Lipoprotein Biomarkers and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Laboratory Medicine Best Practices (LMBP) Systematic Review

A Narrative Review of the Role of Blood Biomarkers in the Risk Prediction of Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a global health crisis and a leading cause of morbidities and mortalities. Biomarkers whose evaluation would allow the detection of CVD at an early stage of development are actively sought. Biomarkers are objectively measured as indicators of health, disease, or response to an exposure or intervention, including therapeutic interventions. Hence, this review aims to identify biomarkers that can help predict CVD risk in the healthy population. This helps with risk prediction and is crucial for advancing preventive cardiology and improving clinical outcomes in a wide range of patient populations. Biomarkers such as atherogenic lipoproteins, fibrinogen, homocysteine, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) have been linked to CVD risk factors, including dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. When combined with conventional biomarkers, inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) can enhance risk prediction. However, biomarkers such as high-sensitivity troponin T (hsTnT) and N-terminal proBNP (NT-proBNP) are widely used as diagnostic biomarkers for heart failure (HF) and cardiac dysfunction, as they are released only after one to two hours of cardiovascular event occurrence. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and procalcitonin (PCT) have developed into promising new biomarkers for the early detection of systemic bacterial infections as inflammatory markers, which are better diagnostic tools than screening. Combining biomarkers can improve test accuracy, but the best combinations for diagnosis or prognosis must be identified.

Apolipoprotein B - An ideal biomarker for atherosclerosis?

This review article describes the pathophysiological mechanisms linking Apolipoprotein B (Apo-B) and atherosclerosis, summarizes the existing evidence on Apo B as a predictor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and recommendations of (inter)national treatment guidelines regarding Apo B in dyslipidemia management. A single Apo B molecule is present in every particle of very low-density lipoprotein, intermediate density lipoprotein, low density lipoprotein, and lipoprotein(a). This unique single Apo B per particle ratio makes plasma Apo B concentration a direct measure of the number of circulating atherogenic lipoproteins. This review of global evidence on Apo B as a biomarker for atherosclerosis confirms that Apo B is a single atherogenic lipid marker present in all lipids sub-fractions except HDL-C, and thus, Apo B integrates and extends the information from triglycerides and cholesterol, which could simplify and improve care for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Unveiling the Role of Biomarkers in Cardiovascular Risk Assessment and Prognosis

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, necessitating innovative approaches for accurate risk assessment and prognosis. This review explores the evolving role of biomarkers in advancing cardiovascular risk evaluation and prognostication. Utilizing cardiac biomarkers that represent diverse pathophysiological pathways has the potential to enhance risk stratification for CVD. We delve into the intricate molecular signatures indicative of cardiovascular health, focusing on established biomarkers such as troponins, natriuretic peptides, and lipid profiles while also examining emerging candidates like microRNAs and inflammatory markers. This review provides a holistic perspective on the current landscape of cardiovascular biomarkers, offering insights into their applications in risk assessment and prognosis. In evaluating the risk and prognosis of heart failure (HF), the measurement of natriuretic peptides (B-type natriuretic peptide [BNP] or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide [NT-proBNP]) or markers of myocardial injury (cardiac troponin I [TnI] or T [TnT]) has demonstrated utility. By elucidating the synergistic interplay between traditional markers and cutting-edge technologies, this work aims to guide future research endeavors and clinical practices, ultimately contributing to more effective strategies for risk assessment and prognosis of cardiovascular disease.

A synthesis of pathways linking diet, metabolic risk and cardiovascular disease: a framework to guide further research and approaches to evidence-based practice

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common non-communicable disease occurring globally. Although previous literature has provided useful insights into the important role that diet plays in CVD prevention and treatment, understanding the causal role of diets is a difficult task considering inherent and introduced weaknesses of observational (e.g. not properly addressing confounders and mediators) and experimental research designs (e.g. not appropriate or well designed). In this narrative review, we organised current evidence linking diet, as well as conventional and emerging physiological risk factors, with CVD risk, incidence and mortality in a series of diagrams. The diagrams presented can aid causal inference studies as they provide a visual representation of the types of studies underlying the associations between potential risk markers/factors for CVD. This may facilitate the selection of variables to be considered and the creation of analytical models. Evidence depicted in the diagrams was systematically collected from studies included in the British Nutrition Task Force report on diet and CVD and database searches, including Medline and Embase. Although several markers and disorders linked to conventional and emerging risk factors for CVD were identified, the causal link between many remains unknown. There is a need to address the multifactorial nature of CVD and the complex interplay between conventional and emerging risk factors with natural and built environments, while bringing the life course into the spotlight.

Association of apolipoproteins and lipoprotein(a) with metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Apolipoproteins and lipoprotein(a) are associated with various cardiometabolic diseases, including insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, among others. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the association of these markers with metabolic syndrome (MetS).

METHODS

We ran a systematic search through PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Ovid/Medline, and Web of Science on March 15, 2023. No language or date restrictions were applied. The only synthesised effect measure reported was the odds ratio (OR) with its corresponding 95% confidence interval (95% CI). We utilised the random-effects model for the quantitative synthesis.

RESULTS

We analysed 50 studies (n = 150 519) with different definitions for MetS. Increased ApoB values were associated with MetS (OR = 2.8; 95% CI: 2.44-3.22; p < 0.01, I² = 99%). Decreased ApoA1 values were associated with MetS (OR = 0.42; 95% CI: 0.38-0.47; p < 0.01, I² = 99%). Increased values of the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio were associated with MetS (OR = 4.97; 95% CI: 3.83-6.44; p < 0.01, I² = 97%). Decreased values of Lp(a) were associated with MetS (OR = 0.89; 95% CI: 0.82-0.96; p < 0.01; I² = 92%).

CONCLUSIONS

Increased values of ApoB and ApoB/ApoA1 ratio are associated with MetS, while decreased values of ApoA1 and Lp(a) are associated with MetS. These findings suggest that these lipid markers may serve as potential indicators for identifying subjects at risk of developing MetS. However, further research is required to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of these associations.

Protective mechanisms of a microbial oil against hypercholesterolemia: evidence from a zebrafish model

A Western diet elevates the circulating lipoprotein and triglyceride levels which are the major risk factors in cardiovascular disease (CVD) development. Consumption of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids can stall the disease progression. Although these fatty acids can significantly impact the intestine under a hypercholesterolemic condition, the associated changes have not been studied in detail. Therefore, we investigated the alterations in the intestinal transcriptome along with the deviations in the plasma lipids and liver histomorphology of zebrafish offered DHA- and EPA-rich oil. Fish were allocated to 4 dietary treatments: a control group, a high cholesterol group and microbial oil groups with low (3.3%) and high (6.6%) inclusion levels. We quantified the total cholesterol, lipoprotein and triglyceride levels in the plasma. In addition, we assessed the liver histology, intestinal transcriptome and plasma lipidomic profiles of the study groups. The results suggested that higher levels of dietary microbial oil could control the CVD risk factor indices in zebrafish plasma. Furthermore, microbial oil-fed fish had fewer liver vacuoles and higher mRNA levels of genes involved in β-oxidation and HDL maturation. Analyses of the intestine transcriptome revealed that microbial oil supplementation could influence the expression of genes altered by a hypercholesterolemic diet. The plasma lipidomic profiles revealed that the higher level of microbial oil tested could elevate the long-chain poly-unsaturated fatty acid content of triglyceride species and lower the concentration of several lysophosphatidylcholine and diacylglycerol molecules. Our study provides insights into the effectiveness of microbial oil against dyslipidemia in zebrafish.

Apolipoprotein Particle and Cardiovascular Risk Prediction (from a Prospective Cohort Study)

The present study aimed to examine the association between discordant apolipoprotein B (Apo B) with low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) or non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in the Chinese population and to determine whether adding information on Apo B to LDL-C and HDL-C improves CVD risk prediction. This study collected data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey from 2009 to 2015. Discordant Apo B with LDL-C and non-HDL-C were defined based on residual differences and medians. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between discordant Apo B with LDL-C or non-HDL-C and CVD risk. Areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve and categorical net reclassification improvement were utilized to assess the incremental predictive value of Apo B levels for CVD risk. A total of 7,117 participants were included, the mean age was 50.8 ± 14.3 years, 53.6% were female. During the 6-year follow-up, 207 CVD cases were identified. Participants with discordant high Apo B relative to LDL-C or non-HDL-C were at higher risk of CVD than those with the concordant group (odds ratio 1.38, 95% confidence interval 1.01 to 1.87; odds ratio 1.40, 95% confidence interval 1.01 to 1.94, respectively). However, Apo B had no significant contribution to the predictive value of the China atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) risk score (areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve 0.788 for China ASCVD score alone vs 0.790 for China ASCVD score plus Apo B). In conclusion, Apo B has the strongest association with CVD risk in healthy Chinese participants than LDL-C and non-HDL-C. However, it has minimal value in CVD risk assessment and discrimination.

Estimating the Effect of Aerobic Exercise Training on Novel Lipid Biomarkers: A Systematic Review and Multivariate Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

Aerobic exercise training (AET) prescribed as lipid management treatment positively affects the standard lipid profile and reduces cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Apolipoproteins, lipid and apolipoprotein ratios, and lipoprotein sub-fractions may more effectively predict CVD risk than the standard lipid profile but an AET response in these biomarkers has not been established.

OBJECTIVES

We conducted a quantitative systematic review of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to (1) determine the effects of AET on lipoprotein sub-fractions, apolipoproteins and relevant ratios; and (2) identify study or intervention covariates associated with change in these biomarkers.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, all Web of Science and EBSCO health and medical online databases from inception to 31 December 2021. We included published RCTs of adult humans with ≥ 10 per group of participants; an AET intervention duration ≥ 12 weeks of at least moderate intensity (> 40% maximum oxygen consumption); and reporting pre/post measurements. Non-sedentary subjects, or those with chronic disease other than Metabolic Syndrome factors, or pregnant/lactating, as well as trials testing diet/medications, or resistance/isometric/unconventional training interventions, were excluded.

RESULTS

Fifty-seven RCTs totalling 3194 participants were analysed. Multivariate meta-analysis showed AET significantly raised antiatherogenic apolipoproteins and lipoprotein sub-fractions (mmol/L mean difference (MD) 0.047 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.011, 0.082), P = .01); lowered atherogenic apoliproteins and lipoprotein sub-fractions (mmol/L MD - 0.08 (95% CI - 0.161, 0.0003), P = .05); and improved atherogenic lipid ratios (MD - 0.201 (95% CI - 0.291, - 0.111), P < .0001). Multivariate meta-regression showed intervention variables contributed to change in lipid, sub-fraction, and apoliprotein ratios.

CONCLUSION

Aerobic exercise training positively impacts atherogenic lipid and apolipoprotein ratios, alipoproteins, and lipoprotein sub-fractions; and antiatherogenic apolipoproteins and lipoprotein sub-fractions. Cardiovascular disease risk predicted by these biomarkers may be lowered when AET is prescribed as treatment or prevention.

PROSPERO ID

CRD42020151925.

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein associates with cardiovascular disease by a vicious cycle of atherosclerosis and inflammation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is an established marker for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and a therapeutic target. Oxidized LDL (oxLDL) is known to be associated with excessive inflammation and abnormal lipoprotein metabolism. Chronic inflammatory diseases confer an elevated risk of premature atherosclerosis and adverse cardiovascular events. Whether oxLDL may serve as a potential biomarker for CVD stratification in populations with chronic inflammatory conditions remains understudied.

Objective

To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis evaluating the relationship between oxLDL and CVD (defined by incident CVD events, carotid intima-media thickness, presence of coronary plaque) in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases.

Methods

A systematic literature search was performed using studies published between 2000 and 2022 from PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase (Elsevier), CINHAL (EBSCOhost), Scopus (Elsevier), and Web of Science: Core Collection (Clarivate Analytics) databases on the relationship between oxLDL and cardiovascular risk on inflamed population. The pooled effect size was combined using the random effect model and publication bias was assessed if P < 0.05 for the Egger or Begg test along with the funnel plot test.

Results

A total of three observational studies with 1,060 participants were ultimately included in the final meta-analysis. The results demonstrated that oxLDL is significantly increased in participants with CVD in the setting of chronic inflammatory conditions. This meta-analysis suggests that oxLDL may be a useful biomarker in risk stratifying cardiovascular disease in chronically inflamed patients.

Association between circulating oxidized OxLDL/LDL-C ratio and the severity of coronary atherosclerosis, along with other emerging biomarkers of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes

AIMS

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between circulating oxLDL/LDL-C ratio and the severity of coronary atherosclerosis, along with other emerging biomarkers of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in patients with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

We recruited 152 patients with type 2 diabetes for our study. ELISA measured the plasma levels of oxLDL and other biomarkers. The severity of coronary lesions was evaluated using Gensini scores, which were calculated based on results of coronary computed tomographic angiography (CCTA). All patients were allocated into four groups according to CCTA findings and Gensini score: normal group (score = 0), mild coronary atherosclerosis group (0 < scores ≤ 3), moderate coronary atherosclerosis group (3.01 ≤ scores ≤ 32.67) and severe coronary atherosclerosis group (32.68 ≤ scores ≤ 180). Association between the oxLDL/LDL-C ratio and the severity of coronary atherosclerosis were evaluated using logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the oxLDL/LDL-C ratio was positively associated with severity of coronary atherosclerosis (OR 2.03, 95% CI 1.31-3.14, p < 0.01). Interleukin 33 (IL33) correlated positively with oxLDL/LDL-C ratio (r = 0.274, p < 0.01). However, vascular cell adhesion molecular-1 (VCAM-1) had similar trends with oxLDL/LDL-C ratio in these 4 groups.

CONCLUSIONS

OxLDL/LDL-C ratio is considered as a potential biomarker in patients with diabetes for early recognition and intervention of severe coronary atherosclerosis, and will be more effective if tested IL33 and VCAM-1 at the same time.

Extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins - Smart messengers of blood cells in the circulation

Blood cell-derived extracellular vesicles (BCEVs) and lipoproteins are the major circulating nanoparticles in blood that play an important role in intercellular communication. They have attracted significant interest for clinical applications, given their endogenous characteristics which make them stable, biocompatible, well tolerated, and capable of permeating biological barriers efficiently. In this review, we describe the basic characteristics of BCEVs and lipoproteins and summarize their implications in both physiological and pathological processes. We also outline well accepted workflows for the isolation and characterization of these circulating nanoparticles. Importantly, we highlight the latest progress and challenges associated with the use of circulating nanoparticles as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic interventions in multiple diseases. We spotlight novel engineering approaches and designs to facilitate the development of these nanoparticles by enhancing their stability, targeting capability, and delivery efficiency. Therefore, the present work provides a comprehensive overview of composition, biogenesis, functions, and clinical translation of circulating nanoparticles from the bench to the bedside.

Apolipoprotein B and Cardiovascular Disease: Biomarker and Potential Therapeutic Target

Apolipoprotein (apo) B, the critical structural protein of the atherogenic lipoproteins, has two major isoforms: apoB48 and apoB100. ApoB48 is found in chylomicrons and chylomicron remnants with one apoB48 molecule per chylomicron particle. Similarly, a single apoB100 molecule is contained per particle of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate density lipoprotein, LDL and lipoprotein(a). This unique one apoB per particle ratio makes plasma apoB concentration a direct measure of the number of circulating atherogenic lipoproteins. ApoB levels indicate the atherogenic particle concentration independent of the particle cholesterol content, which is variable. While LDL, the major cholesterol-carrying serum lipoprotein, is the primary therapeutic target for management and prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, there is strong evidence that apoB is a more accurate indicator of cardiovascular risk than either total cholesterol or LDL cholesterol. This review examines multiple aspects of apoB structure and function, with a focus on the controversy over use of apoB as a therapeutic target in clinical practice. Ongoing coronary artery disease residual risk, despite lipid-lowering treatment, has left patients and clinicians with unsatisfactory options for monitoring cardiovascular health. At the present time, the substitution of apoB for LDL-C in cardiovascular disease prevention guidelines has been deemed unjustified, but discussions continue.

Inclisiran-Silencing the Cholesterol, Speaking up the Prognosis

The reduction of circulating low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) is a primary target in cardiovascular risk reduction due to its well-established benefits in terms of decreased mortality. Despite the use of statin therapy, 10%-20% of high- and very-high-risk patients do not reach their LDL-C targets. There is an urgent need for improved strategies to manage dyslipidemia, especially among patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, but also in patients with established cardiovascular disease who fail to achieve LDL goals despite combined statin, ezetimibe, and PCSK9 inhibitor (PCSK9i) therapy. Inclisiran is a disruptive, first-in-class small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutic developed for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia that inhibits proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (PCSK9) synthesis, thereby upregulating the number of LDL receptors on the hepatocytes, thus lowering the plasma LDL-C concentration. Inclisiran decreases the LDL-C levels by over 50% with one dose every 6 months, making it a simple and well-tolerated treatment strategy. In this review, we summarize the general information regarding (i) the role of LDL-C in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, (ii) data regarding the role of PCSK9 in cholesterol metabolism, (iii) pleiotropic effects of PCSK9, and (iv) the effects of PCSK9 silencing. In addition, we focus on inclisiran, in terms of its (i) mechanism of action, (ii) biological efficacy and safety, (iii) results from the ORION trials, (iv) benefits of its combination with statins, and (v) its potential future role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Circulating lipid and lipoprotein profiles and their correlation to cardiac function and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute myocardial infarction

Recent studies showed that lipoproteins represent major risk factors, both positive and negative, for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The aim of the present study was to describe the relationship between plasma lipid profile and cardiac function and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Two independent groups of subjects including a total of 797 patients diagnosed of AMI undergoing PCI admitted to the First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University were included in the present study. We performed a cross-sectional study for the correlation between plasma lipid profile and cardiac function based on the first group, including 503 patients with AMI. We further validated the correlation and did the follow-up of 2.4 years of major cardiovascular outcomes on the second group, including 294 patients with AMI. Our results showed that apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) level was significantly reduced, and the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C):ApoA-I ratio was increased in the patients with lower LVEF or higher N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide levels compared with the control; there was a positive correlation between cardiac function and ApoA-I, and a negative correlation between cardiac function and the HDL-C:ApoA-I ratio. Meanwhile, multivariate Cox analysis showed that ApoA-I was independent predictors of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed the ApoA-I levels exhibited a significant effect on predicting the incidence of MACEs. In sum, plasma ApoA-I level is positively associated with the cardiac function of patients with AMI after PCI, and ApoA-I is an independent indicator to predict the incidence of MACEs.

Consumption of High-Oleic Soybean Oil Improves Lipid and Lipoprotein Profile in Humans Compared to a Palm Oil Blend: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Partially hydrogenated oils (PHO) have been removed from the food supply due to adverse effects on risk for coronary heart disease (CHD). High-oleic soybean oils (HOSBO) are alternatives that provide functionality for different food applications. The objective of this study was to determine how consumption of diets containing HOSBO compared to other alternative oils, with similar functional properties, modifies LDL cholesterol (LDLc) and other risk factors and biomarkers of CHD. A triple-blind, crossover, randomized controlled trial was conducted in humans (n = 60) with four highly-controlled diets containing (1) HOSBO, (2) 80:20 blend of HOSBO and fully hydrogenated soybean oil (HOSBO+FHSBO), (3) soybean oil (SBO), and (4) 50:50 blend of palm oil and palm kernel oil (PO + PKO). Before and after 29 days of feeding, lipids/lipoproteins, blood pressure, body composition, and markers of inflammation, oxidation, and hemostasis were measured. LDLc, apolipoprotein B (apoB), NonHDL-cholesterol (HDLc), ratios of total cholesterol (TC)-to-HDLc and LDLc-to-HDL cholesterol, and LDL particle number and small LDL particles concentration were lower after HOSBO and HOSBO+FHSBO compared to PO (specific comparisons p < 0.05). Other than TC:HDL, there were no differences in lipid/lipoprotein markers when comparing HOSBO+FHSBO with HOSBO. LDLc and apoB were higher after HOSBO compared to SBO (p < 0.05). PO + PKO increased HDLc (p < 0.001) and apolipoprotein AI (p < 0.03) compared to HOSBO and HOSBO+FHSBO. With the exception of lipid hydroperoxides, dietary treatments did not affect other CHD markers. HOSBO, and blends thereof, is a PHO replacement that results in more favorable lipid/lipoprotein profiles compared to PO + PKO (an alternative fat with similar functional properties).

LDL-Cholesterol and Platelets: Insights into Their Interactions in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis and its complications, including acute coronary syndromes, are the major cause of death worldwide. The two most important pathophysiological mechanisms underlying atherosclerosis include increased platelet activation and increased low-density lipoproteins (LDL) concentration. In contrast to LDL, oxidized (ox)-LDL have direct pro-thrombotic properties by functional interactions with platelets, leading to platelet activation and favoring thrombus formation. In this review, we summarize the currently available evidence on the interactions between LDL-cholesterol and platelets, which are based on (i) the presence of ox-LDL-binding sites on platelets, (ii) generation of ox-LDL by platelets and (iii) the role of activated platelets and ox-LDL in atherosclerosis. In addition, we elaborate on the clinical implications of these interactions, including development of the new therapeutic possibilities. The ability to understand and modulate mechanisms governing interactions between LDL-cholesterol and platelets may offer new treatment strategies for atherosclerosis prevention.

Circulating and tissue biomarkers as predictors of bromine gas inhalation

The threat from deliberate or accidental exposure to halogen gases is increasing, as is their industrial applications and use as chemical warfare agents. Biomarkers that can identify halogen exposure, diagnose victims of exposure or predict injury severity, and enable appropriate treatment are lacking. We conducted these studies to determine and validate biomarkers of bromine (Br₂ ) toxicity and correlate the symptoms and the extent of cardiopulmonary injuries. Unanesthetized rats were exposed to Br₂ and monitored noninvasively for clinical scores and pulse oximetry. Animals were euthanized and grouped at various time intervals to assess brominated fatty acid (BFA) content in the plasma, lung, and heart using mass spectrometry. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) protein content was used to assess pulmonary injury. Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) was assessed in the plasma to evaluate cardiac injury. The blood, lung, and cardiac tissue BFA content significantly correlated with the clinical scores, tissue oxygenation, heart rate, and cardiopulmonary injury parameters. Total (free + esterified) bromostearic acid levels correlated with lung injury, as indicated by BALF protein content, and free bromostearic acid levels correlated with plasma cTnI levels. Thus, BFAs and cardiac injury biomarkers can identify Br₂ exposure and predict the severity of organ damage.

A new oral testosterone undecanoate therapy comes of age for the treatment of hypogonadal men

Background:

A novel formulation of oral testosterone undecanoate (TU) was studied in a long- and short-term phase III trial to evaluate safety and efficacy.

Methods:

Hypogonadal men (age 18–65 years; two morning serum testosterone (T) <300 ng/dl with signs/symptoms) were recruited into a 365 day (trial I) or 105 day (trial II), randomized, multicenter trial. Patients were randomized 1:1 to oral TU (n = 161) or T-gel (n = 160) in trial I, and 3:1 to oral TU, twice daily (BID) JATENZO® (n = 166) or a topical T product [Axiron® (n = 56)] in trial II. Dose adjustments were based on average T concentrations (Cavg). Efficacy was assessed based on T levels, body composition and bone density. Safety was assessed by standard clinical measures.

Results:

Oral TU efficacy (% of patients with eugonadal T Cavg) was 84% (serum Cavg = 628 ± 343 ng/dl) and 87% (serum T equivalent Cavg ≈ 489 ± 155 ng/dl) in trials I and II, respectively. Oral TU significantly (p <0.0001) improved all Psychosexual Daily Questionnaire parameters in trials I and II. In trial I, lean mass increased 3.2 ± 2.7 kg and fat decreased by 2.4 ± 3.6 kg (both p <0.0001) and bone density improved in hip (+0.012 ± 0.0225 g/cm²) and spine (+0.018 ± 0.0422 g/cm²) after 365 days (both p <0.0001). Oral TU-associated adverse effects were consistent with other T-replacement therapies but oral TU patients experienced a greater number of mild gastrointestinal adverse effects. Oral TU subjects in both studies exhibited an increase in mean systolic blood pressure of about 3–5 mmHg. Oral TU was not associated with liver toxicity nor did it cause an elevation in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein or lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A₂ (cardiovascular safety biomarkers) after 365 days of therapy.

Conclusion:

A new oral TU formulation was safe and effective and represents a significant therapeutic advance for the treatment of appropriate hypogonadal men.

Serum level of HDL particles are independently associated with long-term prognosis in patients with coronary artery disease: The GENES study

HDL-Cholesterol (HDL-C) is not an accurate surrogate marker to measure the cardioprotective functions of HDL in coronary artery diseases (CAD) patients. Hence, measurement of other HDL-related parameters may have prognostic superiority over HDL-C. In this work, we examined the predictive value of HDL particles profile for long-term mortality in CAD patients and to compare its informative value to that of HDL-C and apoA-I. HDL particles profiles were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in 214 male participants with stable CAD (45-74 years). Median follow up was 12.5 years with a 36.4% mortality rate. Cardiovascular mortality accounted for 64.5%. Mean concentrations of total HDL particles (HDL-P), small-sized HDL (SHDL-P) and apoA-I were lower in deceased than in surviving patients whereas no difference was observed according to HDL-C and large HDL particles. All NMR-HDL measures were correlated between themselves and with other HDL markers (HDL-C, apoA-I and LpA-I). In a multivariate model adjusted for cardiovascular risk factors and bioclinical variables, HDL-P and SHDL-P displayed the strongest inverse association with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Weaker associations were recorded for apoA-I. Based on our results, we conclude that HDL particle profile measured by NMR spectroscopy should be considered to better stratify risk in population at high risk or in the setting of pharmacotherapy.

Chronic mirabegron treatment increases human brown fat, HDL cholesterol, and insulin sensitivity

BACKGROUNDMirabegron is a β3-adrenergic receptor (β3-AR) agonist approved only for the treatment of overactive bladder. Encouraging preclinical results suggest that β3-AR agonists could also improve obesity-related metabolic disease by increasing brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis, white adipose tissue (WAT) lipolysis, and insulin sensitivity.METHODSWe treated 14 healthy women of diverse ethnicities (27.5 ± 1.1 years of age, BMI of 25.4 ± 1.2 kg/m2) with 100 mg mirabegron (Myrbetriq extended-release tablet, Astellas Pharma) for 4 weeks in an open-label study. The primary endpoint was the change in BAT metabolic activity as measured by [18F]-2-fluoro-d-2-deoxy-d-glucose (18F-FDG) PET/CT. Secondary endpoints included resting energy expenditure (REE), plasma metabolites, and glucose and insulin metabolism as assessed by a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test.RESULTSChronic mirabegron therapy increased BAT metabolic activity. Whole-body REE was higher, without changes in body weight or composition. Additionally, there were elevations in plasma levels of the beneficial lipoprotein biomarkers HDL and ApoA1, as well as total bile acids. Adiponectin, a WAT-derived hormone that has antidiabetic and antiinflammatory capabilities, increased with acute treatment and was 35% higher upon completion of the study. Finally, an intravenous glucose tolerance test revealed higher insulin sensitivity, glucose effectiveness, and insulin secretion.CONCLUSIONThese findings indicate that human BAT metabolic activity can be increased after chronic pharmacological stimulation with mirabegron and support the investigation of β3-AR agonists as a treatment for metabolic disease.TRIAL REGISTRATIONClinicaltrials.gov NCT03049462.FUNDINGThis work was supported by grants from the Intramural Research Program of the NIDDK, NIH (DK075112, DK075116, DK071013, and DK071014).

Comparison of Conventional Lipoprotein Tests and Apolipoproteins in the Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease

BACKGROUND

Total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) measurements are central to cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk assessment, but there is continuing debate around the utility of other lipids for risk prediction.

METHODS

Participants from UK Biobank without baseline CVD and not taking statins, with relevant lipid measurements (n=346 686), were included in the primary analysis. An incident fatal or nonfatal CVD event occurred in 6216 participants (1656 fatal) over a median of 8.9 years. Associations of nonfasting lipid measurements (total cholesterol, HDL-C, non-HDL-C, direct and calculated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C], and apolipoproteins [Apo] A1 and B) with CVD were compared using Cox models adjusting for classical risk factors, and predictive utility was determined by the C-index and net reclassification index. Prediction was also tested in 68 649 participants taking a statin with or without baseline CVD (3515 CVD events).

RESULTS

ApoB, LDL-C, and non-HDL-C were highly correlated (r>0.90), while HDL-C was strongly correlated with ApoA1 (r=0.92). After adjustment for classical risk factors, 1 SD increase in ApoB, direct LDL-C, and non-HDL-C had similar associations with composite fatal/nonfatal CVD events (hazard ratio, 1.23, 1.20, 1.21, respectively). Associations for 1 SD increase in HDL-C and ApoA1 were also similar (hazard ratios, 0.81 [both]). Adding either total cholesterol and HDL-C, or ApoB and ApoA, to a CVD risk prediction model (C-index, 0.7378) yielded similar improvement in discrimination (C-index change, 0.0084; 95% CI, 0.0065, 0.0104, and 0.0089; 95% CI, 0.0069, 0.0109, respectively). Once total and HDL-C were in the model, no further substantive improvement was achieved with the addition of ApoB (C-index change, 0.0004; 95% CI, 0.0000, 0.0008) or any measure of LDL-C. Results for predictive utility were similar for a fatal CVD outcome, and in a discordance analysis. In participants taking a statin, classical risk factors (C-index, 0.7118) were improved by non-HDL-C (C-index change, 0.0030; 95% CI, 0.0012, 0.0048) or ApoB (C-index change, 0.0030; 95% CI, 0.0011, 0.0048). However, adding ApoB or LDL-C to a model already containing non-HDL-C did not further improve discrimination.

CONCLUSIONS

Measurement of total cholesterol and HDL-C in the nonfasted state is sufficient to capture the lipid-associated risk in CVD prediction, with no meaningful improvement from addition of apolipoproteins, direct or calculated LDL-C.

Apolipoprotein profiling as a personalized approach to the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidaemia

An elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration is a classical risk factor for cardiovascular disease. This has led to pharmacotherapy in patients with atherosclerotic heart disease or high heart disease risk with statins to reduce serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Even in patients in whom the target levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol are reached, there remains a significant residual cardiovascular risk; this is due, in part, to a focus on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol alone and neglect of other important aspects of lipoprotein metabolism. A more refined lipoprotein analysis will provide additional information on the accumulation of very low-density lipoproteins, intermediate density lipoproteins, chylomicrons, chylomicron-remnants and Lp(a) concentrations. Instead of measuring the cholesterol and triglyceride content of the lipoproteins, measurement of their apolipoproteins (apos) is more informative. Apos are either specific for a particular lipoprotein or for a group of lipoproteins. In particular measurement of apos in atherogenic particles is more biologically meaningful than the measurement of the cholesterol concentration contained in these particles. Applying apo profiling will not only improve characterization of the lipoprotein abnormality, but will also improve definition of therapeutic targets. Apo profiling aligns with the concept of precision medicine by which an individual patient is not treated as 'average' patient by the average (dose of) therapy. This concept of precision medicine fits the unmet clinical need for stratified cardiovascular medicine. The requirements for clinical application of proteomics, including apo profiling, can now be met using robust mass spectrometry technology which offers desirable analytical performance and standardization.

The Effect of Laboratory Test-Based Clinical Decision Support Tools on Medication Errors and Adverse Drug Events: A Laboratory Medicine Best Practices Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Laboratory and medication data in electronic health records create opportunities for clinical decision support (CDS) tools to improve medication dosing, laboratory monitoring, and detection of side effects. This systematic review evaluates the effectiveness of such tools in preventing medication-related harm.

METHODS

We followed the Laboratory Medicine Best Practice (LMBP) initiative's A-6 methodology. Searches of 6 bibliographic databases retrieved 8508 abstracts. Fifteen articles examined the effect of CDS tools on (a) appropriate dose or medication (n = 5), (b) laboratory monitoring (n = 4), (c) compliance with guidelines (n = 2), and (d) adverse drug events (n = 5). We conducted meta-analyses by using random-effects modeling.

RESULTS

We found moderate and consistent evidence that CDS tools applied at medication ordering or dispensing can increase prescriptions of appropriate medications or dosages [6 results, pooled risk ratio (RR), 1.48; 95% CI, 1.27-1.74]. CDS tools also improve receipt of recommended laboratory monitoring and appropriate treatment in response to abnormal test results (6 results, pooled RR, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.05-1.87). The evidence that CDS tools reduced adverse drug events was inconsistent (5 results, pooled RR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.46-1.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings support the practice of healthcare systems with the technological capability incorporating test-based CDS tools into their computerized physician ordering systems to (a) identify and flag prescription orders of inappropriate dose or medications at the time of ordering or dispensing and (b) alert providers to missing laboratory tests for medication monitoring or results that warrant a change in treatment. More research is needed to determine the ability of these tools to prevent adverse drug events.

Nonfasting versus fasting lipid profile for cardiovascular risk prediction

Before 2009 essentially all societies, guidelines, and statements required fasting before measuring a lipid profile for cardiovascular risk prediction. This was mainly due to the increase seen in triglycerides during a fat tolerance test. However, individuals eat much less fat during a normal day and nonfasting triglycerides have been shown to be superior to fasting in predicting cardiovascular risk. Lipids and lipoproteins only change minimally in response to normal food intake: in four large prospective studies, maximal mean changes were +0.3 mmol/L (26 mg/dL) for triglycerides, -0.2 mmol/L (8 mg/dL) for total cholesterol, -0.2 mmol/L (8 mg/dL) for LDL cholesterol, and -0.1 mmol/L (4 mg/dL) for HDL cholesterol. Further, in 108,602 individuals from the Copenhagen General Population Study in random nonfasting samples, the highest versus the lowest quartile of triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, remnant cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, lipoprotein(a), and apolipoprotein B were all associated with higher risk of both ischaemic heart disease and myocardial infarction. Finally, lipid-lowering trials using nonfasting blood samples for assessment of lipid levels found that reducing levels of nonfasting lipids reduced the risk of cardiovascular disease. To date there is no sound scientific evidence as to why fasting should be superior to nonfasting when evaluating a lipid profile for cardiovascular risk prediction. Indeed, nonfasting samples rather than fasting samples have many obvious advantages. First, it would simplify blood sampling in the laboratory. Second, it would benefit the patient, avoiding the inconvenience of fasting and therefore needing to have blood drawn early in the day. Third, for individuals with diabetes, the risk of hypoglycaemia due to fasting would be minimised. Many countries are currently changing their guidelines towards a consensus on measuring a lipid profile for cardiovascular risk prediction in the nonfasting state, simplifying blood sampling for patients, laboratories, and clinicians worldwide.

International descriptive and interventional survey for oxycholesterol determination by gas- and liquid-chromatographic methods

Increasing numbers of laboratories develop new methods based on gas-liquid and high-performance liquid chromatography to determine serum concentrations of oxygenated cholesterol metabolites such as 7α-, 24(S)-, and 27-hydroxycholesterol. We initiated a first international descriptive oxycholesterol (OCS) survey in 2013 and a second interventional survey 2014 in order to compare levels of OCS reported by different laboratories and to define possible sources of analytical errors. In 2013 a set of two lyophilized serum pools (A and B) was sent to nine laboratories in different countries for OCS measurement utilizing their own standard stock solutions. In 2014 eleven laboratories were requested to determine OCS concentrations in lyophilized pooled sera (C and D) utilizing the same provided standard stock solutions of OCS. The participating laboratories submitted results obtained after capillary gas-liquid chromatography-mass selective detection with either epicoprostanol or deuterium labelled sterols as internal standards and high-performance liquid chromatography with mass selective detection and deuterated OCS as internal standard. Each participant received a clear overview of the results in form of Youden-Plots and basic statistical evaluation in its used unit. The coefficients of variation of the concentrations obtained by all laboratories using their individual methods were 58.5-73.3% (survey 1), 56.8-60.3% (survey 2); 36.2-35.8% (survey 1), 56.6-59.8, (survey 2); 61.1-197.7% (survey 1), 47.2-74.2% (survey 2) for 24(S)-, 27-, and 7α-hydroxycholesterol, respectively. We are surprised by the very great differences between the laboratories, even under conditions when the same standards were used. The values of OCS's must be evaluated in relation to the analytical technique used, the efficiency of the ample separation and the nature of the internal standard used. Quantification of the calibration solution and inappropriate internal standards could be identified as major causes for the high variance in the reported results from the different laboratories. A harmonisation of analytical standard methods is highly needed.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids favourably modulate cardiometabolic biomarkers in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis and meta-regression of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) suggest that supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFAs) may favourably modify cardiometabolic biomarkers in type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Previous meta-analyses are limited by insufficient sample sizes and omission of meta-regression techniques, and a large number of RCTs have subsequently been published since the last comprehensive meta-analysis. Updated information regarding the impact of dosage, duration or an interaction between these two factors is therefore warranted. The objective was to comprehensively assess the effect of n-3PUFAs supplementation on cardiometabolic biomarkers including lipid profiles, inflammatory parameters, blood pressure, and indices of glycaemic control, in people with T2DM, and identify whether treatment dosage, duration or an interaction thereof modify these effects.

METHODS

Databases including PubMed and MEDLINE were searched until 13th July 2017 for RCTs investigating the effect of n-3PUFAs supplementation on lipid profiles, inflammatory parameters, blood pressure, and indices of glycaemic control. Data were pooled using random-effects meta-analysis and presented as standardised mean difference (Hedges g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Meta-regression analysis was performed to investigate the effects of duration of supplementation and total dosage of n-3PUFAs as moderator variables where appropriate.

RESULTS

A total of 45 RCTs were identified, involving 2674 people with T2DM. n-3PUFAs supplementation was associated with significant reductions in LDL [ES: - 0.10, (95% CI - 0.17, - 0.03); p = 0.007], VLDL (ES: - 0.26 (- 0.51, - 0.01); p = 0.044], triglycerides (ES: - 0.39 (- 0.55, - 0.24; p ≤ 0.001] and HbA1c (ES: - 0.27 (- 0.48, - 0.06); p = 0.010]. Moreover, n-3PUFAs supplementation was associated with reduction in plasma levels of TNF-α [ES: - 0.59 (- 1.17, - 0.01); p = 0.045] and IL-6 (ES: - 1.67 (- 3.14, - 0.20); p = 0.026]. All other lipid markers, indices of glycaemic control, inflammatory parameters, and blood pressure remained unchanged (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

n-3PUFAs supplementation produces favourable hypolipidemic effects, a reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and improvement in glycaemia. Neither duration nor dosage appear to explain the observed heterogeneity in response to n-3PUFAs. Trial registration This trial was registered at http://www.crd.york.ac.uk as CRD42016050802.

Oxidized LDL and anti-oxidized LDL antibodies in atherosclerosis - Novel insights and future directions in diagnosis and therapy<sup/>

We provide an up-to-date overview of current topics surrounding oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and its related antibodies in the quest to better identify the individuals at risk of cardiovascular disease and atherosclerotic plaques with unfavorable characteristics. We discuss the potential of oxLDL and anti-oxLDL antibodies as serum biomarkers of cardiovascular disease and emerging studies examining the targeting of arterial oxLDL for imaging and therapeutic delivery.

Quantifying Atherogenic Lipoproteins: Current and Future Challenges in the Era of Personalized Medicine and Very Low Concentrations of LDL Cholesterol. A Consensus Statement from EAS and EFLM

BACKGROUND

The European Atherosclerosis Society-European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine Consensus Panel aims to provide recommendations to optimize atherogenic lipoprotein quantification for cardiovascular risk management.

CONTENT

We critically examined LDL cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B (apoB), and LDL particle number assays based on key criteria for medical application of biomarkers. (a) Analytical performance: Discordant LDL cholesterol quantification occurs when LDL cholesterol is measured or calculated with different assays, especially in patients with hypertriglyceridemia >175 mg/dL (2 mmol/L) and low LDL cholesterol concentrations <70 mg/dL (1.8 mmol/L). Increased lipoprotein(a) should be excluded in patients not achieving LDL cholesterol goals with treatment. Non-HDL cholesterol includes the atherogenic risk component of remnant cholesterol and can be calculated in a standard nonfasting lipid panel without additional expense. ApoB more accurately reflects LDL particle number. (b) Clinical performance: LDL cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, and apoB are comparable predictors of cardiovascular events in prospective population studies and clinical trials; however, discordance analysis of the markers improves risk prediction by adding remnant cholesterol (included in non-HDL cholesterol) and LDL particle number (with apoB) risk components to LDL cholesterol testing. (c) Clinical and cost-effectiveness: There is no consistent evidence yet that non-HDL cholesterol-, apoB-, or LDL particle-targeted treatment reduces the number of cardiovascular events and healthcare-related costs than treatment targeted to LDL cholesterol.

SUMMARY

Follow-up of pre- and on-treatment (measured or calculated) LDL cholesterol concentration in a patient should ideally be performed with the same documented test method. Non-HDL cholesterol (or apoB) should be the secondary treatment target in patients with mild to moderate hypertriglyceridemia, in whom LDL cholesterol measurement or calculation is less accurate and often less predictive of cardiovascular risk. Laboratories should report non-HDL cholesterol in all standard lipid panels.

Update on the laboratory investigation of dyslipidemias

The role of the clinical laboratory is evolving to provide more information to clinicians to assess cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and target therapy more effectively. Current routine methods to measure LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C), the Friedewald calculation, ultracentrifugation, electrophoresis and homogeneous direct methods have established limitations. Studies suggest that LDL and HDL size or particle concentration are alternative methods to predict future CVD risk. At this time there is no consensus role for lipoprotein particle or subclasses in CVD risk assessment. LDL and HDL particle concentration are measured by several methods, namely gradient gel electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation-vertical auto profile, nuclear magnetic resonance and ion mobility. It has been suggested that HDL functional assays may be better predictors of CVD risk. To assess the issue of lipoprotein subclasses/particles and HDL function as potential CVD risk markers robust, simple, validated analytical methods are required. In patients with small dense LDL particles, even a perfect measure of LDL-C will not reflect LDL particle concentration. Non-HDL-C is an alternative measurement and includes VLDL and CM remnant cholesterol and LDL-C. However, apolipoprotein B measurement may more accurately reflect LDL particle numbers. Non-fasting lipid measurements have many practical advantages. Defining thresholds for treatment with new measurements of CVD risk remain a challenge. In families with genetic variants, ApoCIII and lipoprotein (a) may be additional risk factors. Recognition of familial causes of dyslipidemias and diagnosis in childhood will result in early treatment. This review discusses the limitations in current laboratory technologies to predict CVD risk and reviews the evidence for emergent approaches using newer biomarkers in clinical practice.

Impact of smoking on the observed levels of apolipoprotein B: Data from NHANES 2007-2012

Impact of smoking on the levels of apolipoprotein B (APOB) was evaluated by analyzing data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for the years 2007-2012 for US adolescents aged 12-19 years and adults aged >=20 years. When adjustments were made for the effects of age, gender, race/ethnicity, body mass index, and poverty income ratio, smoking did not influence the observed levels of APOB for either adolescents or adults. Moreover, even the variables that represented intensity of smoking indicated, for example, by the number of days participants smoked during the last five days and/or the number of cigarettes smoked on the days they were smoked did not affect the levels of APOB. Also, type of smoking, cigarettes only, cigars only, or smokeless products only did not affect the levels of APOB. Every two years, adjusted levels of APOB decreased by 2.5% for adolescents and by 1.8% for adults.

Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol predicts nonfatal recurrent myocardial infarction in patients with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction

Background

Lipids, which are associated with atherogenesis, clotting, and the fibrinolytic pathway, may be important prognostic indicators of recurrent myocardial infarction. The aim of this study was to determine the predictive value of baseline lipid fractions for nonfatal recurrent myocardial infarction in patients with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction 2 years after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in China.

Methods

Cox proportional-hazards models were used to evaluate the association between potential risk factors, including lipid fractions, and the occurrence of nonfatal recurrent myocardial infarction in 2402 consecutive patients who underwent primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST segment elevation myocardial infarction.

Results

The cumulative incidence of recurrent myocardial infarction was 2.7% at 1 year, 3.8% at 2 years, and 5.8% at 3 years after percutaneous coronary intervention. The effects of collinearity of lipids were investigated. In concerning the principal components analysis, composing factor 1 (scoring factors were 0.689 for non-HDL, 0.702 for LDL, 0.182 for HDL) which had eigenvalues of 1.86 and explained 62% of the variability among lipid cholesterols was significantly associated with recurrent MI in the final adjusted analysis of the lipid cholesterols principal components. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was the strongest independent predictor of nonfatal recurrent myocardial infarction. The adjusted hazards ratios for nonfatal recurrent myocardial infarction were 1.26 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.05–1.51) for non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, 1.17 (95% CI: 0.99–1.39) for low-density lipoprotein and 1.15 (95% CI: 0.95–1.40) for HDL. After adjusting for gender and age, the odds ratio for patients in the highest non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol quartile was 2.10 (95% CI: 1.19–3.72).

Conclusions

Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol value is a stronger predictor of nonfatal recurrent myocardial infarction than other lipid risk factors in patients with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction. Moreover, the occurrence of reinfarction after percutaneous coronary intervention was highest for patients in the highest non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol quartile.

Trial registration

http://www.chictr.org.cn/edit.aspx?pid=13583&htm=4, registration number: ChiCTR-EPC-16008199, date of registration:2013.01.01.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12944-017-0418-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Lipoprotein(a) and inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9

Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] has been identified as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Lp(a) levels are also high under certain clinical conditions, including familial hypercholesterolemia and high blood low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Few effective generic therapies for modulating Lp(a) have been developed. However, new therapies involving inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) using monoclonal antibodies have markedly reduced the blood LDL levels-and the Lp(a) levels as well. Much attention has therefore been focused on this therapy and its utility. The mechanism by which PCSK9 inhibitors reduce the Lp(a) levels remains unclear. We here describe the effects of PCSK9 inhibitors on Lp(a) and discuss potential mechanisms and perspectives of this topic.