Polymeric nanoparticle drug delivery technologies for oral delivery applications

Poly (hydroxyethylmethacrylate-co-methacryloyl glutamic acid) nanocarrier system for controlled release of levothyroxine

The deterioration in the structure of thyroid hormones causes many thyroid-related disorders, which leads to a negative effect on the quality of life, as well as the change in metabolic rate. For the treatment of thyroid disorders, daily use of levothyroxine-based medication is essential. In the study, it is aimed to develop a polymeric nanocarrier that can provide controlled drug release of levothyroxine. In this respect, the p(HEMA-MAGA) nanopolymer was synthesized and then characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and Zeta size analysis. The specific surface area of the nanopolymer was calculated as 587.68 m2/g. The pH, temperature, concentration, and time parameters were determined for levothyroxine binding to p(HEMA-MAGA) and optimum binding was determined as pH 7.4, 25 °C, 25 µg/mL concentration, and 30 min adsorption time. As a result of the release performed at pH 7.4, a release profile was observed which increased for the first 3 days and continued for 14 days. According to the results of MTT cell viability analysis, it was determined that the p(HEMA-MAGA) nanopolymeric carrier system had no cytotoxic effect. This developed polymer-based nanocarrier system is suitable for long-term and controlled release of levothyroxine. This is a unique and novel study in terms of developing poly hydroxyethylmethacrylate-co-methacryloyl glutamic acid-based polymeric nanoparticles for levothyroxine release.

Synthesis of BLF1-containing trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles and evaluation of its immunogenicity and protection in syrian mice by oral and subcutaneous injections

The bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei is the cause of melioidosis infectious disease. In this bacterium, the BLF1 protein wide inhibits the synthesis of proteins in human cells. This disease is reported to cause a death rate of 40% in some parts of the world. Currently, no effective vaccine is available against this bacterial infection. In this study, therefore, a Nano vaccine was synthesized based on the trimethyl chitosan (TMC) polymer containing the BLF1 recombinant protein, and its immunogenicity and protection in Syrian mice were evaluated by oral and subcutaneous injections. The BLF1 recombinant protein expression was induced in Escherichia coli Bl21 (DE3) and purified by the affinity chromatography technique. Recombinant protein-containing nanoparticles (NPs) were then synthesized by the ionotropic gelation method. After oral and subcutaneous injections, antibody titration was assessed by the indirect ELISA assay. Finally, murine groups were challenged using the BLF1 toxin. The results indicated that the immune system showed more antibody titration in subcutaneous injection than in the oral form. However, the results were reversed in the challenge results, and the survival rate was more significant in the oral injection.

Gastrointestinal Permeation Enhancers Beyond Sodium Caprate and SNAC - What is Coming Next?

Oral peptide delivery is trending again. Among the possible reasons are the recent approvals of two oral peptide formulations, which represent a huge stride in the field. For the first time, gastrointestinal (GI) permeation enhancers (PEs) are leveraged to overcome the main limitation of oral peptide delivery-low permeability through the intestinal epithelium. Despite some success, the application of current PEs, such as salcaprozate sodium (SNAC), sodium caprylate (C8), and sodium caprate (C10), is generally resulting in relatively low oral bioavailabilities (BAs)-even for carefully selected therapeutics. With several hundred peptide-based drugs presently in the pipeline, there is a huge unmet need for more effective PEs. Aiming to provide useful insights for the development of novel PEs, this review summarizes the biological hurdles to oral peptide delivery with special emphasis on the epithelial barrier. It describes the concepts and action modes of PEs and mentions possible new targets. It further states the benchmark that is set by current PEs, while critically assessing and evaluating emerging PEs regarding translatability, safety, and efficacy. Additionally, examples of novel PEs under preclinical and clinical evaluation and future directions are discussed.

Oral targeted drug delivery to post-gastrointestinal sites

As an essential branch of targeted drug delivery, oral targeted delivery is attracting growing attention in recent years. In addition to site-specific delivery for the treatment of locoregional diseases in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), oral targeted delivery to remote sites beyond the GIT emerges as a cutting-edge research topic. This review aims to provide an overview of the fundamental concepts and most recent advances in this field. Owing to the physiological barriers existing in the GIT, carrier systems should be transported across the enteric epithelia to target remote sites. Recently, pioneer investigations have validated the transport of intact micro- or nanocarriers across gastrointestinal barriers and subsequently to various distal organs and tissues. The microfold (M) cell pathway is the leading mechanism underlying the oral absorption of particulates, but the contribution of the transcellular and paracellular pathways should not be neglected either. In addition to well-acknowledged physicochemical and biological factors, the formation of a protein corona may also influence the biological fate of carrier systems. Although in an early stage of conceptualization, oral targeted delivery to remote diseases has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of inflammation, tumors, and diseases inflicting the lymphatic and mononuclear phagocytosis systems.

Cellular response of keratinocytes to the entry and accumulation of nanoplastic particles

Plastic accumulation in the environment is rapidly increasing, and nanoplastics (NP), byproducts of environmental weathering of bulk plastic waste, pose a significant public health risk. Particles may enter the human body through many possible routes such as ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption. However, studies on NP penetration and accumulation in human skin are limited. Loss or reduction of the keratinized skin barrier may enhance the skin penetration of NPs. The present study investigated the entry of NPs into a human skin system modeling skin with compromised barrier functions and cellular responses to the intracellular accumulations of NPs. Two in vitro models were employed to simulate human skin lacking keratinized barriers. The first model was an ex vivo human skin culture with the keratinized dermal layer (stratum corneum) removed. The second model was a 3D keratinocyte/dermal fibroblast cell co-culture model with stratified keratinocytes on the top and a monolayer of skin fibroblast cells co-cultured at the bottom. The penetration and accumulation of the NPs in different cell types were observed using fluorescent microscopy, confocal microscopy, and cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM). The cellular responses of keratinocytes and dermal fibroblast cells to stress induced by NPs stress were measured. The genetic regulatory pathway of keratinocytes to the intracellular NPs was identified using transcript analyses and KEGG pathway analysis. The cellular uptake of NPs by skin cells was confirmed by imaging analyses. Transepidermal transport and penetration of NPs through the skin epidermis were observed. According to the gene expression and pathway analyses, an IL-17 signaling pathway was identified as the trigger for cellular responses to internal NP accumulation in the keratinocytes. The transepidermal NPs were also found in co-cultured dermal fibroblast cells and resulted in a large-scale transition from fibroblast cells to myofibroblast cells with enhanced production of α-smooth muscle actin and pro-Collagen Ia. The upregulation of inflammatory factors and cell activation may result in skin inflammation and ultimately trigger immune responses.

Active nanoparticle targeting of MUC5AC ameliorates therapeutic outcome in experimental colitis

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), which include Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are chronic inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and are characterized by chronic recurrent ulceration of the bowels. Colon-targeted drug delivery systems (DDS) have received significant attention for their potential to treat IBD by improving the inflamed tissue selectivity. Herein, antiMUC5AC-decorated drug loaded nanoparticles (NP) are suggested for active epithelial targeting and selective adhesion to the inflamed tissue in experimental colitis. NPs conjugated with antiMUC5AC (anti-MUC5) were tested for their degree of bioadhesion with HT29-MTX cells by comparison with non-targeted BSA-NP conjugates. In vivo, the selectivity of bioadhesion and the influence of ligand density in bioadhesion efficiency as well as the therapeutic benefit for glucocorticoid loaded anti-MUC5-NP were studied in a murine colitis model. Quantitative adhesion analyses showed that anti-MUC5-conjugated NP exhibited a much higher binding and selectivity to inflamed tissue compared to PNA-, IgG1- and BSA-NP conjugates used as controls. This bioadhesion efficiency was found to be dependent on the ligand density, present at the NP surface. The binding specificity between anti-MUC5 ligand and inflamed tissues was confirmed by fluorescence imaging. Both anti-MUC5-NP and all other glucocorticoid containing formulations led to a significant mitigation of the experimental colitis, as became evident from the substantial reduction of myeloperoxidase activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations (TNF-α, IL-1β). Targeted NP by using anti-MUC5 appears to be a very promising tool in future treatment of various types of local disorders affecting the gastro-intestinal tract but not limited to colitis.

Targeting the prostate tumor microenvironment by plant-derived natural products

Prostate cancer is among the most common malignancies for men, with limited therapy options for last stages of the tumor. There are some different options for treatment and control of prostate tumor growth. However, targeting some specific molecules and cells within tumors has been attracted interests in recent years. The tumor microenvironment (TME) has an important role in the initiation of various malignancies, which can also expand the progression of tumor and facilitate invasion of malignant cells. By regulating immune responses and distinct changes in the metabolism of cells in the tumor, TME has substantial effects in the resistance of cancer cells to therapy. TME in various solid cancers like prostate cancer includes various cells, including cancer cells, supportive stromal cells, immunosuppressive cells, and anticancer inflammatory cells. Natural products including herbal-derived agents and also other natural compounds have been well studied for their anti-tumor potentials. These compounds may modulate various signaling pathways involved in TME, such as immune responses, the metabolism of cells, epigenetics, angiogenesis, and extracellular matrix (ECM). This paper provides a review of the current knowledge of prostate TME and complex interactions in this environment. Additionally, the potential use of natural products and also nanoparticles loaded with natural products as therapeutic adjuvants on different cells and therapeutic targets within prostate TME will be discussed.

Recent Progress in the Oral Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides and Proteins: Overview of Pharmaceutical Strategies to Overcome Absorption Hurdles

Purpose

Proteins and peptides have secured a place as excellent therapeutic moieties on account of their high selectivity and efficacy. However due to oral absorption limitations, current formulations are mostly delivered parenterally. Oral delivery of peptides and proteins (PPs) can be considered the need of the hour due to the immense benefits of this route. This review aims to critically examine and summarize the innovations and mechanisms involved in oral delivery of peptide and protein drugs.

Methods

Comprehensive literature search was undertaken, spanning the early development to the current state of the art, using online search tools (PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Scopus).

Results

Research in oral delivery of proteins and peptides has a rich history and the development of biologics has encouraged additional research effort in recent decades. Enzyme hydrolysis and inadequate permeation into intestinal mucosa are the major causes that result in limited oral absorption of biologics. Pharmaceutical and technological strategies including use of absorption enhancers, enzyme inhibition, chemical modification (PEGylation, pro-drug approach, peptidomimetics, glycosylation), particulate delivery (polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, microspheres), site-specific delivery in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), membrane transporters, novel approaches (self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems, Eligen technology, Peptelligence, self-assembling bubble carrier approach, luminal unfolding microneedle injector, microneedles) and lymphatic targeting, are discussed. Limitations of these strategies and possible innovations for improving oral bioavailability of protein and peptide drugs are discussed.

Conclusion

This review underlines the application of oral route for peptide and protein delivery, which can direct the formulation scientist for better exploitation of this route.

Nanotherapeutics against malaria: A decade of advancements in experimental models

Malaria, caused by different species of protists of the genus Plasmodium, remains among the most common causes of death due to parasitic diseases worldwide, mainly for children aged under 5. One of the main obstacles to malaria eradication is the speed with which the pathogen evolves resistance to the drug schemes developed against it. For this reason, it remains urgent to find innovative therapeutic strategies offering sufficient specificity against the parasite to minimize resistance evolution and drug side effects. In this context, nanotechnology-based approaches are now being explored for their use as antimalarial drug delivery platforms due to the wide range of advantages and tuneable properties that they offer. However, major challenges remain to be addressed to provide a cost-efficient and targeted therapeutic strategy contributing to malaria eradication. The present work contains a systematic review of nanotechnology-based antimalarial drug delivery systems generated during the last 10 years. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease.

State of the art in pediatric nanomedicines

In recent years, the continuous development of innovative nanopharmaceuticals is expanding their biomedical and clinical applications. Nanomedicines are being revolutionized to circumvent the limitations of unbound therapeutic agents as well as overcome barriers posed by biological interfaces at the cellular, organ, system, and microenvironment levels. In many ways, the use of nanoconfigured delivery systems has eased challenges associated with patient differences, and in our opinion, this forms the foundation for their potential usefulness in developing innovative medicines and diagnostics for special patient populations. Here, we present a comprehensive review of nanomedicines specifically designed and evaluated for disease management in the pediatric population. Typically, the pediatric population has distinguishing needs relative to those of adults majorly because of their constantly growing bodies and age-related physiological changes, which often need specialized drug formulation interventions to provide desirable therapeutic effects and outcomes. Besides, child-centric drug carriers have unique delivery routes, dosing flexibility, organoleptic properties (e.g., taste, flavor), and caregiver requirements that are often not met by traditional formulations and can impact adherence to therapy. Engineering pediatric medicines as nanoconfigured structures can potentially resolve these limitations stemming from traditional drug carriers because of their unique capabilities. Consequently, researchers from different specialties relentlessly and creatively investigate the usefulness of nanomedicines for pediatric disease management as extensively captured in this compilation. Some examples of nanomedicines covered include nanoparticles, liposomes, and nanomicelles for cancer; solid lipid and lipid-based nanostructured carriers for hypertension; self-nanoemulsifying lipid-based systems and niosomes for infections; and nanocapsules for asthma pharmacotherapy.

Exploiting Apical Sodium-Dependent Bile Acid Transporter (ASBT)-Mediated Endocytosis with Multi-Functional Deoxycholic Acid Grafted Alginate Amide Nanoparticles as an Oral Insulin Delivery System

OBJECTIVE

Oral administration of insulin is a potential candidate for managing diabetes. However, it is obstructed by the gastrointestinal tract barriers resulting in negligible oral bioavailability.

METHODS

This investigation presents a novel nanocarrier platform designed to address these challenges. In this regard, the process involved amination of sodium alginate by ethylene diamine, followed by its conjugation with deoxycholic acid.

RESULTS

The resulting DCA@Alg@INS nanocarrier revealed a significantly high insulin loading content of 63.6 ± 1.03% and encapsulation efficiency of 87.6 ± 3.84%, with a particle size of 206 nm and zeta potentials of -3 mV. In vitro studies showed sustained and pH-dependent release profiles of insulin from nanoparticles. In vitro cellular studies, confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry analysis confirmed the successful attachment and internalization of DCA@Alg@INS nanoparticles in Caco-2 cells. Furthermore, the DCA@Alg@INS demonstrated a superior capacity for cellular uptake and permeability coefficient relative to the insulin solution, exhibiting sixfold and 4.94-fold enhancement, respectively. According to the uptake mechanism studies, the results indicated that DCA@Alg@INS was mostly transported through an energy-dependent active pathway since the uptake of DCA@Alg@INS by cells was significantly reduced in the presence of NaN3 by ~ 92% and at a low temperature of 4°C by ~ 94%.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the significance of administering insulin through oral route, deoxycholic acid-modified alginate nanoparticles present a viable option to surmount various obstacles presented by the gastrointestinal.

Polymersomes for protein drug delivery across intestinal mucosa

The oral administration is the route preferred by patients due to its multiple advantages. In the case of biopharmaceuticals, due to their low stability and absorption in the intestine, these molecules must be administered by injectable routes. To circumvent these problems, several strategies have been studied, among which the use of nanosystems, such as polymersomes, can be highlighted. In this work the potential of poloxamer 401 polymersomes as a system for oral delivery of antibodies was evaluated. IgG-FITC-loaded poloxamer 401 polymerosomes were initially used to assess whether it improves intestinal epithelial permeation in Caco-2 cell monolayers. Subsequently, epithelial/macrophage co-culture model was used to evaluate the ability of poloxamer 401 polymersomes containing adalimumab to reduce proinflammatory cytokine levels. The data showed that polymersome-encapsulated IgG increased the transport across intestinal Caco-2 monolayers 2.7-fold compared to the antibody in solution. Also, when comparing the groups of blank polymersomes with polymersomes containing adalimumab, decreases of 1.5-, 5.5-, and 2.4-fold in TNF-α concentrations were observed for the polymersomes containing 1.5, 3.75, and 15 µg/mL of adalimumab, respectively. This could indicate a possibility for the oral administration of biopharmaceuticals which would revolutionize many conditions that require the systemic administration such as in inflammatory bowel disease.

Poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanoparticles as a platform for the improved oral delivery of cannabidiol

Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive constituent of Cannabis, has proven neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties though his therapeutic use, especially by the oral route, is still challenged by the poor aqueous solubility that results in low oral bioavailability. In this work, we investigate the encapsulation of CBD within nanoparticles of a highly hydrophobic poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(epsilon-caprolactone) block copolymer produced by a simple and reproducible nanoprecipitation method. The encapsulation efficiency is ~ 100% and the CBD loading 11% w/w (high performance liquid chromatography). CBD-loaded nanoparticles show a monomodal size distribution with sizes of up to 100 nm (dynamic light scattering), a spherical morphology, and the absence of CBD crystals (high resolution-scanning electron microscopy and cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy) which is in line with a very efficient nanoencapsulation. Then, the CBD release profile from the nanoparticles is assessed under gastric- and intestine-like conditions. At pH 1.2, only 10% of the payload is released after 1 h. Conversely, at pH 6.8, a release of 80% is recorded after 2 h. Finally, the oral pharmacokinetics is investigated in rats and compared to a free CBD suspension. CBD-loaded nanoparticles lead to a statistically significant ~ 20-fold increase of the maximum drug concentration in plasma (Cmax) and a shortening of the time to the Cmax (tmax) from 4 to 0.3 h, indicating a more complete and faster absorption than in free form. Moreover, the area-under-the-curve (AUC), a measure of oral bioavailability, increased by 14 times. Overall results highlight the promise of this simple, reproducible, and scalable nanotechnology strategy to improve the oral performance of CBD with respect to common oily formulations and/or lipid-based drug delivery systems associated with systemic adverse effects.

Oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract in health and disease

Oral administration is the preferred route of administration based on the convenience for and compliance of the patient. Oral nanomedicines have been developed to overcome the limitations of free drugs and overcome gastrointestinal (GI) barriers, which are heterogeneous across healthy and diseased populations. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview and comparison of the oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in health and disease (GI and extra-GI diseases) and highlight emerging strategies that exploit these differences for oral nanomedicine-based treatment. We introduce the key GI barriers related to oral delivery and summarize their pathological changes in various diseases. We discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in the GIT in health by describing the general biointeractions based on the type of oral nanomedicine and advanced biointeractions facilitated by advanced strategies applied in this field. We then discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in different diseases and explore how pathological characteristics have been harnessed to advance the development of oral nanomedicine.

Evaluation of mucosal immune profile associated with Zileuton nanocrystal-formulated BCS-II drug upon oral administration in Sprague Dawley rats

Nanocrystal drug formulation involves several critical manufacturing procedures that result in complex structures to improve drug solubility, dissolution, bioavailability, and consequently the efficacy of poorly soluble Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) II and IV drugs. Nanocrystal formulation of an already approved oral drug may need additional immunotoxic assessment due to changes in the physical properties of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). In this study, we selected Zileuton, an FDA-approved drug that belongs to BCS-II for nanocrystal formulation. To evaluate the efficacy and mucosal immune profile of the nanocrystal drug, 10-week-old rats were dosed using capsules containing either API alone or nanocrystal formulated Zileuton (NDZ), or with a physical mixture (PM) using flexible oral gavage syringes. Control groups consisted of untreated, or placebo treated animals. Test formulations were administrated to rats at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight (bw) once a day for 15 days. The rats treated with NDZ or PM had approximately 4.0 times lower (7.5 mg/kg bw) API when compared to the micron sized API treated rats. At the end of treatment, mucosal (intestinal tissue) and circulating cytokines were measured. The immunological response revealed that NDZ decreased several proinflammatory cytokines in the ileal mucosa (Interleukin-18, Tumor necrosis Factor-α and RANTES [regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted]). A similar pattern in the cytokine profile was also observed for the micron sized API and PM treated rats. The cytokine production revealed that there was a significant increase in the production of IL-1β and IL-10 in the females in all experimental groups. Additionally, NDZ showed an immunosuppressive effect on proinflammatory cytokines both locally and systemically, which was similar to the response in micron sized API treated rats. These findings indicate that NDZ significantly decreased several proinflammatory cytokines and it displays less immunotoxicity, probably due to the nanocrystal formulation. Thus, the nanocrystal formulation is more suitable for oral drug delivery, as it exhibited better efficacy, safety, and reduced toxicity.

Recent advances of polymeric nanoplatforms for cancer treatment: smart delivery systems (SDS), nanotheranostics and multidrug resistance (MDR) inhibition

Nanotheranostics is a promising field that combines the benefits of diagnostic and treatment into a single nano-platform that not only administers treatment but also allows for real-time monitoring of therapeutic response, decreasing the possibility of under/over-drug dosing. Furthermore, developing smart delivery systems (SDSs) for cancer theranostics that can take advantage of various tumour microenvironment (TME) conditions (such as deformed tumour vasculature, various over-expressed receptor proteins, reduced pH, oxidative stress, and resulting elevated glutathione levels) can aid in achieving improved pharmacokinetics, higher tumour accumulation, enhanced antitumour efficacy, and/or decreased side effects and multidrug resistance (MDR) inhibition. Polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) are being widely investigated in this regard due to their unique features such as small size, passive/active targeting possibility, better pharmaceutical kinetics and biological distribution, decreased adverse reactions of the established drugs, inherent inhibitory properties to MDR efflux pump proteins, as well as the feasibility of delivering numerous therapeutic substances in just one design. Hence in this review, we have primarily discussed PNPs based targeted and/or controlled SDSs in which we have elaborated upon different TME mediated nanotheranostic platforms (NTPs) including active/passive/magnetic targeting platforms along with pH/ROS/redox-responsive platforms. Besides, we have elucidated different imaging guided cancer therapeutic platforms based on four major cancer imaging techniques i.e., fluorescence/photo-acoustic/radionuclide/magnetic resonance imaging, Furthermore, we have deliberated some of the most recently developed PNPs based multimodal NTPs (by combining two or more imaging or therapy techniques on a single nanoplatform) in cancer theranostics. Moreover, we have provided a brief update on PNPs based NTP which are recently developed to overcome MDR for effective cancer treatment. Additionally, we have briefly discussed about the tissue biodistribution/tumour targeting efficiency of these nanoplatforms along with recent preclinical/clinical studies. Finally, we have elaborated on various limitations associated with PNPs based nanoplatforms.

Unlocking the Potential of Bilosomes and Modified Bilosomes: a Comprehensive Journey into Advanced Drug Delivery Trends

Vesicular drug delivery systems have revolutionized the pharmaceutical field, offering a promising path for achieving targeted and sustained drug delivery. The oral, transdermal, and ocular routes of administration offer optimal ease in attaining desired therapeutic outcomes. However, conventional treatment strategies are all plagued with several challenges, such as poor skin permeability, ocular barriers, and gastrointestinal (GIT) degradation leading to vesicular disruption with the release of the encapsulated drug before reaching the targeted site of action. In recent years, bilosomes-stabilized nanovesicles containing bile salts have received considerable attention due to their versatility and adaptability for diverse applications. These bilayered vesicles enhance the solubility of lipophilic drugs and improve formulation stability in the gastrointestinal tract. They exhibit ultra-deformable properties, improving stratum corneum permeability, making them ideal candidates for oral and transdermal drug delivery. In addition, bilosomes find utility in topical drug delivery, making them applicable for ocular administration. Over the past decade, extensive research has highlighted bilosomes' potential as superior vesicular carriers surpassing liposomes and niosomes. Advances in this field have led to the development of modified bilosomes, such as probilosomes and surface-modified bilosomes, further enhancing their capabilities and therapeutic potential. Thus, the present review provides a comprehensive summary of bilosomes, modified bilosomes, surface modifications with their mechanism of action, formulation components, preparation methods, patents, and a wide array of recent pharmaceutical applications in oral, transdermal, and ocular drug delivery. The enhanced properties of bilosomes offer promising prospects for targeted and effective drug delivery, providing potential solutions for addressing various therapeutic challenges.

Nanotechnology-driven improvisation of red algae-derived carrageenan for industrial and bio-medical applications

Algae biomass has been recognized as feedstock with diverse application including production of biofuel, biofertilizer, animal feed, wastewater treatment and bioremediation. In addition, algae species are a potential reservoir of metabolites and polymers with potential to be utilized for biomedicine, healthcare and industrial purposes. Carrageenan is one such medicinally and industrially significant polysaccharide which is extracted from red algae species (Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum, among the common species). The extraction process of carrageenan is affected by different environmental factors and the source of biomass, which can vary and significantly impact the yield. Diverse applications of carrageenan include hydrogel beads, bio-composites, pharmacological properties, application in cosmetics, food and related industries. Carrageenan biological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antitumor activities are significantly influenced by sulfation pattern, yield percentage and molecular weight. In addition to natural biomedical potential of carrageenan, synergetic effect of carrageenan- nanocomposites exhibit potential for further improvisation of biomedical applications. Nanotechnology driven bio-composites of carrageenan remarkably improve the quality of films, food packaging, and drug delivery systems. Such nano bio-composites exhibit enhanced stability, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, making them suitable alternatives for drug delivery, wound-healing, and tissue engineering applications. The present work is a comprehensive study to analyze biomedical and other applications of Carrageenan along with underlying mechanism or mode of action along with synergetic application of nanotechnology.

Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles: a custom-tailored next-generation approach for cancer therapeutics

Lipid-based polymeric nanoparticles are the highly popular carrier systems for cancer drug therapy. But presently, detailed investigations have revealed their flaws as drug delivery carriers. Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are advanced core-shell nanoconstructs with a polymeric core region enclosed by a lipidic layer, presumed to be derived from both liposomes and polymeric nanounits. This unique concept is of utmost importance as a combinable drug delivery platform in oncology due to its dual structured character. To add advantage and restrict one's limitation by other, LPHNPs have been designed so to gain number of advantages such as stability, high loading of cargo, increased biocompatibility, rate-limiting controlled release, and elevated drug half-lives as well as therapeutic effectiveness while minimizing their drawbacks. The outer shell, in particular, can be functionalized in a variety of ways with stimuli-responsive moieties and ligands to provide intelligent holding and for active targeting of antineoplastic medicines, transport of genes, and theragnostic. This review comprehensively provides insight into recent substantial advancements in developing strategies for treating various cancer using LPHNPs. The bioactivity assessment factors have also been highlighted with a discussion of LPHNPs future clinical prospects.

Prevention and Control of Human Salmonella enterica Infections: An Implication in Food Safety

Salmonella is a foodborne zoonotic pathogen causing diarrhoeal disease to humans after consuming contaminated water, animal, and plant products. The bacterium is the third leading cause of human death among diarrhoeal diseases worldwide. Therefore, human salmonellosis is of public health concern demanding integrated interventions against the causative agent, Salmonella enterica. The prevention of salmonellosis in humans is intricate due to several factors, including an immune-stable individual infected with S. enterica continuing to shed live bacteria without showing any clinical signs. Similarly, the asymptomatic Salmonella animals are the source of salmonellosis in humans after consuming contaminated food products. Furthermore, the contaminated products of plant and animal origin are a menace in food industries due to Salmonella biofilms, which enhance colonization, persistence, and survival of bacteria on equipment. The contaminated food products resulting from bacteria on equipment offset the economic competition of food industries and partner institutions in international business. The most worldwide prevalent broad-range Salmonella serovars affecting humans are Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, and poultry products, among others, are the primary source of infection. The broader range of Salmonella serovars creates concern over multiple strategies for preventing and controlling Salmonella contamination in foods to enhance food safety for humans. Among the strategies for preventing and controlling Salmonella spread in animal and plant products include biosecurity measures, isolation and quarantine, epidemiological surveillance, farming systems, herbs and spices, and vaccination. Other measures are the application of phages, probiotics, prebiotics, and nanoparticles reduced and capped with antimicrobial agents. Therefore, Salmonella-free products, such as beef, pork, poultry meat, eggs, milk, and plant foods, such as vegetables and fruits, will prevent humans from Salmonella infection. This review explains Salmonella infection in humans caused by consuming contaminated foods and the interventions against Salmonella contamination in foods to enhance food safety and quality for humans.

In vivo evaluation of time-dependent antithrombotic effect of rivaroxaban-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)/sodium lauryl sulfate or didodecyl dimethylammonium bromide nanoparticles in Wistar rats

Rivaroxaban (RVX), an oral direct factor Xa inhibitor, is being explored as an alternative to traditional anticoagulans. However, RVX still faces pharmacokinetic limitations and adverse effects, highlighting the need for more effective formulations. In this regard, pharmaceutical nanotechnology, particularly the use of polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs), offers a promising approach for optimizing RVX delivery. This study aimed to develop and physicochemically characterize RVX-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)/sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or didodecyl dimethylammonium bromide (DMAB) nanoparticles, and also evaluate their pharmacological and toxicological profiles as a potential therapeutic strategy. The PNPs exhibited sizes below 300 nm and spherical morphology, with both negative and positive surface charges, according to surfactant used. They demonstrated high encapsulation efficiency and suitable yields, as well as rapid initial liberation followed by sustained release in different pH environments. Importantly, in vivo evaluations revealed a time-dependent antithrombotic effect surpassing the free form of RVX when administered orally in SLS or DMAB PNP. No hemolytic or cytotoxic effects were observed at various concentrations of the PNPs. Interestingly, the PNPs did not induce hemorrhagic events or cause liver enzyme alterations in vivo. These findings suggest that RVX-loaded SLS or DMAB PNPs are promising innovative therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of thromboembolic diseases.

Polyplex designs for improving the stability and safety of RNA therapeutics

Nanoparticle-based delivery systems have contributed to the recent clinical success of RNA therapeutics, including siRNA and mRNA. RNA delivery using polymers has several distinct properties, such as enabling RNA delivery into extra-hepatic organs, modulation of immune responses to RNA, and regulation of intracellular RNA release. However, delivery systems should overcome safety and stability issues to achieve widespread therapeutic applications. Safety concerns include direct damage to cellular components, innate and adaptive immune responses, complement activation, and interaction with surrounding molecules and cells in the blood circulation. The stability of the delivery systems should balance extracellular RNA protection and controlled intracellular RNA release, which requires optimization for each RNA species. Further, polymer designs for improving safety and stability often conflict with each other. This review covers advances in polymer-based approaches to address these issues over several years, focusing on biological understanding and design concepts for delivery systems rather than material chemistry.

Development of trans-Chalcone loaded pectin/casein biodegradable microcapsules: Efficacy improvement in the management of experimental colitis

Improved therapies for inflammatory bowel diseases are sorely needed. Novel therapeutic agents and the development of controlled release systems for targeted tissue delivery are interesting approaches to overcome these barriers. We investigated the activity of trans-chalcone (T) in acetic acid-induced colitis in mice and developed, characterized, and determined the therapeutic effect of pectin/casein polymer microcapsules containing T (MT) in a colitis mouse model. In vitro, compound release was achieved in simulated intestinal fluid but not in the simulated gastric fluid. In vivo, since T at the dose of 3 mg/kg but not 0.3 mg/kg ameliorated colitis, we next tested the effects of MT at 0.3 mg/kg (non-effective dose). MT, but not free T at 0.3 mg/kg, significantly improved colitis outcomes such as neutrophil recruitment, antioxidant capacity, cytokine production, and NF-kB activation. This translated into reduced macro and microscopic damage in the colon. T release from the microcapsules is mediated by a pH-dependent and pectinase-regulated mechanism that provide controlled and prolonged release of T. Moreover, MT lowered the required dose for T therapeutic effect, indicating that could be a suitable pharmaceutical approach to colitis treatment. This is the first demonstration that T or MT is effective at reducing the signs of colitis.

Pre-clinical toxicity assessment of Artemisia absinthium extract-loaded polymeric nanoparticles associated with their oral administration

Background: This study was designed to quantify the composition of the ethanolic extract of Artemisia absinthium through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis and ensure in vivo safety of A. absinthium extract-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (ANPs) before considering their application as a drug carrier via the oral route. Methods: We synthesized N-isopropylacrylamide, N-vinyl pyrrolidone, and acrylic acid crosslinked polymeric NPs by free-radical polymerization reaction and characterized them by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering spectroscopy. Different concentrations of extract (50 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, and 2,000 mg/kg body weight) were encapsulated into the hydrophobic core of polymeric micelles for the assessment of acute oral toxicity and their LD50 cut-off value as per the test procedure of OECD guideline 423. Orally administered female Wistar rats were observed for general appearance, behavioral changes, and mortality for the first 30 min, 4 h, 24 h, and then, daily once for 14 days. Result: ANPs at the dose of 300 mg/kg body weight were used as an initial dose, and rats showed few short-lived signs of toxicity, with few histological alterations in the kidney and intestine. Based on these observations, the next set of rats were treated at a lower dose of 50 mg/kg and a higher dose of 2,000 mg/kg ANPs. Rats administered with 50 mg/kg ANPs remained normal throughout the study with insignificant histological disintegration; however, rats treated at 2,000 mg/kg ANPs showed some signs of toxicity followed by mortality among all three rats within 24-36 h, affecting the intestine, liver, and kidney. There were no significant differences in hematological and biochemical parameters among rats treated at 50 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg ANPs. Conclusion: We conclude that the LD50 cut-off value of these ANPs will be 500 mg/kg extract loaded in polymeric NPs.

Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Transport across Intestinal Tissue: An Oral Delivery Perspective

Oral drug administration has been a popular choice due to patient compliance and limited clinical resources. Orally delivered drugs must circumvent the harsh gastrointestinal (GI) environment to effectively enter the systemic circulation. The GI tract has a number of structural and physiological barriers that limit drug bioavailability including mucus, the tightly regulated epithelial layer, immune cells, and associated vasculature. Nanoparticles have been used to enhance oral bioavailability of drugs, as they can act as a shield to the harsh GI environment and prevent early degradation while also increasing uptake and transport of drugs across the intestinal epithelium. Evidence suggests that different nanoparticle formulations may be transported via different intracellular mechanisms to cross the intestinal epithelium. Despite the existence of a significant body of work on intestinal transport of nanoparticles, many key questions remain: What causes the poor bioavailability of the oral drugs? What factors contribute to the ability of a nanoparticle to cross different intestinal barriers? Do nanoparticle properties such as size and charge influence the type of endocytic pathways taken? In this Review, we summarize the different components of intestinal barriers and the types of nanoparticles developed for oral delivery. In particular, we focus on the various intracellular pathways used in nanoparticle internalization and nanoparticle or cargo translocation across the epithelium. Understanding the gut barrier, nanoparticle characteristics, and transport pathways may lead to the development of more therapeutically useful nanoparticles as drug carriers.

Encapsulation of morin in lipid core/PLGA shell nanoparticles significantly enhances its anti-inflammatory activity and oral bioavailability

Morin (3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxyflavone; MR) is a bioactive plant polyphenol whose therapeutic efficacy is hindered by its poor biopharmaceutical properties. The purpose of this study was to develop a nanoparticle (NP) formulation to enhance the bioactivity and oral bioavailability of MR. The nanoprecipitation technique was employed to encapsulate MR in lipid-cored poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) NPs. The optimal NPs were about 200 nm in size with an almost neutral surface charge and a loading efficiency of 82%. The NPs exhibited sustained release of MR within 24 h. In vitro antioxidant assays showed that MR encapsulation did not affect its antioxidant activity. On the other hand, anti-inflammatory assays in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages revealed a superior anti-inflammatory activity of MR NPs compared to free MR. Furthermore, oral administration of MR NPs to mice at a single dose of 20 mg/kg MR achieved a 5.6-fold enhancement in bioavailability and a prolongation of plasma half-life from 0.13 to 0.98 h. The results of this study present a promising NP formulation for MR which can enhance its oral bioavailability and bioactivity for the treatment of different diseases such as inflammation.

Highlights on Cell-Penetrating Peptides and Polymer-Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticle: Overview and Therapeutic Applications for Targeted Anticancer Therapy

Polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNs) have been widely used as a vehicle for carrying anticancer owing to its unique framework of polymer and lipid combining and giving the maximum advantages over the lipid and polymer nanoparticle drug delivery system. Surface modification of PLHNs aids in improved targeting and active delivery of the encapsulated drug. Therefore, surface modification of the PLHNs with the cell-penetrating peptide is explored by many researchers and is explained in this review. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are made up of few amino acid sequence and act by disrupting the cell membrane and transferring the cargos into the cell. Ideally, we can say that CPPs are peptide chains which are cell specific and are biocompatible, noninvasive type of delivery vehicle which can transport siRNA, protein, peptides, macromolecules, pDNA, etc. into the cell effectively. Therefore, this review focuses on the structure, type, and method of preparation of PLHNs also about the uptake mechanism of CPPs and concludes with the therapeutic application of PLHNs surface modified with the CPPs and their theranostics.

Challenges and Opportunities in the Oral Delivery of Recombinant Biologics

Recombinant biological molecules are at the cutting-edge of biomedical research thanks to the significant progress made in biotechnology and a better understanding of subcellular processes implicated in several diseases. Given their ability to induce a potent response, these molecules are becoming the drugs of choice for multiple pathologies. However, unlike conventional drugs which are mostly ingested, the majority of biologics are currently administered parenterally. Therefore, to improve their limited bioavailability when delivered orally, the scientific community has devoted tremendous efforts to develop accurate cell- and tissue-based models that allow for the determination of their capacity to cross the intestinal mucosa. Furthermore, several promising approaches have been imagined to enhance the intestinal permeability and stability of recombinant biological molecules. This review summarizes the main physiological barriers to the oral delivery of biologics. Several preclinical in vitro and ex vivo models currently used to assess permeability are also presented. Finally, the multiple strategies explored to address the challenges of administering biotherapeutics orally are described.

Pharmacokinetics and tumor delivery of nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely used in different areas, including consumer products and medicine. In terms of biomedical applications, NPs or NP-based drug formulations have been extensively investigated for cancer diagnostics and therapy in preclinical studies, but the clinical translation rate is low. Therefore, a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the pharmacokinetics of NPs, especially in drug delivery efficiency to the target therapeutic tissue tumor, is important to design more effective nanomedicines and for proper assessment of the safety and risk of NPs. This review article focuses on the pharmacokinetics of both organic and inorganic NPs and their tumor delivery efficiencies, as well as the associated mechanisms involved. We discuss the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) processes following different routes of exposure and the mechanisms involved. Many physicochemical properties and experimental factors, including particle type, size, surface charge, zeta potential, surface coating, protein binding, dose, exposure route, species, cancer type, and tumor size can affect NP pharmacokinetics and tumor delivery efficiency. NPs can be absorbed with varying degrees following different exposure routes and mainly accumulate in liver and spleen, but also distribute to other tissues such as heart, lung, kidney and tumor tissues; and subsequently get metabolized and/or excreted mainly through hepatobiliary and renal elimination. Passive and active targeting strategies are the two major mechanisms of tumor delivery, while active targeting tends to have less toxicity and higher delivery efficiency through direct interaction between ligands and receptors. We also discuss challenges and perspectives remaining in the field of pharmacokinetics and tumor delivery efficiency of NPs.

Fabrication of Partially Etched Polystyrene Nanoparticles

Non-spherical polymer nanoparticles (NPs) have gained attention in various fields, but their fabrication remains challenging. In this study, we present a simple protocol for synthesizing partially etched polystyrene (PS) nanoparticles through emulsion polymerization and chemical etching. By adjusting the degree of crosslinking, we selectively dissolve the weakly crosslinked portions of the particles, resulting in partially etched PS NPs with increased surface area. These partially etched NPs are evaluated for their use as solid surfactants in Pickering emulsions, where they demonstrate significantly improved emulsion stability compared to intact spherical NPs. Our results contribute to the field of nanoparticle shape control and provide insights into developing novel materials for various applications, particularly in the area of solid surfactant usage. Additionally, the importance of conducting cellular toxicity studies using these partially etched NPs for future work is also emphasized.

Effect of modification of polystyrene nanoparticles with different bile acids on their oral transport

Bile acid-modified nanomedicine is a promising strategy to improve oral bioavailability. However, the efficiencies of different bile acids have not been clarified. To clarify this issue, deoxycholic acid (DCA) and cholic acid (CA) and glycocholic acid (GCA) were conjugated to carboxylated polystyrene nanoparticle (CPN). The endocytosis, intracellular and transcellular transport among the NPs were compared in Caco-2 cells, and their oral pharmacokinetics profiles were studied in C57BL/6 J mice. It was found that DCPN demonstrated higher uptake and transcytosis rate. With modification by different bile acids, the transport pathways of the NPs were altered. In mice, GCPN showed the highest absorption speed and oral bioavailability. It was found that the synergic effect of hydrophobicity and ASBT affinity might lead to the difference between in vitro and in vivo transport. This study will build a basis for the rational design of bile acid-modified nanomedicines.

Mucus- and pH-mediated controlled release of core-shell chitosan nanoparticles in the gastrointestinal tract for diabetes treatment

For the successful oral delivery of peptide drugs, considerable barriers created by the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract, mucus, and epithelial cells must be overcome. This study was to establish a core-shell structure with chitosan (CS) nanoparticles (NP) as the core and poly-N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (pHPMA) as the intelligent escape shell to overcome pH and mucus barriers and improve the delivery efficiency of peptide drugs. A core-shell system (COS) composed of pHPMA-AT-1002-cys-chitosan (LRA-PA-CNPs) was prepared and used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus with the large-molecule peptide drug liraglutide (LRA). The complete COS system was observed through electron microscopy; the particle size of the LRA-PA-CNPs was approximately 160 nm; the encapsulation efficiency was approximately 69% ± 5%; the zeta potential was close to neutral; the mucus and epithelial penetration of the COS system were increased; and animal experiments showed that the COS system enhanced the oral hypoglycaemic effect of LRA.HIGHLIGHTSIntelligent escape material of poly-N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide as the shell.Core-shell nanoparticles penetrate the mucus layer and exposing the chitosan core.Overcome pH and mucus barriers to improve the delivery efficiency of peptide drugs.

Emerging Nanotechnologies and Microbiome Engineering for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by the chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract and impacts almost 7 million people across the globe. Current therapeutics are effective in treating the symptoms, but they often do not address the root cause or selectively target areas of inflammation. Notably, self-assembled nanoparticles show great promise as drug delivery systems for the treatment of IBD. Nanoparticles can be designed to survive the harsh gastric conditions and reach inflamed areas of the gastrointestinal tract. Oral drug delivery with nanoparticles can localize drugs to the impacted inflamed region using active and/or passive targeting and promote a high rate of drug dispersion in local tissues, thus reducing potential off-target toxicities. Since a dysregulated gut microbiome is implicated in the development and progression of IBD, it is also important to develop nanoparticles and biomaterials that can restore symbiotic microbes while reducing the proliferation of harmful microbes. In this review, we highlight recent advances in self-assembled nanosystems designed for addressing inflammation and dysregulated gut microbiomes as potential treatments for IBD. Nanoparticles have a promising future in improving the delivery of current therapeutics, increasing patient compliance by providing an oral method of medication, and reducing side effects. However, remaining challenges include scale-up synthesis of nanoparticles, potential side effects, and financial obstacles of clinical trials. It would be in the patients' best interest to continue research on nanoparticles in the pursuit of more effective therapeutics for the treatment of IBD.

pH/ROS Dual-Sensitive Natural Polysaccharide Nanoparticles Enhance "One Stone Four Birds" Effect of Rhein on Ulcerative Colitis

Rhein (RH), a natural anthraquinone compound, is considered an effective treatment candidate for ulcerative colitis (UC), whose multiple biological activities contribute to UC, including anti-inflammation, antioxidation, intestinal barrier repair, and microflora regulation. However, the application of RH is severely limited by its low water solubility, low bioavailability, and poor colonic targeting. Although some nanoparticles have been developed for the oral delivery of RH, most of them mainly highlighted only one effect of some drug delivery strategies but the above multiple biological activities. Therefore, a multiple polysaccharide-based nanodelivery system, comprising chitosan (CS) and fucoidan (FU), with pH/reactive oxygen species (ROS) sensitivity and mucosal adhesion, was developed and first used to load RH as a comprehensive treatment for UC. Briefly, RH-F/C-NPs were prepared using the polyelectrolyte self-assembly method; the average size of RH-F/C-NPs was 233.1 ± 5.7 nm, and the encapsulation rate of RH was 93.67 ± 1.60%. And it could maintain gastric stability and release RH in the colon with the designed pH/ROS sensitivity contributed by the polysaccharide-based structures. Cellular uptake experiments showed that both NCM 460 cells and RAW 264.7 cells had a good uptake of RH-F/C-NPs. Importantly, the effects of RH were highlighted in in vivo experiments, the results of which showed that RH-F/C-NPs could significantly reduce DSS-induced inflammation by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB-mediated anti-inflammatory pathway, the Nrf2/HO-1-mediated antioxidant pathway, colonic mucosal barrier repair, and intestinal microflora regulation. In addition, pharmacokinetic studies have shown that F/C-NPs contribute to the increase in the plasma concentration and the accumulation of RH in the colon to some extent. In short, this study is the first to develop an oral multiple polysaccharide-based nanosystem with pH/ROS dual sensitivity to study the "one stone four birds" therapeutic effect of RH on UC.

Enhanced Oral Absorption and Liver Distribution of Polymeric Nanoparticles through Traveling the Enterohepatic Circulation Pathways of Bile Acid

The intestinal epithelium is known to be a main hindrance to oral delivery of nanoparticles. Even though surface ligand modification can enhance cellular uptake of nanoparticles, the "easy entry and hard across" was frequently observed for many active targeting nanoparticles. Here, we fabricated polymeric nanoparticles relayed by bile acid transporters with monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(D,l-lactide) and deoxycholic acid-conjugated poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-poly(D,l-lactide) based on structural characteristics of intestine epithelium and the absorption characteristics of endogenous substances. As anticipated, deoxycholic acid-modified polymeric nanoparticles featuring good stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluid could notably promote the internalization of their payload by Caco-2 cells through mediation of apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT) and transmembrane transport of the nanoparticles across Caco-2 cell monolayers via relay-guide of ASBT, ileal bile acid-binding protein, and the heteromeric organic solute transporter (OSTα-OSTβ) along with multidrug resistance-associated protein 3 (MRP3) evidenced by competitive inhibition and fluorescence immunoassay, which was further visually confirmed by the stronger fluorescence from C6-labeled nanoparticles inside enterocytes and the basal side of the intestinal epithelium of mice. The transcellular transport of deoxycholic acid-modified nanoparticles in an intact form was mediated by caveolin/lipid rafts and clathrin with intracellular trafficking trace of endosome-lysosome-ER-Golgi apparatus and bile acid transport route. Furthermore, the increased uptake by HepG2 cells compared with unmodified nanoparticles evidenced the target ability of deoxycholic acid-modified nanoparticles to the liver, which was further supported by ex vivo imaging of excised major organs of mice. Thus, this study provided a feasible and potential strategy to further enhance transepithelial transport efficiency and liver-targeted ability of nanoparticles by means of the specific enterohepatic circulation pathways of bile acid.

Amoxicillin encapsulated in the N-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan and N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles: Preparation, characterization, and antibacterial activity

This is a report on the encapsulation amoxicillin (AMX) in the N-2-Hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan (N-2-HACC) and N,O-carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) nanoparticles (NPs) for biomedical applications. The N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs have broad-spectrum antibacterial properties. In order to achieve sustained and slow drug release, improve drug transport efficiency and bioavailability, prolong drug residence time, and reduce pollution, we synthesized highly efficient, easily absorbed and rapidly degradable nano-formulation veterinary antibiotics in this study. The N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs were used for the encapsulation of AMX, and the cytocompatibility, in vitro release, in vivo drug release kinetics and antimicrobial activity of N-2-HACC/CMCS/AMX NPs were investigated. The NPs displayed a round shape and smooth surface, and the NPs allowed the sustained release of AMX at a much slower rate than that of non-coated AMX. The NPs exhibited excellent cytocompatibility and the antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter baumannii, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus. Moreover, the NPs could store at 4 °C, -20 °C and 25 ± 5 °C for 30 d. These results suggested that the N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs could be availed as a candidate for drug delivery carrier to achieve sustained and slow release, improve bioavailability, prolong residence time at the target site, and reduce the dosage of drug.

Functionalized FcRn-targeted nanosystems for oral drug delivery: A new approach to colorectal cancer treatment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second type of cancer with the highest lethality rate. The current chemotherapy to treat CRC causes systemic toxicity, unsatisfying response rate, and low tumor-specific selectivity, which is mainly administered by invasive routes. The chronic and aggressive nature of cancers may require long-term regimens. Thus, the oral route is preferred. However, the orally administered drugs still need to surpass the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract and the biological barriers. Nanotechnology is a promising strategy to overcome the oral route limitations. Targeted nanoparticle systems decorated with functional groups can enhance the delivery of anticancer agents to tumor sites. It is described in the literature that the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) is expressed in cancer tissue and overexpressed in CRC epithelial cells. However, the impact of FcRn-targeted nanosystems in the treatment of CRC has been poorly investigated. This review article discusses the current knowledge on the involvement of the FcRn in CRC, as well as to critically assess its relevance as a target for further localization of oral nanocarriers in CRC tumor cells. Finally, a brief overview of cancer therapeutics, strategies to design the nanoparticles of anticancer drugs and a review of decorated nanoparticles with FcRn moieties are explored.

Gastrointestinal Tract Stabilized Protein Delivery Using Disulfide Thermostable Exoshell System

Thermostable exoshells (tES) are engineered proteinaceous nanoparticles used for the rapid encapsulation of therapeutic proteins/enzymes, whereby the nanoplatform protects the payload from proteases and other denaturants. Given the significance of oral delivery as the preferred model for drug administration, we structurally improved the stability of tES through multiple inter-subunit disulfide linkages that were initially absent in the parent molecule. The disulfide-linked tES, as compared to tES, significantly stabilized the activity of encapsulated horseradish peroxidase (HRP) at acidic pH and against the primary human digestive enzymes, pepsin, and trypsin. Furthermore, the disulfide-linked tES (DS-tES) exhibited significant intestinal permeability as evaluated using Caco2 cells. In vivo bioluminescence assay showed that encapsulated Renilla luciferase (rluc) was ~3 times more stable in mice compared to the free enzyme. DS-tES collected mice feces had ~100 times more active enzyme in comparison to the control (free enzyme) after 24 h of oral administration, demonstrating strong intestinal stability. Taken together, the in vitro and in vivo results demonstrate the potential of DS-tES for intraluminal and systemic oral drug delivery applications.

Nanoparticles for oral delivery: targeted therapy for inflammatory bowel disease

As a group of chronic and idiopathic gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by recurrent intestinal mucosal inflammation. Oral administration is critical for the treatment of IBD. Unfortunately, it is difficult to target the bowel located in the GI tract due to multiple physical barriers. The unique physicochemical properties of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) and their enhanced permeability and retention effects in the inflamed bowel, render nanomedicines to be used to implement precise drug delivery at diseased sites in IBD therapy. In this review, we described the pathophysiological features of IBD, and designed strategies to exploit these features for intestinal targeting. In addition, we introduced the types of currently developed nano-targeted carriers, including synthetic nanoparticle-based and emerging naturally derived nanoparticles (e.g., extracellular vesicles and plant-derived nanoparticles). Moreover, recent developments in targeted oral nanoparticles for IBD therapy were also highlighted. Finally, we presented challenges associated with nanotechnology and potential directions for future IBD treatment.

Chitosan/guar gum-based thermoreversible hydrogels loaded with pullulan nanoparticles for enhanced nose-to-brain drug delivery

The biopolymers-based two-fold system could provide a sustained release platform for drug delivery to the brain resisting the mucociliary clearance, enzymatic degradation, bypassing the first-pass hepatic metabolism, and BBB thus providing superior bioavailability through intranasal administration. In this study, poloxamers PF-127/PF-68 grafted chitosan HCl-co-guar gum-based thermoresponsive hydrogel loaded with eletriptan hydrobromide laden pullulan nanoparticles was synthesized and subjected to dynamic light scattering, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermal analysis, x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, stability studies, mucoadhesive strength and time, gel strength, cloud point assessment, rheological assessment, ex-vivo permeation, cell viability assay, histology studies, and in-vivo Pharmacokinetics studies, etc. It is quite evident that CSG-EH-NPs T-Hgel has an enhanced sustained release drug profile where approximately 86 % and 84 % of drug released in phosphate buffer saline and simulated nasal fluid respectively throughout 48 h compared to EH-NPs where 99.44 % and 97.53 % of the drug was released in PBS and SNF for 8 h. In-vivo PKa parameters i.e., mean residence time (MRT) of 11.9 ± 0.83 compared to EH-NPs MRT of 10.2 ± 0.92 and area under the curve (AUC_tot) of 42,540.5 ± 5314.14 comparing to AUC_tot of EH-NPs 38,026 ± 6343.1 also establish the superiority of CSG-EH-NPs T-Hgel.

Pharmacokinetics of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for medical applications

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) have been under intense investigation for at least the last five decades as they show enormous potential for many biomedical applications, such as biomolecule separation, MRI imaging and hyperthermia. Moreover, a large area of research on these nanostructures is concerned with their use as carriers of drugs, nucleic acids, peptides and other biologically active compounds, often leading to the development of targeted therapies. The uniqueness of MNPs is due to their nanometric size and unique magnetic properties. In addition, iron ions, which, along with oxygen, are a part of the MNPs, belong to the trace elements in the body. Therefore, after digesting MNPs in lysosomes, iron ions are incorporated into the natural circulation of this element in the body, which reduces the risk of excessive storage of nanoparticles. Still, one of the key issues for the therapeutic applications of magnetic nanoparticles is their pharmacokinetics which is reflected in the circulation time of MNPs in the bloodstream. These characteristics depend on many factors, such as the size and charge of MNPs, the nature of the polymers and any molecules attached to their surface, and other. Since the pharmacokinetics depends on the resultant of the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, research should be carried out individually for all the nanostructures designed. Almost every year there are new reports on the results of studies on the pharmacokinetics of specific magnetic nanoparticles, thus it is very important to follow the achievements on this matter. This paper reviews the latest findings in this field. The mechanism of action of the mononuclear phagocytic system and the half-lives of a wide range of nanostructures are presented. Moreover, factors affecting clearance such as hydrodynamic and core size, core morphology and coatings molecules, surface charge and technical aspects have been described.

Oral organic nanovaccines against bacterial and viral diseases

Vaccines have saved millions of humans and animals from deadly diseases. Many vaccines are still under development to fight against lethal diseases. Indeed, subunit vaccines are a versatile approach with several advantageous attributes, but they lack strong immunogenicity. Nanotechnology is an avenue to vaccine development because nanoparticles may serve as nanocarriers and adjuvants, which are critical aspects for oral vaccines. This review provides an update of oral organic nanovaccines, describing suitable nanomaterials for oral vaccine design and recent (last five-year view) oral nanovaccine developments to fight against those principal pathogens causing human and animal diseases.

Promising role of polymeric nanoparticles in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory illness caused by an autoimmune disorder of synovial membrane resulting in synovial membrane dysfunction. The available treatment particularly focuses on inhibiting macrophage proliferation and reducing the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, therapeutic success of current treatment options at targeted site is limited; therefore, development of promising therapeutic strategy is the need of time that may provide better targeted delivery of drug with added safety. In development of precision medicine to manage RA, nanotechnology is a viable option to be considered. Recent research using nanoparticles for the treatment of RA, particularly polymeric nanoparticles, has been discussed in this article. Using polymeric nanoparticles as a therapeutic method has shown considerable promise of enhancing treatment success over standard medications used in routine. It is exclusively evident that the viability of using nanoparticles is mainly owed due to their biocompatibility, chemical stability, controlled drug release, and selective drug delivery to inflamed tissues in RA model animals. The current analysis focuses on the critical design characteristics of RA-targeted nanotechnology-based strategies in quest of better therapeutic strategies for RA, and to identify leading polymer as the most effective medications in RA therapy.

Drug-delivery nanoparticles for bone-tissue and dental applications

The use of nanoparticles as biomaterials with applications in the biomedical field is growing every day. These nanomaterials can be used as contrast imaging agents, combination therapy agents, and targeted delivery systems in medicine and dentistry. Usually, nanoparticles are found as synthetic or natural organic materials, such as hydroxyapatite, polymers, and lipids. Besides that, they are could also be inorganic, for instance, metallic or metal-oxide-based particles. These inorganic nanoparticles could additionally present magnetic properties, such as superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. The use of nanoparticles as drug delivery agents has many advantages, for they help diminish toxicity effects in the body since the drug dose reduces significantly, increases drugs biocompatibility, and helps target drugs to specific organs. As targeted-delivery agents, one of the applications uses nanoparticles as drug delivery particles for bone-tissue to treat cancer, osteoporosis, bone diseases, and dental treatments such as periodontitis. Their application as drug delivery agents requires a good comprehension of the nanoparticle properties and composition, alongside their synthesis and drug attachment characteristics. Properties such as size, shape, core-shell designs, and magnetic characteristics can influence their behavior inside the human body and modify magnetic properties in the case of magnetic nanoparticles. Based on that, many different studies have modified the synthesis methods for these nanoparticles and developed composite systems for therapeutics delivery, adapting, and improving magnetic properties, shell-core designs, and particle size and nanosystems characteristics. This review presents the most recent studies that have been presented with different nanoparticle types and structures for bone and dental drug delivery.

Recent trends in praziquantel nanoformulations for helminthiasis treatment

INTRODUCTION

Infections caused by parasitic flatworms impose a considerable worldwide health burden. Recently, World Health Organization launched its roadmap for neglected diseases for the period 2021 to 2030 and oral treatment with praziquantel (PZQ) in tablet form is the main drug therapy for combating these diseases, but its use is limited by many drawbacks, including the high therapeutic dose due to the drug's low solubility and bioavailability. Among the strategies to improve PZQ performance, the use of drug nanocarriers has been cited as an interesting approach to overcome these pharmacological issues.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on the various types of nanomaterials (polymeric, lipidic, inorganic nanoparticles, and nanocrystals) which have been recently used to improve PZQ therapy. In addition, recent advances in PZQ nanoformulations, developed to overcome the barriers of the conventional drug are described.

EXPERT OPINION

Considering the poor rate of discovery in the anthelmintic segment observed in recent decades, the effective management of existing drugs has become essential. The application of new strategies based on nanotechnology can extend the useful life of PZQ in new and more effective formulations. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology can solve the pharmacokinetic challenges characteristic of PZQ and improve its solubility and bioavailability.