral infection has been widely recognized. More recently, post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms have gained appreciation as an additional and important layer of regulation to fine-tune host immune responses. Here, we review the functional significance of alternative splicing in innate immune responses to viral infection. We describe how several central components of the Type I and III interferon pathways encode spliced isoforms to regulate IFN activation and function. Additionally, the functional roles of splicing factors and modulators in antiviral immunity are discussed. Lastly, we discuss how cell death pathways are regulated by alternative splicing as well as the potential role of this regulation on host immunity and viral infection. Altogether, these studies highlight the importance of RNA splicing in regulating host–virus interactions and suggest a role in downregulating antiviral innate immunity; this may be critical to prevent pathological inflammation.

Non-covalent Interaction With SUMO Enhances the Activity of Human Cytomegalovirus Protein IE1

Viruses interact with the host cellular pathways to optimize cellular conditions for replication. The Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) Immediate-Early protein 1 (IE1) is the first viral protein to express during infection. It is a multifunctional and conditionally essential protein for HCMV infection. SUMO signaling regulates several cellular pathways that are also targets of IE1. Consequently, IE1 exploits SUMO signaling to regulate these pathways. The covalent interaction of IE1 and SUMO (IE1-SUMOylation) is well studied. However, the non-covalent interactions between SUMO and IE1 are unknown. We report two SUMO-Interacting Motifs (SIMs) in IE1, one at the end of the core domain and another in the C-terminal domain. NMR titrations showed that IE1-SIMs bind to SUMO1 but not SUMO2. Two critical functions of IE1 are inhibition of SUMOylation of Promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) and transactivation of viral promoters. Although the non-covalent interaction of IE1 and SUMO is not involved in the inhibition of PML SUMOylation, it contributes to the transactivation activity. The transactivation activity of IE1 was previously correlated to its ability to inhibit PML SUMOylation. Our results suggest that transactivation and inhibition of PML SUMOylation are independent activities of IE1.

Crosstalk Between SUMO and Ubiquitin-Like Proteins: Implication for Antiviral Defense

Interferon (IFN) is a crucial first line of defense against viral infection. This cytokine induces the expression of several IFN-Stimulated Genes (ISGs), some of which act as restriction factors. Upon IFN stimulation, cells also express ISG15 and SUMO, two key ubiquitin-like (Ubl) modifiers that play important roles in the antiviral response. IFN itself increases the global cellular SUMOylation in a PML-dependent manner. Mass spectrometry-based proteomics enables the large-scale identification of Ubl protein conjugates to determine the sites of modification and the quantitative changes in protein abundance. Importantly, a key difference amongst SUMO paralogs is the ability of SUMO2/3 to form poly-SUMO chains that recruit SUMO ubiquitin ligases such RING finger protein RNF4 and RNF111, thus resulting in the proteasomal degradation of conjugated substrates. Crosstalk between poly-SUMOylation and ISG15 has been reported recently, where increased poly-SUMOylation in response to IFN enhances IFN-induced ISGylation, stabilizes several ISG products in a TRIM25-dependent fashion, and results in enhanced IFN-induced antiviral activities. This contribution will highlight the relevance of the global SUMO proteome and the crosstalk between SUMO, ubiquitin and ISG15 in controlling both the stability and function of specific restriction factors that mediate IFN antiviral defense.

African horse sickness virus NS4 protein is an important virulence factor and interferes with JAK-STAT signaling during viral infection

African horse sickness virus (AHSV) non-structural protein NS4 is a nucleocytoplasmic protein that is expressed in the heart, lung, and spleen of infected horses, binds dsDNA, and colocalizes with promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs). The aim of this study was to investigate the role of AHSV NS4 in viral replication, virulence and the host immune response. Using a reverse genetics-derived virulent strain of AHSV-5 and NS4 deletion mutants, we showed that knockdown of NS4 expression has no impact in cell culture, but results in virus attenuation in infected horses. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to investigate the transcriptional response in these horses, to see how the lack of NS4 mediates the transition of the virus from virulent to attenuated. The presence of NS4 was shown to result in a 24 hour (h) delay in the transcriptional activation of several immune system processes compared to when the protein was absent. Included in these processes were the RIG-I-like, Toll-like receptor, and JAK-STAT signaling pathways, which are key pathways involved in innate immunity and the antiviral response. Thus, it was shown that AHSV NS4 suppresses the host innate immune transcriptional response in the early stages of the infection cycle. We investigated whether AHSV NS4 affects the innate immune response by impacting the JAK-STAT signaling pathway specifically. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) we showed that AHSV NS4 disrupts JAK-STAT signaling by interfering with the phosphorylation and/or translocation of STAT1 and pSTAT1 into the nucleus. Overall, these results showed that AHSV NS4 is a key virulence factor in horses and allows AHSV to overcome host antiviral responses in order to promote viral replication and spread.

Interplay between RNA Viruses and Promyelocytic Leukemia Nuclear Bodies

Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML NBs) are nuclear membrane-less sub structures that play a critical role in diverse cellular pathways including cell proliferation, DNA damage, apoptosis, transcriptional regulation, stem cell renewal, alternative lengthening of telomeres, chromatin organization, epigenetic regulation, protein turnover, autophagy, intrinsic and innate antiviral immunity. While intrinsic and innate immune functions of PML NBs or PML NB core proteins are well defined in the context of nuclear replicating DNA viruses, several studies also confirm their substantial roles in the context of RNA viruses. In the present review, antiviral activities of PML NBs or its core proteins on diverse RNA viruses that replicate in cytoplasm or the nucleus were discussed. In addition, viral counter mechanisms that reorganize PML NBs, and specifically how viruses usurp PML NB functions in order to create a cellular environment favorable for replication and pathogenesis, are also discussed.

Innate immune-gene expression during experimental amyloodiniosis in European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

The ectoparasite protozoan Amyloodinium ocellatum (AO) is the causative agent of amyloodiniosis in European seabass (ESB, Dicentrarchus labrax). There is a lack of information about basic molecular immune response mechanisms of ESB during AO infestation. Therefore, to compare gene expression between experimental AO-infested ESB tissues and uninfested ESB tissues (gills and head kidney) RNA-seq was adopted. The RNA-seq revealed multiple differentially expressed genes (DEG), namely 679 upregulated genes and 360 downregulated genes in the gills, and 206 upregulated genes and 170 downregulated genes in head kidney. In gills, genes related to the immune system (perforin, CC1) and protein binding were upregulated. Several genes involved in IFN related pathways were upregulated in the head kidney. Subsequently, to validate the DEG from amyloodiniosis, 26 ESB (mean weight 14 g) per tank in triplicate were bath challenged for 2 h with AO (3.5 × 10⁶/tank; 70 dinospores/mL) under controlled conditions (26-28 °C and 34‰ salinity). As a control group (non-infested), 26 ESB per tank in triplicate were also used. Changes in the expression of innate immune genes in gills and head kidney at 2, 3, 5, 7 and 23 dpi were analysed using real-time PCR. The results indicated that the expression of cytokines (CC1, IL-8) and antimicrobial peptide (Hep) were strongly stimulated and reached a peak at 5 dpi in the early infestation stage, followed by a gradual reduction in the recovery stage (23 dpi). Noticeably, the immunoglobulin (IgM) expression was higher at 23 dpi compared to 7 dpi. Furthermore, in-situ hybridization showed positive signals of CC1 mRNA in AO infested gills compared to the control group. Altogether, chemokines were involved in the immune process under AO infestation and this evidence allows a better understanding of the immune response in European seabass during amyloodiniosis.

TRIMming Type I Interferon-Mediated Innate Immune Response in Antiviral and Antitumor Defense

The tripartite motif (TRIM) family comprises at least 80 members in humans, with most having ubiquitin or SUMO E3 ligase activity conferred by their N-terminal RING domain. TRIMs regulate a wide range of processes in ubiquitination- or sumoylation-dependent manners in most cases, and fewer as adaptors. Their roles in the regulation of viral infections, autophagy, cell cycle progression, DNA damage and other stress responses, and carcinogenesis are being increasingly appreciated, and their E3 ligase activities are attractive targets for developing specific immunotherapeutic strategies for immune diseases and cancers. Given their importance in antiviral immune response, viruses have evolved sophisticated immune escape strategies to subvert TRIM-mediated mechanisms. In this review, we focus on their regulation of IFN-I-mediated innate immune response, which plays key roles in antiviral and antitumor defense.

The Role of ND10 Nuclear Bodies in Herpesvirus Infection: A Frenemy for the Virus?

Nuclear domains 10 (ND10), a.k.a. promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), are membraneless subnuclear domains that are highly dynamic in their protein composition in response to cellular cues. They are known to be involved in many key cellular processes including DNA damage response, transcription regulation, apoptosis, oncogenesis, and antiviral defenses. The diversity and dynamics of ND10 residents enable them to play seemingly opposite roles under different physiological conditions. Although the molecular mechanisms are not completely clear, the pro- and anti-cancer effects of ND10 have been well established in tumorigenesis. However, in herpesvirus research, until the recently emerged evidence of pro-viral contributions, ND10 nuclear bodies have been generally recognized as part of the intrinsic antiviral defenses that converge to the incoming viral DNA to inhibit the viral gene expression. In this review, we evaluate the newly discovered pro-infection influences of ND10 in various human herpesviruses and analyze their molecular foundation along with the traditional antiviral functions of ND10. We hope to shed light on the explicit role of ND10 in both the lytic and latent cycles of herpesvirus infection, which is imperative to the delineation of herpes pathogenesis and the development of prophylactic/therapeutic treatments for herpetic diseases.

Intrinsic Immune Mechanisms Restricting Human Cytomegalovirus Replication

Cellular restriction factors (RFs) act as important constitutive innate immune barriers against viruses. In 2006, the promyelocytic leukemia protein was described as the first RF against human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection which is antagonized by the viral immediate early protein IE1. Since then, at least 15 additional RFs against HCMV have been identified, including the chromatin regulatory protein SPOC1, the cytidine deaminase APOBEC3A and the dNTP triphosphohydrolase SAMHD1. These RFs affect distinct steps of the viral replication cycle such as viral entry, gene expression, the synthesis of progeny DNA or egress. This review summarizes our current knowledge on intrinsic immune mechanisms restricting HCMV replication as well as on the viral strategies to counteract the inhibitory effects of RFs. Detailed knowledge on the interplay between host RFs and antagonizing viral factors will be fundamental to develop new approaches to combat HCMV infection.

NS5 Sumoylation Directs Nuclear Responses That Permit Zika Virus To Persistently Infect Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells

Zika virus (ZIKV) is cytopathic to neurons and persistently infects brain microvascular endothelial cells (hBMECs), which normally restrict viral access to neurons. Despite replicating in the cytoplasm, ZIKV and Dengue virus (DENV) polymerases, NS5 proteins, are predominantly trafficked to the nucleus. We found that a SUMO interaction motif in ZIKV and DENV NS5 proteins directs nuclear localization. However, ZIKV NS5 formed discrete punctate nuclear bodies (NBs), while DENV NS5 was uniformly dispersed in the nucleoplasm. Yet, mutating one DENV NS5 SUMO site (K546R) localized the NS5 mutant to discrete NBs, and NBs formed by the ZIKV NS5 SUMO mutant (K252R) were restructured into discrete protein complexes. In hBMECs, NBs formed by STAT2 and promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein are present constitutively and enhance innate immunity. During ZIKV infection or NS5 expression, we found that ZIKV NS5 evicts PML from STAT2 NBs, forming NS5/STAT2 NBs that dramatically reduce PML expression in hBMECs and inhibit the transcription of interferon-stimulated genes (ISG). Expressing the ZIKV NS5 SUMO site mutant (K252R) resulted in NS5/STAT2/PML NBs that failed to degrade PML, reduce STAT2 expression, or inhibit ISG induction. Additionally, the K252 SUMOylation site and NS5 nuclear localization were required for ZIKV NS5 to regulate hBMEC cell cycle transcriptional responses. Our data reveal NS5 SUMO motifs as novel NB coordinating factors that distinguish flavivirus NS5 proteins. These findings establish SUMOylation of ZIKV NS5 as critical in the regulation of antiviral ISG and cell cycle responses that permit ZIKV to persistently infect hBMECs.IMPORTANCE ZIKV is a unique neurovirulent flavivirus that persistently infects human brain microvascular endothelial cells (hBMECs), the primary barrier that restricts viral access to neuronal compartments. Here, we demonstrate that flavivirus-specific SIM and SUMO sites determine the assembly of NS5 proteins into discrete nuclear bodies (NBs). We found that NS5 SIM sites are required for NS5 nuclear localization and that SUMO sites regulate NS5 NB complex constituents, assembly, and function. We reveal that ZIKV NS5 SUMO sites direct NS5 binding to STAT2, disrupt the formation of antiviral PML-STAT2 NBs, and direct PML degradation. ZIKV NS5 SUMO sites also transcriptionally regulate cell cycle and ISG responses that permit ZIKV to persistently infect hBMECs. Our findings demonstrate the function of SUMO sites in ZIKV NS5 NB formation and their importance in regulating nuclear responses that permit ZIKV to persistently infect hBMECs and thereby gain access to neurons.

Swine Promyelocytic Leukemia Isoform II Inhibits Pseudorabies Virus Infection by Suppressing Viral Gene Transcription in Promyelocytic Leukemia Nuclear Bodies

Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) possess an important intrinsic antiviral activity against alphaherpesvirus infection. PML is the structural backbone of NBs, comprising different isoforms. However, the contribution of each isoform to alphaherpesvirus restriction is not well understood. Here, we report the role of PML-NBs and swine PML (sPML) isoforms in pseudorabies virus (PRV) infection in its natural host swine cells. We found that sPML-NBs exhibit an anti-PRV activity in the context of increasing the expression level of endogenous sPML. Of four sPML isoforms cloned and examined, only isoforms sPML-II and -IIa, not sPML-I and -IVa, expressed in a sPML knockout cells inhibit PRV infection. Both the unique 7b region of sPML-II and the sumoylation-dependent normal formation of PML-NBs are required. 7b possesses a transcriptional repression activity and suppresses viral gene transcription during PRV infection with the cysteine residues 589 and 599 being critically involved. We conclude that sPML-NBs inhibit PRV infection partly by repressing viral gene transcription through the 7b region of sPML-II.IMPORTANCE PML-NBs are nuclear sites that mediate the antiviral restriction of alphaherpesvirus gene expression and replication. However, the contribution of each PML isoform to this activity of PML-NBs is not well characterized. Using PRV and its natural host swine cells as a system, we have discovered that the unique C terminus of sPML isoform II is required for PML-NBs to inhibit PRV infection by directly engaging in repression of viral gene transcription. Our study not only confirms in swine cells that PML-NBs have an antiviral function but also presents a mechanism to suggest that PML-NBs inhibit viral infection in an isoform specific manner.

The Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein facilitates human herpesvirus 6B chromosomal integration, immediate-early 1 protein multiSUMOylation and its localization at telomeres

Human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) is a betaherpesvirus capable of integrating its genome into the telomeres of host chromosomes. Until now, the cellular and/or viral proteins facilitating HHV-6B integration have remained elusive. Here we show that a cellular protein, the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) that forms nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), associates with the HHV-6B immediate early 1 (IE1) protein at telomeres. We report enhanced levels of SUMOylated IE1 in the presence of PML and have identified a putative SUMO Interacting Motif (SIM) within IE1, essential for its nuclear distribution, overall SUMOylation and association with PML to nuclear bodies. Furthermore, using PML knockout cell lines we made the original observation that PML is required for efficient HHV-6B integration into host chromosomes. Taken together, we could demonstrate that PML-NBs are important for IE1 multiSUMOylation and that PML plays an important role in HHV-6B integration into chromosomes, a strategy developed by this virus to maintain its genome in its host over long periods of time.

Human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) is a ubiquitous virus that can be life threatening in immunocompromised patients. HHV-6B is among a few other herpesviruses that integrate their genome in host chromosomes as a mean to establish dormancy. Integration of HHV-6B occurs in host telomeres, a region that protects our genome from deterioration and controls the cellular lifespan. To date, the mechanisms leading to HHV-6B integration remain elusive. Our laboratory has identified that the IE1 protein of HHV-6B associates with PML, a cellular protein that is responsible for the regulation of important cellular mechanisms including DNA recombination and repair. With the objective of understanding how IE1 is brought to PML, we discovered that PML aids the SUMOylation of IE1. This finding led us to identify a putative SUMO interaction motif on IE1 that is essentials for both its SUMOylation and IE1 oligomerization with PML-NBs. We next studied the role of PML on HHV-6B integration and identified that cells that are deficient for PML were less susceptible to HHV-6B integration. These results correlate with the fact that PML influences IE1 localization at telomeres, the site of HHV-6B integration. Our study further contributes to our understanding of the mechanisms leading to HHV-6B chromosomal integration.

Revisiting promyelocytic leukemia protein targeting by human cytomegalovirus immediate-early protein 1

Promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies are nuclear organelles implicated in intrinsic and innate antiviral defense. The eponymous PML proteins, central to the self-organization of PML bodies, and other restriction factors found in these organelles are common targets of viral antagonism. The 72-kDa immediate-early protein 1 (IE1) is the principal antagonist of PML bodies encoded by the human cytomegalovirus (hCMV). IE1 is believed to disrupt PML bodies by inhibiting PML SUMOylation, while PML was proposed to act as an E3 ligase for IE1 SUMOylation. PML targeting by IE1 is considered to be crucial for hCMV replication at low multiplicities of infection, in part via counteracting antiviral gene induction linked to the cellular interferon (IFN) response. However, current concepts of IE1-PML interaction are largely derived from mutant IE1 proteins known or predicted to be metabolically unstable and globally misfolded. We performed systematic clustered charge-to-alanine scanning mutagenesis and identified a stable IE1 mutant protein (IE1cc172-176) with wild-type characteristics except for neither interacting with PML proteins nor inhibiting PML SUMOylation. Consequently, IE1cc172-176 does not associate with PML bodies and is selectively impaired for disrupting these organelles. Surprisingly, functional analysis of IE1cc172-176 revealed that the protein is hypermodified by mixed SUMO chains and that IE1 SUMOylation depends on nucleosome rather than PML binding. Furthermore, a mutant hCMV expressing IE1cc172-176 was only slightly attenuated compared to an IE1-null virus even at low multiplicities of infection. Finally, hCMV-induced expression of cytokine and IFN-stimulated genes turned out to be reduced rather than increased in the presence of IE1cc172-176 relative to wild-type IE1. Our findings challenge present views on the relationship of IE1 with PML and the role of PML in hCMV replication. This study also provides initial evidence for the idea that disruption of PML bodies upon viral infection is linked to activation rather than inhibition of innate immunity.

Old dog, new trick: Trivalent arsenic as an immunomodulatory drug

Trivalent arsenic (As(III)) is recently found to be an immunomodulatory agent. As(III) has therapeutic potential in several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in vivo. In vitro, it selectively induces apoptosis of immune cells due to different sensitivity. At a non-toxic level, As(III) shows its multifaceted nature by inducing either pro- or anti-inflammatory functions of immune subsets. These effects are exerted by either As(III)-protein interactions or as a consequence of As(III)-induced homeostasis imbalance. The immunomodulatory properties also show synergistic effects of As(III) with cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the immunomodulatory effects of As(III), focusing on the effects of As(III) on immune subsets in vitro, on mouse models of immune-related diseases, and the role of As(III) in cancer immunotherapy. Updates of the mechanisms of action, the pioneer clinical trials, dosing, and adverse events of therapeutic As(III) are also provided.

The Restrictome of Flaviviruses

Flaviviruses are a genus of mostly arthropod-borne RNA viruses that cause a range of pathologies in humans. Basic knowledge on flaviviruses is rapidly expanding, partly due to their status as frequent emerging or re-emerging pathogens. Flaviviruses include the dengue, Zika, West Nile, tick-borne encephalitis and yellow fever viruses (DENV, ZIKV, WNV, TBEV and YFV, respectively). As is the case with other families of viruses, the success of productive infection of human cells by flaviviruses depends in part on the antiviral activity of a heterogeneous group of cellular antiviral proteins called restriction factors. Restriction factors are the effector proteins of the cell-autonomous innate response against viruses, an immune pathway that also includes virus sensors as well as intracellular and extracellular signal mediators such as type I interferons (IFN-I). In this review, I summarize recent progress toward the identification and characterization of flavivirus restriction factors. In particular, I focus on IFI6, Schlafen 11, FMRP, OAS-RNase L, RyDEN, members of the TRIM family of proteins (TRIM5α, TRIM19, TRIM56, TRIM69 and TRIM79α) and a new mechanism of action proposed for viperin. Recent and future studies on this topic will lead to a more complete picture of the flavivirus restrictome, defined as the ensemble of cellular factors with demonstrated anti-flaviviral activity.

Type I Interferon Regulates a Coordinated Gene Network to Enhance Cytotoxic T Cell-Mediated Tumor Killing

Type I interferons (IFN), which activate many IFN-stimulated genes (ISG), are known to regulate tumorigenesis. However, little is known regarding how various ISGs coordinate with one another in developing antitumor effects. Here, we report that the ISG UBA7 is a tumor suppressor in breast cancer. UBA7 encodes an enzyme that catalyzes the covalent conjugation of the ubiquitin-like protein product of another ISG (ISG15) to cellular proteins in a process known as "ISGylation." ISGylation of other ISGs, including STAT1 and STAT2, synergistically facilitates production of chemokine-receptor ligands to attract cytotoxic T cells. These gene-activation events are further linked to clustering and nuclear relocalization of STAT1/2 within IFN-induced promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies. Importantly, this coordinated ISG-ISGylation network plays a central role in suppressing murine breast cancer growth and metastasis, which parallels improved survival in patients with breast cancer. These findings reveal a cooperative IFN-inducible gene network in orchestrating a tumor-suppressive microenvironment. SIGNIFICANCE: We report a highly cooperative ISG network, in which UBA7-mediated ISGylation facilitates clustering of transcription factors and activates an antitumor gene-expression program. These findings provide mechanistic insights into immune evasion in breast cancer associated with UBA7 loss, emphasizing the importance of a functional ISG-ISGylation network in tumor suppression.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 327.

Bright and Early: Inhibiting Human Cytomegalovirus by Targeting Major Immediate-Early Gene Expression or Protein Function

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), one of eight human herpesviruses, establishes lifelong latent infections in most people worldwide. Primary or reactivated HCMV infections cause severe disease in immunosuppressed patients and congenital defects in children. There is no vaccine for HCMV, and the currently approved antivirals come with major limitations. Most approved HCMV antivirals target late molecular processes in the viral replication cycle including DNA replication and packaging. “Bright and early” events in HCMV infection have not been exploited for systemic prevention or treatment of disease. Initiation of HCMV replication depends on transcription from the viral major immediate-early (IE) gene. Alternative transcripts produced from this gene give rise to the IE1 and IE2 families of viral proteins, which localize to the host cell nucleus. The IE1 and IE2 proteins are believed to control all subsequent early and late events in HCMV replication, including reactivation from latency, in part by antagonizing intrinsic and innate immune responses. Here we provide an update on the regulation of major IE gene expression and the functions of IE1 and IE2 proteins. We will relate this insight to experimental approaches that target IE gene expression or protein function via molecular gene silencing and editing or small chemical inhibitors.

West Nile Virus Infection Blocks Inflammatory Response and T Cell Costimulatory Capacity of Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus and the leading cause of mosquito-borne encephalitis in the United States. Recent studies in humans have found that dysfunctional T cell responses strongly correlate with development of severe WNV neuroinvasive disease. However, the contributions of human dendritic cells (DCs) in priming WNV-specific T cell immunity remains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that human monocyte derived DCs (moDCs) support productive viral replication following infection with a pathogenic strain of WNV. Antiviral effector gene transcription was strongly induced during the log phase of viral growth, while secretion of type I interferons (IFN) occurred with delayed kinetics. Activation of RIG-I like receptor (RLR) or type I IFN signaling prior to log phase viral growth significantly diminished viral replication, suggesting that early activation of antiviral programs can block WNV infection. In contrast to the induction of antiviral responses, WNV infection did not promote transcription or secretion of proinflammatory (interleukin-6 [IL-6], granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF], CCL3, CCL5, and CXCL9) or T cell modulatory (IL-4, IL-12, and IL-15) cytokines. There was also minimal induction of molecules associated with antigen presentation and T cell priming, including the costimulatory molecules CD80, CD86, and CD40. Functionally, WNV-infected moDCs dampened allogenic CD4 and CD8 T cell activation and proliferation. Combining these observations, we propose a model whereby WNV subverts human DC activation to compromise priming of WNV-specific T cell immunity.IMPORTANCE West Nile virus (WNV) is an encephalitic flavivirus that remains endemic in the United States. Previous studies have found dysfunctional T cell responses correlate to severe disease outcomes during human WNV infection. Here, we sought to better understand the ability of WNV to program human dendritic cells (DCs) to prime WNV-specific T cell responses. While productive infection of monocyte-derived DCs activated antiviral and type I interferon responses, molecules associated with inflammation and programming of T cells were minimally induced. Functionally, WNV-infected DCs dampened T cell activation and proliferation during an allogeneic response. Combined, our data support a model whereby WNV infection of human DCs compromises WNV-specific T cell immunity.

The histone chaperone HIRA promotes the induction of host innate immune defences in response to HSV-1 infection

Host innate immune defences play a critical role in restricting the intracellular propagation and pathogenesis of invading viral pathogens. Here we show that the histone H3.3 chaperone HIRA (histone cell cycle regulator) associates with promyelocytic leukaemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) to stimulate the induction of innate immune defences against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection. Following the activation of innate immune signalling, HIRA localized at PML-NBs in a Janus-Associated Kinase (JAK), Cyclin Dependent Kinase (CDK), and Sp100-dependent manner. RNA-seq analysis revealed that HIRA promoted the transcriptional upregulation of a broad repertoire of host genes that regulate innate immunity to HSV-1 infection, including those involved in MHC-I antigen presentation, cytokine signalling, and interferon stimulated gene (ISG) expression. ChIP-seq analysis revealed that PML, the principle scaffolding protein of PML-NBs, was required for the enrichment of HIRA onto ISGs, identifying a role for PML in the HIRA-dependent regulation of innate immunity to virus infection. Our data identifies independent roles for HIRA in the intrinsic silencing of viral gene expression and the induction of innate immune defences to restrict the initiation and propagation of HSV-1 infection, respectively. These intracellular host defences are antagonized by the HSV-1 ubiquitin ligase ICP0, which disrupts the stable recruitment of HIRA to infecting viral genomes and PML-NBs at spatiotemporally distinct phases of infection. Our study highlights the importance of histone chaperones to regulate multiple phases of intracellular immunity to virus infection, findings that are likely to be highly pertinent in the cellular restriction of many clinically important viral pathogens.

Host innate immune defences play critical roles in the cellular restriction of invading viral pathogens and the stimulation of adaptive immune responses. A key component in the regulation of this arm of host immunity is the rapid induction of cytokine signalling and the expression of interferon stimulated gene products (ISGs), which confer a refractory antiviral state to limit virus propagation and pathogenesis. While the signal transduction cascades that activate innate immune defences are well established, little is known about the cellular host factors that expedite the expression of this broad repertoire of antiviral host genes in response to pathogen invasion. Here we show that HIRA, a histone H3.3 chaperone, associates with PML-NBs to stimulate the induction of innate immune defences in response to HSV-1 infection. Our study highlights the importance of histone chaperones in the coordinated regulation of multiple phases of host immunity in response to pathogen invasion and identifies a key role for HIRA in the induction of innate immunity to virus infection.

Transmembrane Protein pUL50 of Human Cytomegalovirus Inhibits ISGylation by Downregulating UBE1L

Interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) encodes a ubiquitin-like protein that can be conjugated to proteins via an enzymatic cascade involving the E1, E2, and E3 enzymes. ISG15 expression and protein ISGylation modulate viral infection; however, the viral mechanisms regulating the function of ISG15 and ISGylation are not well understood. We recently showed that ISGylation suppresses the growth of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) at multiple steps of the virus life cycle and that the virus-encoded pUL26 protein inhibits protein ISGylation. In this study, we demonstrate that the HCMV UL50-encoded transmembrane protein, a component of the nuclear egress complex, also inhibits ISGylation. pUL50 interacted with UBE1L, an E1-activating enzyme for ISGylation, and (to a lesser extent) with ISG15, as did pUL26. However, unlike pUL26, pUL50 caused proteasomal degradation of UBE1L. The UBE1L level induced in human fibroblast cells by interferon beta treatment or virus infection was reduced by pUL50 expression. This activity of pUL50 involved the transmembrane (TM) domain within its C-terminal region, although pUL50 could interact with UBE1L in a manner independent of the TM domain. Consistently, colocalization of pUL50 with UBE1L was observed in cells treated with a proteasome inhibitor. Furthermore, we found that RNF170, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated ubiquitin E3 ligase, interacted with pUL50 and promoted pUL50-mediated UBE1L degradation via ubiquitination. Our results demonstrate a novel role for the pUL50 transmembrane protein of HCMV in the regulation of protein ISGylation.IMPORTANCE Proteins can be conjugated covalently by ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins, such as SUMO and ISG15. ISG15 is highly induced in viral infection, and ISG15 conjugation, termed ISGylation, plays important regulatory roles in viral growth. Although ISGylation has been shown to negatively affect many viruses, including human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), viral countermeasures that might modulate ISGylation are not well understood. In the present study, we show that the transmembrane protein encoded by HCMV UL50 inhibits ISGylation by causing proteasomal degradation of UBE1L, an E1-activating enzyme for ISGylation. This pUL50 activity requires membrane targeting. In support of this finding, RNF170, an ER-associated ubiquitin E3 ligase, interacts with pUL50 and promotes UL50-mediated UBE1L ubiquitination and degradation. Our results provide the first evidence, to our knowledge, that viruses can regulate ISGylation by directly targeting the ISGylation E1 enzyme.

PML: Regulation and multifaceted function beyond tumor suppression

Promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) was originally identified as a fusion partner of retinoic acid receptor alpha in acute promyelocytic leukemia patients with the (15;17) chromosomal translocation, giving rise to PML–RARα and RARα–PML fusion proteins. A body of evidence indicated that PML possesses tumor suppressing activity by regulating apoptosis, cell cycle, senescence and DNA damage responses. PML is enriched in discrete nuclear substructures in mammalian cells with 0.2–1 μm diameter in size, referred to as alternately Kremer bodies, nuclear domain 10, PML oncogenic domains or PML nuclear bodies (NBs). Dysregulation of PML NB formation results in altered transcriptional regulation, protein modification, apoptosis and cellular senescence. In addition to PML NBs, PML is also present in nucleoplasm and cytoplasmic compartments, including the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria-associated membranes. The role of PML in tumor suppression has been extensively studied but increasing evidence indicates that PML also plays versatile roles in stem cell renewal, metabolism, inflammatory responses, neural function, mammary development and angiogenesis. In this review, we will briefly describe the known PML regulation and function and include new findings.

Distinct temporal roles for the promyelocytic leukaemia (PML) protein in the sequential regulation of intracellular host immunity to HSV-1 infection

Detection of viral nucleic acids plays a critical role in the induction of intracellular host immune defences. However, the temporal recruitment of immune regulators to infecting viral genomes remains poorly defined due to the technical difficulties associated with low genome copy-number detection. Here we utilize 5-Ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) labelling of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) DNA in combination with click chemistry to examine the sequential recruitment of host immune regulators to infecting viral genomes under low multiplicity of infection conditions. Following viral genome entry into the nucleus, PML-nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) rapidly entrapped viral DNA (vDNA) leading to a block in viral replication in the absence of the viral PML-NB antagonist ICP0. This pre-existing intrinsic host defence to infection occurred independently of the vDNA pathogen sensor IFI16 (Interferon Gamma Inducible Protein 16) and the induction of interferon stimulated gene (ISG) expression, demonstrating that vDNA entry into the nucleus alone is not sufficient to induce a robust innate immune response. Saturation of this pre-existing intrinsic host defence during HSV-1 ICP0-null mutant infection led to the stable recruitment of PML and IFI16 into vDNA complexes associated with ICP4, and led to the induction of ISG expression. This induced innate immune response occurred in a PML-, IFI16-, and Janus-Associated Kinase (JAK)-dependent manner and was restricted by phosphonoacetic acid, demonstrating that vDNA polymerase activity is required for the robust induction of ISG expression during HSV-1 infection. Our data identifies dual roles for PML in the sequential regulation of intrinsic and innate immunity to HSV-1 infection that are dependent on viral genome delivery to the nucleus and the onset of vDNA replication, respectively. These intracellular host defences are counteracted by ICP0, which targets PML for degradation from the outset of nuclear infection to promote vDNA release from PML-NBs and the onset of HSV-1 lytic replication.

Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia: A Paradigm for Oncoprotein-Targeted Cure

Recent clinical trials have demonstrated that the immense majority of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) patients can be definitively cured by the combination of two targeted therapies: retinoic acid (RA) and arsenic. Mouse models have provided unexpected insights into the mechanisms involved. Restoration of PML nuclear bodies upon RA- and/or arsenic-initiated PML/RARA degradation is essential, while RA-triggered transcriptional activation is dispensable for APL eradication. Mutations of the arsenic-binding site of PML/RARA, but also PML, have been detected in therapy-resistant patients, demonstrating the key role of PML in APL cure. PML nuclear bodies are druggable and could be harnessed in other conditions.

Oncostatin M induces RIG-I and MDA5 expression and enhances the double-stranded RNA response in fibroblasts

Interleukin (IL)-6-type cytokines have no direct antiviral activity; nevertheless, they display immune-modulatory functions. Oncostatin M (OSM), a member of the IL-6 family, has recently been shown to induce a distinct number of classical interferon stimulated genes (ISG). Most of them are involved in antigen processing and presentation. However, induction of retinoic acid-inducible gene (RIG)-I-like receptors (RLR) has not been investigated. Here we report that OSM has the capability to induce the expression of the DExD/H-Box RNA helicases RIG-I and melanoma differentiation antigen 5 (MDA5) as well as of the transcription factors interferon regulatory factor (IRF)1, IRF7 and IRF9 in primary fibroblasts. Induction of the helicases depends on tyrosine as well as serine phosphorylation of STAT1. Moreover, we could show that the OSM-induced STAT1 phosphorylation is predominantly counter-regulated by a strong STAT3-dependent SOCS3 induction, as Stat3 as well as Socs3 knock-down results in an enhanced and prolonged helicase and IRF expression. Other factors involved in regulation of STAT1 or IRF1 activity, like protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 2 (PTPN2), promyelocytic leukaemia protein (PML) or small ubiquitin-related modifier 1 (SUMO1), play a minor role in OSM-mediated induction of RLR. Remarkably, OSM and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) synergize to mediate transcription of RLR and pre-treatment of fibroblasts with OSM fosters the type I interferon production in response to a subsequent encounter with double-stranded RNA. Together, these findings suggest that the OSM-induced JAK/STAT1 signalling is implicated in virus protection of non-professional immune cells and may cooperate with interferons to enhance RLR expression in these cells.

Histone Deacetylase 2 Is a Component of Influenza A Virus-Induced Host Antiviral Response

Host cells produce variety of antiviral factors that create an antiviral state and target various stages of influenza A virus (IAV) life cycle to inhibit infection. However, IAV has evolved various strategies to antagonize those antiviral factors. Recently, we reported that a member of class I host histone deacetylases (HDACs), HDAC1 possesses an anti-IAV function. Herein, we provide evidence that HDAC2, another class I member and closely related to HDAC1 in structure and function, also possesses anti-IAV properties. In turn, IAV, like HDAC1, dysregulates HDAC2, mainly at the polypeptide level through proteasomal degradation to potentially minimize its antiviral effect. We found that IAV downregulated the HDAC2 polypeptide level in A549 cells in an H1N1 strain-independent manner by up to 47%, which was recovered to almost 100% level in the presence of proteasome-inhibitor MG132. A further knockdown in HDAC2 expression by up to 90% via RNA interference augmented the growth kinetics of IAV in A549 cells by more than four-fold after 24 h of infection. Furthermore, the knockdown of HDAC2 expression decreased the IAV-induced phosphorylation of the transcription factor, Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription I (STAT1) and the expression of interferon-stimulated gene, viperin in infected cells by 41 and 53%, respectively. The role of HDAC2 in viperin expression was analogous to that of HDAC1, but it was not in the phosphorylation of STAT1. This indicated that, like HDAC1, HDAC2 is a component of IAV-induced host innate antiviral response and performs both redundant and non-redundant functions vis-a-vis HDAC1; however, IAV dysregulates them both in a redundant manner.

Nuclear domain 10 components upregulated via interferon during human cytomegalovirus infection potently regulate viral infection

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous betaherpesvirus that causes life-threatening disease in immunocompromised and immunonaïve individuals. Type I interferons (IFNs) are crucial molecules in the innate immune response to HCMV and are also known to upregulate several components of the interchromosomal multiprotein aggregates collectively referred to as nuclear domain 10 (ND10). In the context of herpesvirus infection, ND10 components are known to restrict gene expression. This raises the question as to whether key ND10 components (PML, Sp100 and hDaxx) act as anti-viral IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) during HCMV infection. In this study, analysis of ND10 component transcription during HCMV infection demonstrated that PML and Sp100 were significantly upregulated whilst hDaxx expression remained unchanged. In cells engineered to block the production of, or response to, type I IFNs, upregulation of PML and Sp100 was not detected during HCMV infection. Furthermore, pre-treatment with an IFN-β neutralizing antibody inhibited upregulation of PML and Sp100 during both infection and treatment with HCMV-infected cell supernatant. The significance of ND10 components functioning as anti-viral ISGs during HCMV infection was determined through knockdown of PML, Sp100 and hDaxx. ND10 knockdown cells were significantly more permissive to HCMV infection, as previously described but, in contrast to control cells, could support HCMV plaque formation following IFN-β pre-treatment. This ability of HCMV to overcome the potently anti-viral effects of IFN-β in ND10 expression deficient cells provides evidence that ND10 component upregulation is a key mediator of the anti-viral activity of IFN-β.

Gene Knockout Shows That PML (TRIM19) Does Not Restrict the Early Stages of HIV-1 Infection in Human Cell Lines

PML is involved in innate immune mechanisms against both DNA and RNA viruses. Although the mechanism by which PML inhibits highly divergent viruses is unclear, it was recently found that it can increase the transcription of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). However, whether human PML inhibits HIV-1 has been debated. Here we provide unambiguous, knockout-based evidence that PML does not restrict the early postentry stages of HIV-1 infection in a variety of human cell types and does not participate in the inhibition of HIV-1 by IFN-I. Although this study does not exclude the possibility of other mechanisms by which PML may interfere with HIV-1, we nonetheless demonstrate that PML does not generally act as an HIV-1 restriction factor in human cells and that its presence is not required for IFN-I to stimulate the expression of anti-HIV-1 genes. These results contribute to uncovering the landscape of HIV-1 inhibition by ISGs in human cells.

The PML (promyelocytic leukemia) protein is a member of the TRIM family, a large group of proteins that show high diversity in functions but possess a common tripartite motif giving the family its name. We and others recently reported that both murine PML (mPML) and human PML (hPML) strongly restrict the early stages of infection by HIV-1 and other lentiviruses when expressed in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). This restriction activity was found to contribute to the type I interferon (IFN-I)-mediated inhibition of HIV-1 in MEFs. Additionally, PML caused transcriptional repression of the HIV-1 promoter in MEFs. In contrast, the modulation of the early stages of HIV-1 infection of human cells by PML has been investigated by RNA interference, with unclear results. In order to conclusively determine whether PML restricts HIV-1 or not in human cells, we used the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat with Cas9 (CRISPR-Cas9) system to knock out its gene in epithelial, lymphoid, and monocytic human cell lines. Infection challenges showed that PML knockout had no effect on the permissiveness of these cells to HIV-1 infection. IFN-I treatments inhibited HIV-1 equally whether PML was expressed or not. Overexpression of individual hPML isoforms, or of mPML, in a human T cell line did not restrict HIV-1. The presence of PML was not required for the restriction of nonhuman retroviruses by TRIM5α (another human TRIM protein), and TRIM5α was inhibited by arsenic trioxide through a PML-independent mechanism. We conclude that PML is not a restriction factor for HIV-1 in human cell lines representing diverse lineages.

IMPORTANCE PML is involved in innate immune mechanisms against both DNA and RNA viruses. Although the mechanism by which PML inhibits highly divergent viruses is unclear, it was recently found that it can increase the transcription of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). However, whether human PML inhibits HIV-1 has been debated. Here we provide unambiguous, knockout-based evidence that PML does not restrict the early postentry stages of HIV-1 infection in a variety of human cell types and does not participate in the inhibition of HIV-1 by IFN-I. Although this study does not exclude the possibility of other mechanisms by which PML may interfere with HIV-1, we nonetheless demonstrate that PML does not generally act as an HIV-1 restriction factor in human cells and that its presence is not required for IFN-I to stimulate the expression of anti-HIV-1 genes. These results contribute to uncovering the landscape of HIV-1 inhibition by ISGs in human cells.

The essential role of guinea pig cytomegalovirus (GPCMV) IE1 and IE2 homologs in viral replication and IE1-mediated ND10 targeting

Guinea pig cytomegalovirus (GPCMV) immediate early proteins, IE1 and IE2, demonstrated structural and functional homologies with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). GPCMV IE1 and IE2 co-localized in the nucleus with each other, the viral polymerase and guinea pig ND10 components (gpPML, gpDaxx, gpSp100, gpATRX). IE1 showed direct interaction with ND10 components by immunoprecipitation unlike IE2. Additionally, IE1 protein disrupted ND10 bodies. IE1 mutagenesis mapped the nuclear localization signal to the C-terminus and identified the core domain for gpPML interaction. Individual knockout of GPCMV GP122 or GP123 (IE2 and IE1 unique exons respectively) was lethal to the virus. However, an IE1 mutant (codons 234-474 deleted), was viable with attenuated viral growth kinetics and increased susceptibility to type I interferon (IFN-I). In HCMV, the IE proteins are important T cell target antigens. Consequently, characterization of the homologs in GPCMV provides a basis for their evaluation in candidate vaccines against congenital infection.

Human cytomegalovirus detection in gastric cancer and its possible association with lymphatic metastasis

Increasing evidence suggests that human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is associated with many human malignancies. However, its prevalence in gastric cancer (GC) and clinical association remain unknown. HCMV IgG and IgM antibodies in the sera of 80 GC patients and 80 healthy controls were detected using a microparticle enzyme immunoassay. The prevalence of HCMV UL47, UL55, UL56, and UL77 genes among 102 GC tumor tissues and adjacent normal specimens was measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or nested PCR. Quantitative real-time PCR (Q-PCR) was used to determine viral load. Virus localization in neoplastic tissues was determined by immunohistochemistry. No significant difference of HCMV IgG and IgM seropositivity was found between GC patients and the healthy group. However, the overall HCMV DNA positivity rate was significantly higher in GC cancerous tissue compared with in paired normal tissue (P<0.01). HCMV infection was mainly localized in the tumorous epithelium. Q-PCR in HCMV-positive specimens indicated that the viral copy number was notably higher in GC tissues than in adjacent normal specimens (P<0.001). Clinical statistical analysis indicated that HCMV load in GC tumor tissue was positively associated with lymphatic metastasis (P=0.043), the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.6638. Our data clearly provide the prevalence of HCMV in GC patients. We conclude that HCMV infection in malignant tissues might be associated with carcinogenesis or progression of GC and possibly relates to lymphatic metastasis.

Murine Cytomegalovirus Deubiquitinase Regulates Viral Chemokine Levels To Control Inflammation and Pathogenesis

Maintaining control over inflammatory processes represents a paradox for viral pathogens. Although many viruses induce host inflammatory responses to facilitate infection, control is necessary to avoid overactivation. One way is through the manipulation of proinflammatory chemokine levels, both host and viral. Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), a model betaherpesvirus, encodes a viral C-C chemokine, MCK2, which promotes host inflammatory responses and incorporates into virions to facilitate viral dissemination. Here, we show that the activity of M48, the conserved MCMV deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB), regulates MCK2 levels during infection. Inactivation of M48 DUB activity results in viral attenuation and exacerbates virally induced, MCK2-dependent inflammatory responses. M48 DUB activity also influences MCK2 incorporation into virions. Importantly, attenuation of DUB-mutant virus acute replication in vitro and in vivo is largely ameliorated by targeted deletion of MCK2. Thus, uncontrolled MCK2 levels appear to mediate DUB-mutant virus attenuation in specific tissues or cell types. This demonstrates that MCMV M48 DUB activity plays a previously unappreciated role in controlling MCK2 levels, thereby managing MCK2-dependent processes. These findings reveal a novel intrinsic control mechanism of virally induced inflammation and support the identification of betaherpesvirus DUBs as possible new targets for antiviral therapies.

Human cytomegalovirus infections represent a tremendous burden not only to those afflicted but also to health care systems worldwide. As cytomegalovirus infections are a leading cause of nongenetic sensory loss and neurodevelopmental delay, it is imperative that valuable model systems exist in order that we might understand what viral factors contribute to replication and pathogenesis. Currently, the only approved drug treatments against CMV infection are nucleoside analogues, to which some strains have become resistant. Understanding unique viral enzymatic contributions to infections will allow the development of novel pharmacological therapies. Here, we show that M48, the conserved MCMV deubiquitinase, is critical for MCMV replication in mice and demonstrate that attenuation is due to deregulated production of a viral proinflammatory chemokine. The deubiquitinases of both human and murine CMV represent structurally unique DUBs and are therefore attractive targets for pharmacological intervention. Continued research into the substrates of these DUBs will lend additional insight into their potential as targets.

Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein (PML) Controls Listeria monocytogenes Infection

The promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) is the main organizer of stress-responsive subnuclear structures called PML nuclear bodies. These structures recruit multiple interactors and modulate their abundance or their posttranslational modifications, notably by the SUMO ubiquitin-like modifiers. The involvement of PML in antiviral responses is well established. In contrast, the role of PML in bacterial infection remains poorly characterized. Here, we show that PML restricts infection by the pathogenic bacterium Listeria monocytogenes but not by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. During infection, PML undergoes oxidation-mediated multimerization, associates with the nuclear matrix, and becomes de-SUMOylated due to the pore-forming activity of the Listeria toxin listeriolysin O (LLO). These events trigger an antibacterial response that is not observed during in vitro infection by an LLO-defective Listeria mutant, but which can be phenocopied by specific induction of PML de-SUMOylation. Using transcriptomic and proteomic microarrays, we also characterized a network of immunity genes and cytokines, which are regulated by PML in response to Listeria infection but independently from the listeriolysin O toxin. Our study thus highlights two mechanistically distinct complementary roles of PML in host responses against bacterial infection.

IMPORTANCE

The promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) is a eukaryotic protein that can polymerize in discrete nuclear assemblies known as PML nuclear bodies (NBs) and plays essential roles in many different cellular processes. Key to its function, PML can be posttranslationally modified by SUMO, a ubiquitin-like modifier. Identification of the role of PML in antiviral defenses has been deeply documented. In contrast, the role of PML in antibacterial defenses remains elusive. Here, we identify two mechanistically distinct complementary roles of PML in antibacterial responses against pathogens such as Listeria: (i) we show that PML regulates the expression of immunity genes in response to bacterial infection, and (ii) we unveil the fact that modification of PML SUMOylation by bacterial pore-forming toxins is sensed as a danger signal, leading to a restriction of bacterial intracellular multiplication. Taken together, our data reinforce the concept that intranuclear bodies can dynamically regulate important processes, such as defense against invaders.