Blood Flow Restricted Exercise and Discomfort: A Review

The Discrepancy Between External and Internal Load/Intensity during Blood Flow Restriction Exercise: Understanding Blood Flow Restriction Pressure as Modulating Factor

Physical exercise induces acute psychophysiological responses leading to chronic adaptations when the exercise stimulus is applied repeatedly, at sufficient time periods, and with appropriate magnitude. To maximize long-term training adaptations, it is crucial to control and manipulate the external load and the resulting psychophysiological strain. Therefore, scientists have developed a theoretical framework that distinguishes between the physical work performed during exercise (i.e., external load/intensity) and indicators of the body's psychophysiological response (i.e., internal load/intensity). However, the application of blood flow restriction (BFR) during exercise with low external loads/intensities (e.g., ≤ 30% of the one-repetition-maximum, ≤ 50% of maximum oxygen uptake) can induce physiological and perceptual responses, which are commonly associated with high external loads/intensities. This current opinion aimed to emphasize the mismatch between external and internal load/intensity when BFR is applied during exercise. In this regard, there is evidence that BFR can be used to manipulate both external load/intensity (by reducing total work when exercise is performed to exhaustion) and internal load/intensity (by leading to higher physiological and perceptual responses compared to exercise performed with the same external load/intensity without BFR). Furthermore, it is proposed to consider BFR as an additional exercise determinant, given that the amount of BFR pressure can determine not only the internal but also external load/intensity. Finally, terminological recommendations for the use of the proposed terms in the scientific context and for practitioners are given, which should be considered when designing, reporting, discussing, and presenting BFR studies, exercise, and/or training programs.

The impact of acute blood-flow-restriction resistance exercise on somatosensory-evoked potentials in healthy adults

Blood-flow-restriction exercise (BFREX) is an emerging method to stimulate hypertrophy and strength without the need for high training loads. However, the impact of BFREX concerning somatosensory processing remains elusive. Here, we aimed to investigate the acute effects of BFREX on somatosensory processing in healthy adults using somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEPs). Twelve healthy adults (23.0 ± 3.2 years of age) participated in a randomized crossover experiment, consisting of three experimental conditions: application of blood-flow restriction without resistance exercise (BFR), resistance exercise for multiple sets with blood-flow restriction (BFREX) and traditional resistance exercise (unilateral biceps curls) for multiple sets without BFR (EX). SEP measurements were recorded bilaterally before, during and after each condition. SEP amplitudes were largely unaffected during various occlusive conditions. Nonetheless, our findings demonstrate a significant decrease in N9 latencies for condition EX compared with BFR, specifically in the exercised limb (mean difference = -0.26 ms, SE = 0.06 ms, P = 0.002, d = -0.335). This study provides evidence on the lack of impact of BFREX within the somatosensory domain, according to current guidelines. As an alternative method to traditional high-load resistance exercise, BFREX might offer a considerable upside for rehabilitative settings by reducing strain on the musculoskeletal system.

Altered muscle fibre activation in an antagonistic muscle pair due to perturbed afferent feedback caused by blood flow restriction

PURPOSE

This study aimed to better understand the coping strategy of the neuromuscular system under perturbed afferent feedback. To this end, the neuromechanical effects of transient blood flow restriction (BFR) compared to atmospheric pressure were investigated in an antagonistic muscle pair.

METHODS

Perceived discomfort and neuromechanical parameters (torque and high-density electromyography) were recorded during submaximal isometric ankle dorsiflexion before, during and after BFR. The tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius lateralis muscles were studied in 14 healthy young adults.

RESULTS

Discomfort increased during BFR and decreased to baseline level afterwards. The exerted torque and the co-activation index remained constant, whereas the EMG signal energy increased significantly during BFR. Coherence analysis of the delta band remained constant, whereas the alpha band shows an increase during BFR. Median frequency and muscle fibre conduction velocity showed a positive trend during the first minutes of BFR before significantly decreasing. Both parameters exceeded baseline values after cuff deflation.

CONCLUSION

Perturbed afferent feedback leads to altered neuromechanical parameters. We assume that increased central drive is required to maintain force output, resulting in changed muscle fibre activity. Glycolytic fast-switch fibres are only active for a short time due to oxygen deprivation and hyperacidity, but fatigue effects predominate in the long term.

Exploring immediate cardiorespiratory responses: low-intensity blood flow restricted cycling vs. moderate-intensity traditional exercise in a randomized crossover trial

PURPOSE

Blood-flow restriction (BFR) endurance training may increase endurance performance and muscle strength similar to traditional endurance training while requiring a lower training intensity. We aimed to compare acute cardiorespiratory responses to low-intensity interval exercise under BFR with moderate-intensity traditional interval exercise (TRA).

METHODS

We conducted a randomized crossover study. The protocol involved three cycling intervals interspersed with 1 min resting periods. With a 48-h washout period, individuals performed the protocol twice in random order: once as BFR-50 (i.e., 50% incremental peak power output [IPPO] and 50% limb occlusion pressure [LOP]) and once as TRA-65 (65% IPPO without occlusion). TRA-65 intervals lasted 2 min, and time-matched BFR-50 lasted 2 min and 18 s. Respiratory parameters were collected by breath-by-breath analysis. The ratings of perceived breathing and leg exertion (RPE, 0 to 10) were assessed. Linear mixed models were used for analysis.

RESULTS

Out of the 28 participants initially enrolled in the study, 24 healthy individuals (18 males and 6 females) completed both measurements. Compared with TRA-65, BFR-50 elicited lower minute ventilation (VE, primary outcome) (-3.1 l/min [-4.4 to -1.7]), oxygen consumption (-0.22 l/min [-0.28 to -0.16]), carbon dioxide production (-0.25 l/min [-0.29 to -0.20]) and RPE breathing (-0.9 [-1.2 to -0.6]). RPE leg was significantly greater in the BFR-50 group (1.3 [1.0 to 1.7]).

CONCLUSION

BFR endurance exercise at 50% IPPO and 50% LOP resulted in lower cardiorespiratory work and perceived breathing effort compared to TRA at 65% IPPO. BFR-50 could be an attractive alternative for TRA-65, eliciting less respiratory work and perceived breathing effort while augmenting perceived leg muscle effort.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT05163600; December 20, 2021.

[Blood flow restriction training (BFRT) in patients before and after total knee arthroplasty]

BACKGROUND

In healthy individuals, blood flow restriction training (BFRT) has shown positive effects on muscle mass, strength, fatigue resistance, as well as tendon and bone metabolism. BFRT reduces blood flow in the extremities using inflatable cuffs, creating local muscular hypoxia, which produces an anabolic metabolic environment. This promotes significant muscular and cardiovascular adaptations even at low mechanical training loads.

KNEE ENDOPROSTHESES

BFRT also shows promising initial results in pre- and postoperative applications for knee endoprostheses (KTEP). Both preoperative and postoperative BFRT can improve muscle strength and joint function, accelerate recovery, and alleviate pain. Although the method is generally safe, potential risks such as discomfort and rare side effects must be considered. Clear application protocols are still lacking, necessitating further research and individualized programs to achieve optimal training effects. BFRT thus offers an innovative way to effectively rehabilitate patients despite their low load tolerance.

Comparing adaptations from blood flow restriction exercise training using regulated or unregulated pressure systems: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

No study has examined outcomes derived from blood flow restriction exercise training interventions using regulated compared with unregulated blood flow restriction pressure systems. Therefore, we used a systematic review and meta-analyses to compare the chronic adaptations to blood flow restriction exercise training achieved with regulated and unregulated blood flow restriction pressure systems.

DATA SOURCES

The electronic database search included using the tool EBSCOhost and other online database search engines. The search included Medline, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Embase and SpringerLink.

METHODS

Included studies utilised chronic blood flow restriction exercise training interventions greater than two weeks duration, where blood flow restriction was applied using a regulated or unregulated blood flow restriction pressure system, and where outcome measures such as muscle strength, muscle size or physical function were measured both pre- and post-training. Studies included in the meta-analyses used an equivalent non-blood flow restriction exercise comparison group.

RESULTS

Eighty-one studies were included in the systematic review. Data showed that regulated (n = 47) and unregulated (n = 34) blood flow restriction pressure systems yield similar training adaptations for all outcome measures post-intervention. For muscle strength and muscle size, this was reaffirmed in the included meta-analyses.

CONCLUSION

This review indicates that practitioners may achieve comparable training adaptations with blood flow restriction exercise training using either regulated or unregulated blood flow restriction pressure systems. Therefore, additional factors such as device quality, participant comfort and safety, cost and convenience are important factors to consider when deciding on appropriate equipment to use when prescribing blood flow restriction exercise training.

Influence of Blood Flow Restriction on Neuromuscular Function and Fatigue During Forearm Flexion in Men

ABSTRACT

Montgomery, TR Jr, Olmos, A, Sears, KN, Succi, PJ, Hammer, SM, Bergstrom, HC, Hill, EC, Trevino, MA, and Dinyer-McNeely, TK. Influence of blood flow restriction on neuromuscular function and fatigue during forearm flexion in men. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): e349-e358, 2024-To determine the effects of blood flow restriction (BFR) on the mean firing rate (MFR) and motor unit action potential amplitude (MUAPAMP) vs. recruitment threshold (RT) relationships during fatiguing isometric elbow flexions. Ten men (24.5 ± 4.0 years) performed isometric trapezoidal contractions at 50% maximum voluntary contraction to task failure with or without BFR, on 2 separate days. For BFR, a cuff was inflated to 60% of the pressure required for full brachial artery occlusion at rest. During both visits, surface electromyography was recorded from the biceps brachii of the dominant limb and the signal was decomposed. A paired-samples t test was used to determine the number of repetitions completed between BFR and CON. ANOVAs (repetition [first, last] × condition [BFR, CON]) were used to determine differences in MFR vs. RT and MUAPAMP vs. RT relationships. Subjects completed more repetitions during CON (12 ± 4) than BFR (9 ± 2; p = 0.012). There was no significant interaction (p > 0.05) between the slopes and y-intercepts during the repetition × condition interaction for MUAPAMP vs. MFR. However, there was a main effect of repetition for the slopes of the MUAPAMP vs. RT (p = 0.041) but not the y-intercept (p = 0.964). Post hoc analysis (collapsed across condition) indicated that the slopes of the MUAPAMP vs. RT during the first repetition was less than the last repetition (first: 0.022 ± 0.003 mv/%MVC; last: 0.028 ± 0.004 mv/%MVC; p = 0.041). Blood flow restriction resulted in the same amount of higher threshold MU recruitment in approximately 75% of the repetitions. Furthermore, there was no change in MFR for either condition, even when taken to task failure. Thus, BFR training may create similar MU responses with less total work completed than training without BFR.

Measurement of arterial occlusion pressure using straight and curved blood flow restriction cuffs

Arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) is influenced by the characteristics of the cuff used to measure AOP. Doppler ultrasound was used to measure AOP of the brachial and superficial femoral arteries using straight and curved blood flow restriction cuffs in 21 males and 21 females. Vessel diameter and blood flow were evaluated as independent predictors of AOP. Overall, there were no significant differences in AOP when using the straight and curved cuffs in the brachial (129 mmHg vs. 128 mmHg) or superficial femoral artery (202 mmHg vs. 200 mmHg), respectively. Overall, AOP was greater (p < 0.05) in males than in females in the arm (135 mmHg, 123 mmHg) and leg (211 mmHg, 191 mmHg). Brachial (0.376 mm, 0.323 mm) and superficial femoral (0.547 mm, 0.486 mm) arteries were larger (p = 0.016) in males than in females, respectively. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and arm circumference were predictive of brachial artery AOP, whereas SBP, diastolic blood pressure, thigh circumference, and vessel diameter were predictive of superficial femoral artery AOP. Straight and curved cuffs are efficacious in the measurement of AOP in the arm and leg. Differences in vessel size may contribute to sex differences in AOP but this requires further investigation.

Cerebral cortex activation and functional connectivity during low-load resistance training with blood flow restriction: An fNIRS study

Despite accumulating evidence that blood flow restriction (BFR) training promotes muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms have rarely been explored. The primary goal of this study is to investigate characteristics of cerebral cortex activity during BFR training under different pressure intensities. 24 males participated in 30% 1RM squat exercise, changes in oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (HbO) in the primary motor cortex (M1), pre-motor cortex (PMC), supplementary motor area (SMA), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), were measured by fNIRS. The results showed that HbO increased from 0 mmHg (non-BFR) to 250 mmHg but dropped sharply under 350 mmHg pressure intensity. In addition, HbO and functional connectivity were higher in M1 and PMC-SMA than in DLPFC. Moreover, the significant interaction effect between pressure intensity and ROI for HbO revealed that the regulation of cerebral cortex during BFR training was more pronounced in M1 and PMC-SMA than in DLPFC. In conclusion, low-load resistance training with BFR triggers acute responses in the cerebral cortex, and moderate pressure intensity achieves optimal neural benefits in enhancing cortical activation. M1 and PMC-SMA play crucial roles during BFR training through activation and functional connectivity regulation.

Acute hypoalgesic, neurophysiological and perceptual responses to low-load blood flow restriction exercise and high-load resistance exercise

This study compared the acute hypoalgesic and neurophysiological responses to low-load resistance exercise with and without blood flow restriction (BFR), and free-flow, high-load exercise. Participants performed four experimental conditions where they completed baseline measures of pain pressure threshold (PPT), maximum voluntary force (MVF) with peripheral nerve stimulation to determine central and peripheral fatigue. Corticospinal excitability (CSE), corticospinal inhibition and short interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) were estimated with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Participants then performed low-load leg press exercise at 30% of one-repetition maximum (LL); low-load leg press with BFR at 40% (BFR40) or 80% (BFR80) of limb occlusion pressure; or high-load leg press of four sets of 10 repetitions at 70% one-repetition maximum (HL). Measurements were repeated at 5, 45 min and 24 h post-exercise. There were no differences in CSE or SICI between conditions (all P > 0.05); however, corticospinal inhibition was reduced to a greater extent (11%-14%) in all low-load conditions compared to HL (P < 0.005). PPTs were 12%-16% greater at 5 min post-exercise in BFR40, BFR80 and HL compared to LL (P ≤ 0.016). Neuromuscular fatigue displayed no clear difference in the magnitude or time course between conditions (all P > 0.05). In summary, low-load BFR resistance exercise does not induce different acute neurophysiological responses to low-load, free-flow exercise but it does promote a greater degree of hypoalgesia and reduces corticospinal inhibition more than high-load exercise, making it a useful rehabilitation tool. The changes in neurophysiology following exercise were not related to changes in PPT.

Measurements of Arterial Occlusion Pressure Using Hand-Held Devices

ABSTRACT

Vehrs, PR, Reynolds, S, Allen, J, Barrett, R, Blazzard, C, Burbank, T, Hart, H, Kasper, N, Lacey, R, Lopez, D, and Fellingham, GW. Measurements of arterial occlusion pressure using hand-held devices. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 873-880, 2024-Arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) of the brachial artery was measured simultaneously using Doppler ultrasound (US), a hand-held Doppler (HHDOP), and a pulse oximeter (PO) in the dominant (DOM) and nondominant (NDOM) arms of males ( n = 21) and females ( n = 23) using continuous (CONT) and incremental (INCR) cuff inflation protocols. A mixed-model analysis of variance revealed significant ( p < 0.05) overall main effects between AOP measured using a CONT (115.7 ± 10.9) or INCR (115.0 ± 11.5) cuff inflation protocol; between AOP measured using US (116.3 ± 11.2), HHDOP (115.4 ± 11.2), and PO (114.4 ± 11.2); and between males (120.7 ± 10.6) and females (110.5 ± 9.4). The small overall difference (1.81 ± 3.3) between US and PO measures of AOP was significant ( p < 0.05), but the differences between US and HHDOP and between HHDOP and PO measures of AOP were not significant. There were no overall differences in AOP between the DOM and NDOM arms. Trial-to-trial variance in US measurements of AOP was not significant when using either cuff inflation protocol but was significant when using HHDOP and PO and a CONT cuff inflation protocol. Bland-Altman plots revealed reasonable limits of agreement for both HHDOP and PO measures of AOP. The small differences in US, HHDOP, and PO measurements of AOP when using CONT or INCR cuff inflation protocols are of minimal practical importance. The choice of cuff inflation protocol is one of personal preference. Hand-held Doppler of PO can be used to assess AOP before using blood flow restriction during exercise.

Development of a prediction equation to estimate lower-limb arterial occlusion pressure with a thigh sphygmomanometer

INTRODUCTION

Previous investigators have developed prediction equations to estimate arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) for blood flow restriction (BFR) exercise. Most equations have not been validated and are designed for use with expensive cuff systems. Thus, their implementation is limited for practitioners.

PURPOSE

To develop and validate an equation to predict AOP in the lower limbs when applying an 18 cm wide thigh sphygmomanometer (SPHYG18cm).

METHODS

Healthy adults (n = 143) underwent measures of thigh circumference (TC), skinfold thickness (ST), and estimated muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) along with brachial and femoral systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure. Lower-limb AOP was assessed in a seated position at the posterior tibial artery (Doppler ultrasound) using a SPHYG18cm. Hierarchical linear regression models were used to determine predictors of AOP. The best set of predictors was used to construct a prediction equation to estimate AOP. Performance of the equation was evaluated and internally validated using bootstrap resampling.

RESULTS

Models containing measures of either TC or thigh composition (ST and CSA) paired with brachial blood pressures explained the most variability in AOP (54%) with brachial SBP accounting for majority of explained variability. A prediction equation including TC, brachial SBP, and age showed good predictability (R2 = 0.54, RMSE = 7.18 mmHg) and excellent calibration. Mean difference between observed and predicted values was 0.0 mmHg and 95% Limits of Agreement were ± 18.35 mmHg. Internal validation revealed small differences between apparent and optimism adjusted performance measures, suggesting good generalizability.

CONCLUSION

This prediction equation for use with a SPHYG18cm provided a valid way to estimate lower-limb AOP without expensive equipment.

Effects of Blood Flow Restriction on Balance Performance During Dynamic Balance Exercises in Individuals With Chronic Ankle Instability

CONTEXT

Blood flow restriction (BFR) is a rehabilitation tool which may introduce a constraint, similar to muscle fatigue, that challenge patients' sensorimotor system during balance exercises. The purpose of our study was to examine whether adding BFR to dynamic balance exercises produced a decrease in balance performance and an increase in ratings of perceived exertion and instability in individuals with chronic ankle instability (CAI) compared with dynamic balance exercises without BFR.

DESIGNS

Crossover design.

METHODS

Our sample included N = 25 young adults with a history of CAI. Participants completed 2 laboratory visits. At each visit, participants completed 4 sets (30×-15×-15×-15×) of dynamic balance exercises, performed similar to the modified star excursion balance test (SEBT), once with BFR and once with control (no BFR) conditions. We measured composite SEBT scores at baseline and during the final repetitions of each set of balance exercise (sets 1-4). We also measured ratings of perceived exertion and instability following each balance exercise set.

RESULTS

We observed no difference in composite SEBT scores between conditions at baseline; however, composite SEBT scores were significantly lower during all balance exercises sets 1 to 4 with the BFR condition compared with control. During the BFR condition, composite SEBT scores were significantly lower during all balance exercise sets compared with baseline. During the control condition, composite SEBT scores did not significantly change between baseline and each balance exercise set. Ratings of perceived exertion and instability scores were significantly greater in the BFR group compared with the control group during all balance exercise sets.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with CAI demonstrated lower composite SEBT scores and greater perceived instability and exertion during dynamic balance exercise with BFR compared to without BFR. BFR introduced a novel muscle fatigue constraint during dynamic balance exercises in individuals with CAI. Additional research is needed to determine if adding BFR to balance training could improve clinical outcomes in CAI patients.

Blood flow restriction pressure for narrow cuffs (5 cm) cannot be estimated with precision

Blood flow restriction pressures are set relative to the lowest pressure needed to occlude blood flow with that specific cuff. Due to pressure limitations of some devices, it is often not possible to occlude blood flow in all subjects and apply a known relative pressure in the lower body with a 5 cm wide cuff.Objective. To use a device capable of generating high pressures (up to 907 mmHg) to create and validate an estimation equation for the 5 cm cuff in the lower body using a 12 cm cuff.Approach. 170 participants had their arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) with a 5 cm and 12 cm cuff and their thigh circumference measured in their right leg. The sample was randomly allocated to a prediction group (66%) and validation group (33%). Thigh circumference and 12 cm AOP were used as predictors. A Bland-Altman plot was constructed to assess agreement between measured and predicted values.Main results. The mean difference (95% confidence interval) between the observed (336.8 mmHg) and the predicted (343.9 mmHg) 5 cm AOP was 7.1 (-11.9, 26.1) mmHg. The 95% limits of agreement were -133.6 to 147.8 mmHg. There was a negative relationship between the difference and the average of predicted and measured 5 cm AOP (B= -0.317,p= 0.000043).Significance. Although this was the first study to quantify AOP over 600 mmHg with a 5 cm cuff, our equation is not valid across all levels of pressure. If possible, larger cuff widths should be employed in the lower body.

Effects of low-load blood flow restriction on the venous system in comparison to traditional low-load and high-load exercises

Purpose: Blood-Flow-Restriction (BFR) training provides the ability to achieve hypertrophy effects even though only light mechanical loads are applied. However, its impact on venous pressures and function are still unknown. Therefore, the present study investigates the influence of BFR-training on intravascular venous pressure and venous function in comparison to control exercises with low or high mechanical loads. Methods: In a randomized cross-over design, ten healthy men (27.6 ± 6.4 years) underwent three trials of unilateral knee-extensor exercise with three different training protocols, low-load- (LL-RT, 30% of the individual 1-repetition-maximum, 1RM), low-load BFR- (LL-BFR-RT, 30% 1RM, 50% limb occlusion pressure, LOP) and high-load resistance exercise (HL-RT, 75% 1RM). Exercise protocols contain about four sets of knee extension exercise (Range-of-Motion: 0-0-95°), separated by 60 s of rest. Each set was performed until volitional muscle failure. For analysis of changes in intravascular venous pressures and venous function, a venous catheter was placed at the exercising leg before each trial. Whereas venous pressures were recorded throughout the exercise trials, phlebodynamometric investigations were performed before and after each trial. Furthermore, subjective pain perception during and after exercise was accessed by visual analogue scale. One-way ANOVA was used to assess mean differences between training protocols, while two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (rANOVA; time x condition) was performed to compare changes in measures over time among conditions. Data were given as means ± standard deviation (SD). Results: In comparison to the exercise trials without venous occlusion, total workload was significantly lower in the LL-BFR-RT (LL-RT: 1745 ± 604 kg vs LL-BFR-RT: 1274 ± 237 kg vs HL-RT: 1847 ± 367 kg, p = 0.004) without indicating statistical differences in venous pressures during the exercise sets (interaction: p = 0.140) or pain perception (interaction: p = 0.574). Similarly, phlebodynamometric assessment of venous function (e.g. refill-time of the venous system pre-vs. post exercise trials-LL-RT: 29.7 ± 11.0 s vs 25.5 ± 9.6 s, LL-BFR-RT: 26.6 ± 13.0 s vs 27.3 ± 13.8 s, HL-RT: 25.9 ± 10.9 s vs 23.1 ± 8.2 s) revealed no time (p = 0.156), condition effect (p = 0.802) or their interactions (p = 0.382). Conclusion: The present study is the first one describing the acute effects of LL-BFR-RT to muscle failure on venous pressures and function in comparison to a LL- and HL-RT in the lower limbs. In contrast to the existing literature, LL-BFR-RT does not elevate the venous pressures during exercise higher than a comparative exercise without BFR and does not show any adverse effects on venous function after the exercise.

The effect of blood flow restriction exercise on N-lactoylphenylalanine and appetite regulation in obese adults: a cross-design study

Background

N-lactoylphenylalanine (Lac-Phe) is a new form of "exerkines" closely related to lactate (La), which may be able to inhibit appetite. Blood flow restriction (BFR) can lead to local tissue hypoxia and increase lactate accumulation. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of combining Moderate-intensity Continuous Exercise (MICE) with BFR on Lac-Phe and appetite regulation in obese adults.

Methods

This study employed the cross-design study and recruited 14 obese adults aged 18-24 years. The participants were randomly divided into three groups and performed several tests with specific experimental conditions: (1) M group (MICE without BFR, 60%VO2max, 200 kJ); (2) B group (MICE with BFR, 60%VO2max, 200 kJ); and (3) C group (control session without exercise). Participants were given a standardized meal 60 min before exercise and a ad libitum 60 min after exercise. In addition, blood and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) were collected before, immediately after, and 1 hour after performing the exercise.

Results

No significant difference in each index was detected before exercise. After exercise, the primary differential metabolites detected in the M and B groups were xanthine, La, succinate, Lac-Phe, citrate, urocanic acid, and myristic acid. Apart from that, the major enrichment pathways include the citrate cycle, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism. The enhanced Lac-Phe and La level in the B group was higher than M and C groups. Hunger of the B group immediately after exercise substantially differed from M group. The total ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 and hunger in the B group 1 hour after exercise differed substantially from M group. The results of calorie intake showed no significant difference among the indexes in each group.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this cross-design study demonstrated that the combined MICE and BFR exercise reduced the appetite of obese adults by promoting the secretion of Lac-Phe and ghrelin. However, the exercise did not considerably affect the subsequent ad libitum intake.

The Hypoalgesic Effect of Low-Load Exercise to Failure Is Not Augmented by Blood Flow Restriction

Purpose: To 1) examine whether blood flow restriction would provide an additional exercise-induced hypoalgesic response at an upper and lower limb when it is incorporated with low-load resistance exercise until failure, and 2) examine if increases in blood pressure and discomfort, with blood flow restricted exercise, would mediate the exercise-induced hypoalgesia over exercise without blood flow restriction. Methods: Forty healthy young participants completed two trials: four sets of unilateral knee extension exercise to failure at 30% of one-repetition maximum, with and without blood flow restriction. Pressure pain thresholds were assessed before (twice) and 5-min post exercise at an upper and lower limb. Blood pressure and discomfort ratings were recorded to examine mediating effects on exercise-induced hypoalgesia with blood flow restricted exercise. Results: Pressure pain threshold increased following both exercise conditions compared to a control, without any differences between exercise conditions at the upper (exercise conditions vs. control: ~0.37 kg/cm2) and lower (exercise conditions vs. control: ~0.60 kg/cm2) limb. The total number of repetitions was lower for exercise with blood flow restriction compared to exercise alone [median difference (95% credible interval) of -27.0 (-29.8, -24.4) repetitions]. There were no mediating effects of changes in blood pressure, nor changes in discomfort, for the changes in pressure pain threshold at either the upper or lower limb. Conclusion: The addition of blood flow restriction to low-load exercise induces a similar hypoalgesic response to that of non-blood flow restricted exercise, with a fewer number of repetitions.

Skeletal Muscle Adaptations to High-Load Resistance Training With Pre-Exercise Blood Flow Restriction

ABSTRACT

Hammert, WB, Moreno, EN, Martin, CC, Jessee, MB, and Buckner, SL. Skeletal muscle adaptations to high-load resistance training with pre-exercise blood flow restriction. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): 2381-2388, 2023-This study aimed to determine if blood flow restriction (BFR) could augment adaptations to a high-load training protocol that was inadequate for muscle growth. Forty nontrained individuals had each arm assigned to 1 of 3 elbow flexion protocols: (a) high-load resistance training [TRAD; 4 sets to muscular failure at 70% 1 repetition maximum (1RM)], (b) low repetition high-load resistance training with pre-exercise BFR (PreBFR; 4 sets of 3 repetitions at 70% 1RM + 3 min of pre-exercise BFR), and (c) low repetition high-load resistance training (LRTRAD); 4 sets of 3 repetitions at 70% 1RM). Muscle thickness (MT), 1RM strength, and local muscular endurance (LME) of the elbow flexors were measured before and after 8 weeks. An alpha level of 0.05 was used for all comparisons. For the 50% site, MT increased for TRAD (0.211 cm, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 0.143-0.280), PreBFR (0.105 cm, 95% CI: 0.034-0.175), and LRTRAD (0.073 cm, 95% CI: 0.000-0.146). The change for TRAD was greater than PreBFR and LRTRAD. For the 60% site, MT increased for TRAD (0.235 cm, 95% CI: 0.153-0.317), PreBFR (0.097 cm, 95% CI: 0.014-0.180), and LRTRAD (0.082 cm, 95% CI: 0.000-0.164). The change for TRAD was greater than PreBFR and LRTRAD. For the 70% site MT increased for TRAD (0.308 cm, 95% CI: 0.247-0.369), PreBFR (0.103 cm, 95% CI: 0.041-0.166), and LRTRAD (0.070 cm, 95% CI: 0.004-0.137). The change for TRAD was greater than PreBFR and LRTRAD. One repetition maximum and LME significantly increased for each condition, with no differences between conditions. Collapsed across conditions 1RM strength increased 2.094 kg (95% CI: 1.771-2.416) and LME increased 7.0 repetitions (95% CI: 5.7-8.3). In conclusion, the application of BFR to low-repetition, high-load training did not enhance the adaptative response.

Effect of Isokinetic Training with Blood Flow Restriction During Rest Interval Versus Exercise on Muscle Strength, Hypertrophy, and Perception: A Pilot Study

Objectives

This study aimed to determine the effects of high-intensity isokinetic training with blood flow restriction during rest interval between set (rBFR) versus during exercise (eBFR) on muscle hypertrophy and increasing muscle strength and determine whether BFR-induced exercise pain is suppressed by rBFR.

Materials and Methods

Fourteen arms (7 participants) were recruited for the study. We conducted the following interventions for each arm: eBFR (n=4), rBFR (n=5), and exercise only (CON, n=5). The participants performed elbow flexion training with a BIODEX device twice weekly for 8 weeks. This study training consisted of total four sets; each was performed until <50% peak torque was achieved twice consecutively. BFR pressure was set at 120 mmHg. Elbow flexor peak torque during concentric contraction (CC), isometric contraction (IM), and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) were measured before and after the intervention. Numerical rating scale scores used to assess pain during exercise were determined during training.

Results

Peak torque at the CC increased in the rBFR (p<0.05) and IM increased in the rBFR and CON (p<0.05), while CSA increased in the rBFR and CON (p<0.001). The pain during exercise was severe in the eBFR and moderate in the rBFR and CON.

Conclusions

This study's showed that high-intensity isokinetic training with rBFR did not have a synergistic effect on increasing muscle strength and muscle size. Additionally, high-intensity isokinetic training with BFR when it may be best not to perform it during exercise, because it was induces severe pain and may inhibit increases in muscle strength.

Acute Effect of Resistance Training With Blood Flow Restriction on Perceptual Responses: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

CONTEXT

Several studies have compared perceptual responses between resistance exercise with blood flow restriction and traditional resistance exercise (non-BFR). However, the results were contradictory.

OBJECTIVES

To analyze the effect of RE+BFR versus non-BFR resistance exercise [low-load resistance exercise (LL-RE) or high-load resistance exercise (HL-RE)] on perceptual responses.

DATA SOURCES

CINAHL, Cochrane Library, PubMed®, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were searched through August 28, 2021, and again on August 25, 2022.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies comparing the effect of RE+BFR versus non-BFR resistance exercise on rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and muscle pain/discomfort were considered. Meta-analyses were conducted using the random effects model.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 2.

DATA EXTRACTION

All data were reviewed and extracted independently by 2 reviewers. Disagreements were resolved by a third reviewer.

RESULTS

Thirty studies were included in this review. In a fixed repetition scheme, the RPE [standardized mean difference (SMD) = 1.04; P < 0.01] and discomfort (SMD = 1.10; P < 0.01) were higher in RE+BFR than in non-BFR LL-RE, but similar in sets to voluntary failure. There were no significant differences in RPE in the comparisons between RE+BFR and non-BFR HL-RE; after sensitivity analyses, it was found that the RPE was higher in non-BFR HL-RE in a fixed repetition scheme. In sets to voluntary failure, discomfort was higher in RE+BFR versus non-BFR HL-RE (SMD = 0.95; P < 0. 01); however, in a fixed scheme, the results were similar.

CONCLUSION

In sets to voluntary failure, RPE is similar between RE+BFR and non-BFR exercise. In fixed repetition schemes, RE+BFR seems to promote higher RPE than non-BFR LL-RE and less than HL-RE. In sets to failure, discomfort appears to be similar between LL-RE with and without BFR; however, RE+BFR appears to promote greater discomfort than HL-RE. In fixed repetition schemes, the discomfort appears to be no different between RE+BFR and HL-RE, but is lower in non-BFR LL-RE.

Use of a handheld Doppler to measure brachial and femoral artery occlusion pressure

Objective: Measurement of arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) is essential to the safe and effective use of blood flow restriction during exercise. Use of a Doppler ultrasound (US) is the "gold standard" method to measure AOP. Validation of a handheld Doppler (HHDOP) device to measure AOP could make the measurement of AOP more accessible to practitioners in the field. The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy of AOP measurements of the brachial and femoral arteries using an HHDOP. Methods: We simultaneously measured AOP using a "gold standard" US and a HHDOP in the dominant and non-dominant arms (15 males; 15 females) and legs (15 males; 15 females). Results: There were no differences in limb circumference or limb volume in the dominant and non-dominant arms and legs between males and females or between the dominant and non-dominant arms and legs of males and females. The differences between US and HHDOP measures of AOP in the dominant and non-dominant arms and legs were either not significant or small (<10 mmHg) and of little practical importance. There were no sex differences in AOP measurements of the femoral artery (p > 0.60). Bland-Altman analysis yielded an average bias (-0.65 mmHg; -2.93 mmHg) and reasonable limits of agreement (±5.56 mmHg; ±5.58 mmHg) between US and HHDOP measures of brachial and femoral artery AOP, respectively. Conclusion: HHDOP yielded acceptable measures of AOP of the brachial and femoral arteries and can be used to measure AOP by practitioners for the safe and effective use of blood flow restriction. Due to the potential differences in AOP between dominant and non-dominant limbs, AOP should be measured in each limb.

Exercise responses to heart rate clamped cycling with graded blood flow restriction

OBJECTIVES

To quantify the acute effects of graded blood flow restriction on the interaction between changes in mechanical output, muscle oxygenation trends and perceptual responses to heart rate clamped cycling.

DESIGN

Repeated measures.

METHODS

Twenty-five adults (21 men) performed six, 6-min cycling bouts (24 min of recovery) at a clamped heart rate corresponding to their first ventilatory threshold at 0 % (unrestricted), 15 %, 30 %, 45 %, 60 % and 75 % of arterial occlusion pressure with the cuffs inflated bilaterally from the fourth to the sixth minute. Power output, arterial oxygen saturation (pulse oximetry) and vastus lateralis muscle oxygenation (near-infrared spectroscopy) were monitored during the final 3 min of pedalling, whilst perceptual responses (modified Borg CR10 scales) were obtained immediately after exercise.

RESULTS

Compared to unrestricted cycling, average power output for minutes 4-6 decreased exponentially for cuff pressures ranging 45-75 % of arterial occlusion pressure (P < 0.001). Peripheral oxygen saturation averaged ∼96 % across all cuff pressures (P = 0.318). Deoxyhemoglobin changes were larger at 45-75 % versus 0 % of arterial occlusion pressure (P < 0.05), whereas higher total haemoglobin values occurred at 60-75 % of arterial occlusion pressure (P < 0.05). Sense of effort, ratings of perceived exertion, pain from cuff pressure, and limb discomfort were exaggerated at 60-75 % versus 0 % of arterial occlusion pressure (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Blood flow restriction of at least 45 % of arterial occlusion pressure is required to reduce mechanical output during heart rate clamped cycling at the first ventilatory threshold. Whilst power decreases non-linearly above this pressure threshold, higher occlusion levels ranging 60-75 % of arterial occlusion pressure also accentuate muscle deoxygenation and exercise-related sensations.

Potential considerations with estimating blood flow restriction pressure in the lower body using a narrower cuff

Blood flow restriction pressures are typically set as a percentage of the arterial occlusion pressure. For those who do not have the ability to measure the arterial occlusion pressure, estimation equations are available. However, notable considerations are needed when estimating pressure with a narrow cuff (5 cm) in the lower body. A previously published equation in this journal was developed but was created only using 55% of the sample because the arterial occlusion of the others could not be obtained within the manufacturer's pressure limit. The purpose of this article was twofold: (1) to investigate how previous studies have implemented the equation and (2) to highlight potential concerns of using this equation. Two databases were used to locate articles that used the equation from Loenneke et al. (2015). We found that this equation had been cited 10 times to estimate arterial occlusion pressure with some notable concerns. Some did not use a 5 cm wide cuff, while others used it for participants who had arterial occlusion pressures exceeding 300 mmHg. To highlight the latter, we also applied the Loenneke et al. (2015) lower body equation to participants with arterial occlusion pressures known to exceed 300 mmHg to demonstrate potential concerns. This retrospective analysis found that 52% of the sample with known pressures over 300 mmHg (40 out of 77) would be estimated below 300 mmHg. This paper highlighted important considerations for those trying to estimate arterial occlusion pressure in the lower body with a narrow cuff (5 cm).

Effects of Sex and Cuff Pressure on Physiological Responses during Blood Flow Restriction Resistance Exercise in Young Adults

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological responses resulting from an acute blood flow restriction resistance exercise bout with two different cuff pressures in young, healthy men and women.

METHODS

Thirty adults (18-30 yr) completed a bilateral leg extension blood flow restriction bout consisting of four sets (30-15-15-15 repetitions), with cuffs applied at pressures corresponding to 40% and 60% of the minimum arterial occlusion pressure (AOP) needed to completely collapse the femoral arteries. During each of these conditions (40% and 60% AOP), physiological measures of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and EMG amplitude (EMG AMP) were collected from the dominant or nondominant vastus lateralis. After each set, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected, whereas only at baseline and at the end of the bout, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was assessed. Separate mixed-factorial ANOVA models were used to examine mean differences in the change in EMG AMP and NIRS parameters during each set. The absolute RPE and MAP values were also examined with separate ANOVAs. A P value ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Regardless of sex or cuff pressure, the change in EMG AMP was lower in set 1 (14.8%) compared with the remaining sets (22.6%-27.0%). The 40% AOP condition elicited the greatest changes in oxy[heme] and deoxy[heme], while also providing lower RPEs. For MAP, there was an effect for time such that MAP increased from preexercise (87.5 ± 4.3 mm Hg) to postexercise (104.5 ± 4.1 mm Hg).

CONCLUSIONS

The major findings suggested that the 40% AOP condition permitted the greatest amount of recovery during the interset rest. In addition, there did not seem to be any meaningful sex-related difference in this sample of young healthy adults.

Acute muscular and cardiovascular responses to high load training with pre-exercise blood flow restriction

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to examine the acute muscular and cardiovascular responses to applying blood flow restriction (BFR) before high-load training.

METHODS

Forty trained individuals visited the lab on three occasions. On Visit 1, participants completed paperwork and performed strength assessments. During Visits 2 and 3, participants completed four exercise conditions (one in each arm during each visit) as follows: (1) traditional resistance training (TRAD), (2) low load training with BFR (LLBFR), (3) low repetition high load training with pre-exercise BFR (PreBFR), and (4) low repetition traditional training (LRTRAD). Blood pressure, muscle thickness (MT), and isometric strength (ISO) were measured before and after exercise.

RESULTS

Data are displayed as means (SD). Immediately following exercise, MT in TRAD was greater compared with PreBFR (mean difference = 0.18[0.30] cm, p < 0.001) and LRTRAD (mean difference = 0.28[0.30] cm, p < 0.001). In addition, LLBFR demonstrated greater MT compared with PreBFR (mean difference = 0.24[0.30] cm, p < 0.001]. Immediately following exercise, ISO was lower in TRAD compared with PreBFR (mean difference = 33.8[46.9]N, p < 0.001) and the LRTRAD condition (mean difference = 32.8[50.4]N, p < 0.001). In addition, ISO was lower in LLBFR compared with PreBFR (mean difference = 43.9 [47.4]N, p < 0.001) and LRTRAD (mean difference = 42.9 [43.8]N, p < 0.001). Immediately following exercise, systolic blood pressure was greater in TRAD compared with PreBFR and LRTRAD.

CONCLUSION

The application of BFR before engaging in high-load training does not seem to augment the muscular responses to exercise when compared with traditional high loads alone; however, it may pose less demand on the cardiovascular system.

Blood flow restriction during high-intensity interval cycling exacerbates psychophysiological responses to a greater extent in females than males

This study aimed to characterize neuromuscular, perceptual, and cardiorespiratory responses to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) with superimposed blood flow restriction in males and females. Twenty-four, healthy individuals (n = 12 females) completed two cycling HIIT protocols to task failure (1-min work phases at 90% of peak power output interspersed by 1-min rest phases). The blood flow restriction (BFR) and control (CON) protocols were identical except for the presence and absence of BFR during rest phases, respectively. The interpolated twitch technique, including maximal voluntary isometric knee extension (MVC) and femoral nerve electrical stimuli, was performed at baseline, every six intervals, and task failure. Perceptual and cardiorespiratory responses were recorded every three intervals and continuously during exercise, respectively. Bayesian inference was used to obtain the joint posterior distribution for all parameters and evidence of an effect was determined via the marginal posterior probability (PP). The BFR shortened task duration by 57.3% compared with CON (PP > 0.99), without a sex difference. The application of BFR exacerbated the rate of decline in neuromuscular measures (MVC and twitch force output), increase of perceptual responses (perceived effort, pain, dyspnea, fatigue), and development of cardiorespiratory parameters (minute ventilation and heart rate), compared with CON (PP > 0.95). In addition, BFR exacerbated the neuromuscular, perceptual, and cardiorespiratory responses to a greater extent in females than males (PP > 0.99). Our results suggest that superimposition of blood flow restriction exacerbates psychophysiological responses to a HIIT protocol to a greater extent in females than males.NEW & NOTEWORTHY To our knowledge, no study has explored sex differences in the neuromuscular, perceptual, and cardiorespiratory indices characterizing exercise tolerance during high-intensity interval training (HIIT) with blood flow restriction (BFR) applied only during rest periods. Our results suggest that BFR elicited a decline in exercise performance that could be attributed to integration of psychophysiological responses. However, this integration was sex-dependent where females demonstrated an exacerbated rate of change in these responses compared with males.

Comparison of finger flexor resistance training, with and without blood flow restriction, on perceptional and physiological responses in advanced climbers

This study compared perceptional and physiological responses of finger flexor exercise performed with free flow and blood flow restriction (BFR). Thirteen male advanced climbers completed three sessions of finger flexor resistance exercise at (1) 40% of MVC (Low) and (2) 75% of MVC (High) and (3) BFR at 40% of MVC (Low + BFR) in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Rate of perceived exertion for effort (RPE) and discomfort (RPD), session pleasure/displeasure (sPDF), exercise enjoyment (EES), lactate concentration and oxygen saturation were recorded after the last set. Both low-intensity sessions induced higher RPD than High (p = 0.018-0.022, ES = 1.01-1.09) and High was perceived as more enjoyable than Low-BFR (p = 0.031, ES = 1.08). No differences were found for RPE or sPDF (p = 0.132-0.804). Lactate was elevated more after High than the Low-sessions (p < 0.001, ES = 1.88-2.08). Capillary oxygen saturation was lower after Low + BFR compared to the other sessions (p = 0.031, ES = 1.04-1.27). Finally, the exercise volume was greater in Low compared to High (p = 0.022, ES = 1.14) and Low + BFR (p = 0.020, ES = 0.77). In conclusion, among advanced male climbers, performing Low + BFR led to a similar exercise volume but was perceived as more discomforting and less enjoyable compared to High. The Low session yielded similar responses as the Low + BFR but required a much greater exercise volume.

Acute Responses to Cycling Exercise With Blood Flow Restriction During Various Intensities

ABSTRACT

Lauver, JD, Moran, A, Guilkey, JP, Johnson, KE, Zanchi, NE, and Rotarius, TR. Acute responses to cycling exercise with blood flow restriction during various intensities. J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3366-3373, 2022-The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute physiological responses during cycling at various intensities with blood flow restriction (BFR). Subjects ( N = 9; V̇ o2 peak = 36.09 ± 5.80 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ) performed 5 protocols: high-intensity (HIGH), control (CON-90), 90% of ventilatory threshold (VT) work rate with BFR (90-BFR), 70% of VT with BFR (70-BFR), and 30% V̇ o2 peak with BFR (30-BFR). Protocols consisted of five 2-minute work intervals interspersed with 1-minute recovery intervals. Blood flow restriction pressure was 80% of limb occlusion pressure. V̇ o2 , muscle excitation, tissue oxygen saturation (StO 2 ), discomfort, and level of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed. Muscle excitation was higher during HIGH (302.9 ± 159.9 %BSL [baseline]) compared with 70-BFR (99.7 ± 76.4 %BSL) and 30-BFR (98.2 ± 70.5 %BSL). StO 2 was greater during 90-BFR (40.7 ± 12.5 ∆BSL), 70-BFR (34.4 ± 15.2 ∆BSL), and 30-BFR (31.9 ± 18.7 ∆BSL) compared with CON-90 (4.4 ± 11.5 ∆BSL). 90-BFR (39.6 ± 12.0 ∆BSL) resulted in a greater StO 2 -Avg compared with HIGH (20.5 ± 13.8 ∆BSL). Also, HIGH (23.68 ± 5.31 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ) resulted in a greater V̇ o2 compared with 30-BFR (15.43 ± 3.19 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ), 70-BFR (16.65 ± 3.26 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ), and 90-BFR (18.28 ± 3.89 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ); 90-BFR (intervals: 4 = 15.9 ± 2.3; intervals: 5 = 16.4 ± 2.5) resulted in a greater RPE compared with 30-BFR (intervals: 4 = 13.3 ± 1.4; intervals: 5 = 13.7 ± 1.7) during intervals 4 and 5. These results suggest that when adding BFR to various intensities of aerobic exercise, consideration should be given to peak work and VT to provide a balance between high local physiological stress and perceptual responses.

Comparative Perceptual, Affective, and Cardiovascular Responses between Resistance Exercise with and without Blood Flow Restriction in Older Adults

Older adults and patients with chronic disease presenting with muscle weakness or musculoskeletal disorders may benefit from low-load resistance exercise (LLRE) with blood flow restriction (BFR). LLRE-BFR has been shown to increase muscle size, strength, and endurance comparable to traditional resistance exercise but without the use of heavy loads. However, potential negative effects from LLRE-BFR present as a barrier to participation and limit its wider use. This study examined the perceptual, affective, and cardiovascular responses to a bout of LLRE-BFR and compared the responses to LLRE and moderate-load resistance exercise (MLRE). Twenty older adults (64.3 ± 4.2 years) performed LLRE-BFR, LLRE and MLRE consisting of 4 sets of leg press and knee extension, in a randomised crossover design. LLRE-BFR was more demanding than LLRE and MLRE through increased pain (p ≤ 0.024, d = 0.8-1.4) and reduced affect (p ≤ 0.048, d = -0.5--0.9). Despite this, LLRE-BFR was enjoyed and promoted a positive affective response (p ≤ 0.035, d = 0.5-0.9) following exercise comparable to MLRE. This study supports the use of LLRE-BFR for older adults and encourages future research to examine the safety, acceptability, and efficacy of LLRE-BFR in patients with chronic disease.

Blood Flow Restriction Therapy: An Evidence-Based Approach to Postoperative Rehabilitation

➢

Blood flow restriction therapy (BFRT) involves the application of a pneumatic tourniquet cuff to the proximal portion of the arm or leg. This restricts arterial blood flow while occluding venous return, which creates a hypoxic environment that induces many physiologic adaptations.

➢

BFRT is especially useful in postoperative rehabilitation because it produces muscular hypertrophy and strength gains without the need for heavy-load exercises that are contraindicated after surgery.

➢

Low-load resistance training with BFRT may be preferable to low-load or high-load training alone because it leads to comparable increases in strength and hypertrophy, without inducing muscular edema or increasing pain.

Blood flow restriction training on resting blood pressure and heart rate: a meta-analysis of the available literature

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the effects of blood flow restriction training on resting blood pressure and heart rate. A meta-analysis was completed in May 2020 including all previously published papers on blood flow restriction and was analyzed using a random effects model. To be included, studies needed to implement a blood flow restriction protocol compared to the same exercise protocol without restriction. A total of four studies met the inclusion criteria for quantitative analysis including four effect sizes for resting systolic blood pressure, four effect sizes for resting diastolic blood pressure, and three effect sizes for resting heart rate. There was evidence of a difference [mean difference (95 CI)] in resting systolic blood pressure between training with and without blood flow restriction [4.2 (0.3, 8.0) mmHg, p = 0.031]. No significant differences were observed when comparing resting diastolic blood pressure [1.2 (-1, 3.5) mmHg p = 0.274] and resting heart rate [-0.2 (-4.7, 4.1) bpm, p = 0.902] between chronic exercise with and without blood flow restriction. These results indicate that training with blood flow restriction may elicit an increase in resting systolic blood pressure. However, lack of data addressing this topic makes any conclusion speculative. Based on the results of the present study along with the overall lack of long-term data, it is suggested that future research on this topic is warranted. Recommendations include making changes in resting blood pressure a primary outcome and increasing the sample size of the interventions.

Low- to Moderate-intensity Blood Flow Restricted Walking is not an Acute Equivalent for Unrestricted Jogging in Young Active Adults

This study investigated whether walking with blood flow restriction (BFR) increases acute cardio-respiratory demands to the point that it can be considered an alternative for jogging. Sixteen physically active adults completed five experimental sessions (order randomised), comprising 10 min of treadmill exercise. Two sessions included unrestricted walking, two sessions required walking with BFR cuffs positioned on the lower limbs inflated to 60% of individualised arterial occlusion pressure, and one session was conducted at a jogging pace. Comfortable walking and jogging speeds were calculated during the familiarisation session. Walking speeds were individualised to either 100% (speed: 6.0 ± 0.3km·h^-1[low-intensity]) or 120% (speed: 7.2 ± 0.3km·h^-1[moderate-intensity]) of comfortable walking speed. The jogging session was unrestricted (speed: 9.1 ± 0.7km·h^-1). Initial analysis compared walking conditions across heart rate, left cardiac work index, systolic blood pressure, relative oxygen consumption, minute ventilation, rating of perceived exertion and limb discomfort. Secondary analysis compared the walking session with the highest cardio-respiratory demands to jogging. Initial analysis identified that moderate-intensity with BFR induced the highest cardio-respiratory and perceptual responses compared with any other walking sessions (p < 0.01). Secondary analysis revealed that all cardio-respiratory measures were higher during jogging when compared with moderate-intensity with BFR (p < 0.01), except systolic blood pressure (p = 0.10). All perceptual measures were higher during moderate-intensity with BFR (p < 0.01) compared with jogging. Low- to moderate-intensity BFR-walking produces lower acute cardio-respiratory responses at higher ratings of perceived exertion and discomfort compared with jogging. Overall, BFR-walking does not seem to provide an equivalent exercise modality for unrestricted jogging in physically active adults.

Effect of low-intensity exercise with blood flow restriction during rest intervals on muscle function and perception

PURPOSE

We assessed the effects of low-intensity exercise with blood flow restriction (BFR) during rest intervals on recovery of muscle function and pain during exercise and rest intervals.

METHODS

Participants were 10 males, and study arms of the participants were randomly assigned into three conditions; low-intensity exercise with BFR during rest intervals (rBFR), low-intensity exercise with BFR during exercise (eBFR) and low-intensity exercise only (EO). The exercise task was elbow flexion until repetition failure at 30% of 1 RM, and cuff pressure was 120 mmHg. The maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and the muscle endurance (ME) were measured pre, post, 1 h, 24 h and 48 h after the exercise. Pain during exercise and rest intervals were evaluated using Numerical Rating Scale.

RESULTS

MVIC and ME significantly decreased after exercise in all conditions. Pain during exercise was lower in rBFR (4.2 ± 2.9) (p = 0.007) and EO (4.4 ± 2.7) (p = 0.014) conditions compared to eBFR condition (6.7 ± 1.7), but the pain during rest intervals was more intense in rBFR condition (5.2 ± 1.6) compared to eBFR (1.5 ± 1.4) and EO (1.7 ± 1.2) conditions (all: p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

We discovered that recovery of muscle function was the same as BFR during rest intervals and BFR during exercise. Also, our results suggested that BFR itself may cause the perception of pain. Future studies are thus required to investigate the optimal dosage focusing on the pressure volume and intensity used in BFR during intervals. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Blood flow restriction during self-paced aerobic intervals reduces mechanical and cardiovascular demands without modifying neuromuscular fatigue

This study examined cardiovascular, perceptual, and neuromuscular fatigue characteristics during and after cycling intervals with and without blood flow restriction (BFR). Fourteen endurance cyclists/triathletes completed four 4-minute self-paced aerobic cycling intervals at the highest sustainable intensity, with and without intermittent BFR (60% of arterial occlusion pressure). Rest interval durations were six, four, and four minutes respectively. Power output, cardiovascular demands, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were averaged over each interval. Knee extension torque and vastus lateralis electromyography responses following electrical stimulation of the femoral nerve were recorded pre-exercise, post-interval one (+1, 2, and 4-minutes) and post-interval four (+1, 2, 4, 6 and 8-minutes). Power output during BFR intervals was lower than non-BFR (233 ± 54 vs 282 ± 60W, p < 0.001). Oxygen uptake and heart rate during BFR intervals were lower compared to non-BFR (38.7 ± 4.5 vs 44.7 ± 6.44mL·kg^-1·min^-1, p < 0.001; 160 ± 14 vs 166 ± 10bpm, p < 0.001), while RPE was not different between conditions. Compared to pre-exercise, maximal voluntary contraction torque and peak twitch torque were reduced after the first interval with further reductions following the fourth interval (p < 0.001) independent of condition (p = 0.992). Voluntary activation (twitch interpolation) did not change between timepoints (p = 0.375). Overall, intermittent BFR reduced the mechanical and cardiovascular demands of self-paced intervals without modifying RPE or knee-extensor neuromuscular characteristics. Therefore, BFR reduced the cardiovascular demands while maintaining the muscular demands associated with self-paced intervals. Self-paced BFR intervals could be used to prevent cardiovascular and perceptual demands being the limiting factor of exercise intensity, thus allowing greater physiological muscular demands compared to intervals without BFR.

Effect of Low-Load Blood Flow Restriction Training After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Systematic Review

Background

Quadriceps strength and mass deficits are common after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. Postoperatively, heavy load resistance training can have detrimental effects on knee joint pain and ACL graft laxity. Therefore, low-load blood flow restriction (LL-BFR) training has been suggested as an alternative to traditional strength rehabilitation.

Purpose

The present systematic review aimed to investigate the effect of LL-BFR training on quadriceps strength, quadriceps mass, knee joint pain, and ACL graft laxity after ACL reconstruction compared to non-BFR training.

Study design

Systematic review.

Methods

A systematic literature search of PubMed, EMBASE.com, Cochrane Library/Wiley, CINAHL/Ebsco and Web of Science/Clarivate Analytics was performed on 19 February 2021. Studies were included if they compared LL-BFR and non-BFR training after ACL reconstruction with pre- and post-intervention quadriceps strength, quadriceps mass, knee joint pain or ACL graft laxity measurement. Systematic reviews, editorials, case reports and studies not published in a scientific peer reviewed journal were excluded. The risk of bias of randomized studies was assessed with the use of the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool.

Results

A total of six randomized controlled trials were included. Random sequence generation and allocation concealment was defined as high risk in two of the six studies. In all studies blinding of participants and personnel was unclear or could not be performed. The included studies used different LL-BFR and non-BFR protocols with heterogeneous outcome measurements. Therefore, a qualitative analysis was performed. Two of the six studies assessed quadriceps strength and demonstrated significant greater quadriceps strength after LL-BFR compared to non-BFR training. Quadriceps mass was evaluated in four studies. Two studies observed significant greater quadriceps mass after LL-BFR compared to non-BFR training, while two studies observed no significant difference in quadriceps mass. Knee joint pain was assessed in three studies with significantly less knee joint pain after LL-BFR compared to non-BFR training. Two studies evaluated ACL graft laxity and observed no significant difference in ACL graft laxity between LL-BFR and non-BFR training.

Conclusion

The results of this systematic review indicate that LL-BFR training after ACL reconstruction may be beneficial on quadriceps strength, quadriceps mass, and knee joint pain compared to non-BFR training with non-detrimental effects on ACL graft laxity. However, more randomized controlled trials with standardized intervention protocols and outcome measurements are needed to add evidence on the clinical value of LL-BFR training.

Level of evidence

2a.

Overall Safety and Risks Associated with Blood Flow Restriction Therapy: A Literature Review

INTRODUCTION

Blood flow restriction therapy (BFRT) is used in scenarios ranging from muscle building in athletic performance to decreasing recovery time in postoperative orthopedic rehabilitation. The efficacy of BFRT for treating diseases has been increasingly researched; however, there has been less literature focused on establishing the safety of this therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An extensive literature review pertaining to BFRT and any deleterious events related to its usage was completed by searching multiple databases, including PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library using the terms "blood flow restriction therapy" or "KAATSU."

RESULTS

Ten case reports, five case series, two national surveys, two questionnaires, six randomized controlled studies, and one systematic review were included. A total of 1,672 individuals reported an adverse event following BFRT use out of 25,813 individuals. Commonly reported adverse events were numbness, dizziness, subcutaneous hemorrhage, and rhabdomyolysis. There were unique adverse effects of this therapy reported in individuals with comorbid conditions, such as hypertension and thoracic outlet syndrome, which included isolated cases of central retinal vein occlusion and Paget-Schroeder syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Blood flow restriction provides tremendous opportunity with a potential for accelerated exercise rehabilitation and injury prevention. This modality could be used in the military setting to help injured active duty personnel expeditiously return to deployable status. Further prospective randomized controlled trials are warranted to further support BFRT safety; however, from this literature review, it can be concluded that BFRT can be utilized safely in the proper patient population when administered by qualified professionals who have undergone the appropriate training.

Optimization of Exercise Countermeasures to Spaceflight Using Blood Flow Restriction

INTRODUCTION: During spaceflight missions, astronauts work in an extreme environment with several hazards to physical health and performance. Exposure to microgravity results in remarkable deconditioning of several physiological systems, leading to impaired physical condition and human performance, posing a major risk to overall mission success and crew safety. Physical exercise is the cornerstone of strategies to mitigate physical deconditioning during spaceflight. Decades of research have enabled development of more optimal exercise strategies and equipment onboard the International Space Station. However, the effects of microgravity cannot be completely ameliorated with current exercise countermeasures. Moreover, future spaceflight missions deeper into space require a new generation of spacecraft, which will place yet more constraints on the use of exercise by limiting the amount, size, and weight of exercise equipment and the time available for exercise. Space agencies are exploring ways to optimize exercise countermeasures for spaceflight, specifically exercise strategies that are more efficient, require less equipment, and are less time-consuming. Blood flow restriction exercise is a low intensity exercise strategy that requires minimal equipment and can elicit positive training benefits across multiple physiological systems. This method of exercise training has potential as a strategy to optimize exercise countermeasures during spaceflight and reconditioning in terrestrial and partial gravity environments. The possible applications of blood flow restriction exercise during spaceflight are discussed herein.Hughes L, Hackney KJ, Patterson SD. Optimization of exercise countermeasures to spaceflight using blood flow restriction. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2021; 93(1):32-45.

Hypoalgesia following isometric handgrip exercise with and without blood flow restriction is not mediated by discomfort nor changes in systolic blood pressure

The purpose was to examine the effect of isometric handgrip exercise with and without blood flow restriction on exercise-induced hypoalgesia at a local and non-local site, and its underlying mechanisms. Sixty participants (21 males & 39 females, 18-35 years old) completed 3 trials: four sets of 2-minute isometric handgrip exercise at 30% of maximum handgrip strength; isometric handgrip exercise with blood flow restriction at 50% of arterial occlusion pressure; and a non-exercise time-matched control. Pain thresholds increased similarly in both exercise conditions at a local (exercise conditions: ~0.45 kg/cm², control: ~-0.04 kg/cm²) and non-local site (exercise conditions: ~0.37 kg/cm², control: ~-0.16 kg/cm²). Blood flow restriction induced greater feelings of discomfort compared to exercise alone [median difference (95% credible interval) of 4.5 (0.5, 8.6) arbitrary units]. Blood pressure increased immediately after exercise (systolic: 10.3 mmHg, diastolic: 7.7 mmHg) and decreased in recovery. There was no within participant correlation between changes in discomfort and pressure pain threshold. A bout of isometric handgrip exercise with or without blood flow restriction can provide exercise-induced hypoalgesia at a local and non-local site. However, discomfort and changes in systolic blood pressure do not explain this response.

The impact of cuff width on perceptual responses during and following blood flow restricted walking exercise

INTRODUCTION

An appropriate comparison of different cuff widths during blood flow restricted exercise requires that the cuffs are inflated to the same relative pressures. Narrow cuffs tend to be preferred and may reduce discomfort when applied during resistance exercise, but whether this is also true during walking exercise remains unknown.

METHODS

Individuals completed two identical walking trials, once with 12-cm wide cuffs and once with 17-cm wide cuffs. Five 2-min walking bouts were completed at a speed of 50 m/min, with a 1-min rest period between sets. The restriction cuffs were inflated to 40% of the individuals' arterial occlusion pressure taken with each respective cuff. Individuals were asked to rate their discomfort, perceived exertion (RPE), and cuff preference.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven individuals completed the study. The 12-cm cuff required a higher occlusion pressure which resulted in a higher absolute pressure applied (58 vs. 52 mm Hg; BF₁₀  = 19 331.897). Whilst there was no difference in RPE values between cuffs (BF₁₀  = 0.474), individuals reported greater discomfort when using the wider cuffs (2.3 vs. 1.7; BF₁₀  = 252.786). The majority of individuals (63%) preferred to use the narrower cuff, whereas fewer preferred the wider cuff (26%) and even fewer did not have a preference (11%).

DISCUSSION

Blood flow restricted walking exercise performed with narrower restriction cuffs appeared to reduce participant discomfort whilst also being preferred over that of wider cuffs. Future studies may wish to test the influence of different restrictive cuff widths on alterations in gait patterns during blood flow restricted walking exercise.

Current Techniques Used for Practical Blood Flow Restriction Training: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Bielitzki, R, Behrendt, T, Behrens, M, and Schega, L. Current techniques used for practical blood flow restriction training: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2936-2951, 2021-The purpose of this article was to systematically review the available scientific evidence on current methods used for practical blood flow restriction (pBFR) training together with application characteristics as well as advantages and disadvantages of each technique. A literature search was conducted in different databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane Library) for the period from January 2000 to December 2020. Inclusion criteria for this review were (a) original research involving humans, (b) the use of elastic wraps or nonpneumatic cuffs, and (c) articles written in English. Of 26 studies included and reviewed, 15 were conducted using an acute intervention (11 in the lower body and 4 in the upper body), and 11 were performed with a chronic intervention (8 in the lower body, 1 in the upper body, and 2 in both the upper and the lower body). Three pBFR techniques could be identified: (a) based on the perceptual response (perceived pressure technique), (b) based on the overlap of the cuff (absolute and relative overlap technique), and (c) based on the cuffs' maximal tensile strength (maximal cuff elasticity technique). In conclusion, the perceived pressure technique is simple, valid for the first application, and can be used independently of the cuffs' material properties, but is less reliable within a person over time. The absolute and relative overlap technique as well as the maximal cuff elasticity technique might be applied more reliably due to markings, but require a cuff with constant material properties over time.

Perceived Barriers to Blood Flow Restriction Training

Blood flow restriction (BFR) training is increasing in popularity in the fitness and rehabilitation settings due to its role in optimizing muscle mass and strength as well as cardiovascular capacity, function, and a host of other benefits. However, despite the interest in this area of research, there are likely some perceived barriers that practitioners must overcome to effectively implement this modality into practice. These barriers include determining BFR training pressures, access to appropriate BFR training technologies for relevant demographics based on the current evidence, a comprehensive and systematic approach to medical screening for safe practice and strategies to mitigate excessive perceptual demands of BFR training to foster long-term compliance. This manuscript attempts to discuss each of these barriers and provides evidence-based strategies and direction to guide clinical practice and future research.

Effects of exercise training with blood flow restriction on vascular function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Blood flow restricted exercise (BFRE) improves physical fitness, with theorized positive effects on vascular function. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to report (1) the effects of BFRE on vascular function in adults with or without chronic health conditions, and (2) adverse events and adherence reported for BFRE.

Methodology

Five electronic databases were searched by two researchers independently to identify studies reporting vascular outcomes following BFRE in adults with and without chronic conditions. When sufficient data were provided, meta-analysis and exploratory meta-regression were performed.

Results

Twenty-six studies were included in the review (total participants n = 472; n = 41 older adults with chronic conditions). Meta-analysis (k = 9 studies) indicated that compared to exercise without blood flow restriction, resistance training with blood flow restriction resulted in significantly greater effects on endothelial function (SMD 0.76; 95% CI [0.36–1.14]). No significant differences were estimated for changes in vascular structure (SMD −0.24; 95% CI [−1.08 to 0.59]). In exploratory meta-regression analyses, several experimental protocol factors (design, exercise modality, exercised limbs, intervention length and number of sets per exercise) were significantly associated with the effect size for endothelial function outcomes. Adverse events in BFRE studies were rarely reported.

Conclusion

There is limited evidence, predominantly available in healthy young adults, on the effect of BFRE on vascular function. Signals pointing to effect of specific dynamic resistance exercise protocols with blood flow restriction (≥4 weeks with exercises for the upper and lower limbs) on endothelial function warrant further investigation.

Blood Flow Restriction Training: To Adjust or Not Adjust the Cuff Pressure Over an Intervention Period?

Blood flow restriction (BFR) training combines exercise and partial reduction of muscular blood flow using a pressured cuff. BFR training has been used to increase strength and muscle mass in healthy and clinical populations. A major methodological concern of BFR training is blood flow restriction pressure (BFRP) delivered during an exercise bout. Although some studies increase BFRP throughout a training intervention, it is unclear whether BFRP adjustments are pivotal to maintain an adequate BFR during a training period. While neuromuscular adaptations induced by BFR are widely studied, cardiovascular changes throughout training intervention with BFR and their possible relationship with BFRP are less understood. This study aimed to discuss the need for BFRP adjustment based on cardiovascular outcomes and provide directions for future researches. We conducted a literature review and analyzed 29 studies investigating cardiovascular adaptations following BFR training. Participants in the studies were healthy, middle-aged adults, older adults and clinical patients. Cuff pressure, when adjusted, was increased during the training period. However, cardiovascular outcomes did not provide a plausible rationale for cuff pressure increase. In contrast, avoiding increments in cuff pressure may minimize discomfort, pain and risks associated with BFR interventions, particularly in clinical populations. Given that cardiovascular adaptations induced by BFR training are conflicting, it is challenging to indicate whether increases or decreases in BFRP are needed. Based on the available evidence, we suggest that future studies investigate if maintaining or decreasing cuff pressure makes BFR training safer and/or more comfortable with similar physiological adaptation.

Low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction and arterial stiffness in humans: A systematic review

Low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction exercise is an emerging type of exercise recognition worldwide. This systematic review evaluated the effects of low-intensity resistance exercise performed with concurrent blood flow restriction (LIRE-BFR) on acute and chronic measures of arterial stiffness in humans. A systematic search in six healthcare science databases and reference lists was conducted. Data selected for primary analysis consisted of post-intervention changes in arterial stiffness markers. This systematic review included randomized and non-randomized controlled trials of LIRE-BFR in humans. 156 articles were initially identified, 15 of which met inclusion criteria. Ten studies were excluded because they did not match predefined arterial stiffness markers. Thus, five articles were included in this review: two acute studies (N = 39 individuals, age = 20-30 years old, 30.8% women and 69.2% men) and three longitudinal studies (N = 51 individuals, age = 24-86-years old, 41.2% women and 58.8% men). Acute LIRE-BFR demonstrated both positive and negative effects on arterial stiffness in healthy young people. In contrast, longitudinal studies reported neutral effects in healthy young and older people. In conclusion, LIRE-BFR applied to the upper and lower limbs may acutely induce increases in central blood pressure and pulse wave velocity in healthy young people, whereas LIRE-BFR for the lower limbs may elicit positive effects related to indirect markers of arterial stiffness. Moreover, longitudinal LIRE-BFR studies showed no changes in arterial stiffness in young and older people. Hence, LIRE-BFR should be prescribed with a degree of caution to avoid non-intended responses in arterial stiffness markers in humans.

The blood flow restriction training effect in knee osteoarthritis people: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective:

To synthesize evidence on the effects of blood flow restriction (BFR) comparing with high (HLT) and low load (LLT), and on the influence of different forms of application in individuals with knee osteoarthritis.

Data sources:

The CENTRAL, PEDro, PubMed and BVS, which include Lilacs, Medline and SciELO, until April 2020.

Review methods:

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials used the PRISMA guidelines, whose main keywords were: Therapeutic Occlusion, Resistance Training, and Knee Osteoarthritie, blood flow restriction and Kaatsu training. Method quality was evaluated with the PEDro scale. When studies demonstrated homogeneity on outcome measures, the mean differences or standardized mean differences with 95% confidence interval were calculated and pooled in a meta-analysis for pooled synthesis.

Results:

Five articles were eligible in this review with moderate to low risk bias. Our results, showed no difference between BFR and HLT in knee strength (SMD = 0.00, 95% CI, –0.54 to 0.54, P = 1.00), function (SMD = −0.20, 95% CI, –0.45 to 0.06, P = 0.13), pain and volume. But, when compared BFR and LLT, the descriptive analysis demonstrated significant results in favor BFR to muscle strength (71.4% of measurement) and volume (MD = 1.66, 95% CI, 0.93 to 2.38, P < 0.00001), but not in pain or function.

Conclusion:

BFR can be used as a strategy in the rehabilitation of osteoarthritis due to gains in strength and volume with low mechanical stress. However, its application must be safe and individualized, since they can attenuate the stimuli offered by BFR.