Influence of physical fitness, age, experience, and weekly training load on match performance in elite Australian football

The influence of physical fitness qualities, individual characteristics and contextual factors on youth basketball players' perceived exertion and recovery responses to official games

BACKGROUND

This study examined the influence of physical fitness qualities, individual characteristics, and contextual factors on perceived exertion and recovery responses to official games in youth basketball players.

METHODS

Twenty-six males (age: 15.8±1.2 years; 12 guards, 9 forwards, and 5 centers) and 7 females (age: 16.1±0.9 years; 3 guards, 4 forwards) were monitored for an entire basketball season (N.=635 observations). Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery (level 1) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests were administered, with players categorized as high and low Yo-Yo and CMJ groups according to test results. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected after each official game. Before the game and the day after, the Total Quality of Recovery (scores) were collected, and the difference between post- and pregame TQR was calculated (TQRΔ). Separate linear mixed models evaluated the effects of sex (M; F), fitness qualities (high Yo-Yo; low Yo-Yo) (high CMJ; low CMJ), playing position (guard; forward; center), game outcome (won; loss) and game location (home; away).

RESULTS

Male players reported higher RPE (7.0±0.3) than females (5.5±0.4) (P=0.003, effect size [ES]: moderate). Players with high Yo-Yo performance also reported higher RPE (6.7±0.4) than low Yo-Yo (5.8±0.3) (P=0.049, ES: small). TQRΔ was higher in guards (-1.3±0.2) than forwards (-0.8±0.2) (P=0.041, ES: trivial), and lower after lost games (-0.8±0.2) compared to won games (-1.2±0.2) (P=0.002, ES: small).

CONCLUSIONS

In youth basketball, postgame perceived exertion and recovery responses are influenced by players' sex, intermittent endurance capacity, and game outcome. Current findings can help youth basketball practitioners to better understand their players' performances and perceptual responses.

Linear and Change of Direction Repeated Sprint Ability Tests: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Kyles, A, Oliver, JL, Cahill, MJ, Lloyd, RS, and Pedley, J. Linear and change of direction repeated sprint ability tests: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 37(8): 1703-1717, 2023-The ability to repeatedly sprint is important in many sports, but there is no established protocol for measuring repeated sprint ability (RSA). The purpose of this review was to identify overground RSA protocols previously reported in the literature and to recommend standardized protocols. A systematic review of the literature was used to identify studies that have used an RSA test, with data describing protocol design extracted. One hundred eight studies were included in the review, across which 47 unique protocols were identified. Eighteen protocols included at least one change of direction (COD), and this increased mean sprint time compared with linear RSA tests (7.26 ± 1.84 vs. 4.48 ± 1.02 seconds). There was considerable variability across protocols regarding sprint distance (20-40 m), sprint repetitions (3-15), recovery duration (10-60 seconds), recovery type (active vs. passive), and work-to-rest ratio (≤1:1.4-19.2). Separate protocols are needed for linear and COD tests, and these should reflect the brief nature of intense periods of competition and stress the ability to recover. Based on data across studies for protocol design and to ensure a demanding work-to-rest ratio, it is suggested that a linear RSA should comprise 6 × 30 m sprints separated by 15 seconds of active recovery. To provide some parity to linear tests, to keep work duration brief and to maintain a demanding work-to-rest ratio, a COD RSA should comprise 6 × 30 m shuttle sprints (15 + 15 m), providing one change of direction (180° COD), and maintaining a 15-second active recovery.

Methods of performance analysis in women's Australian football: a scoping review

Background

The first women's Australian football (AF) professional competition was established in 2017, resulting in advancement in performance analysis capabilities within the sport. Given the specific constraints of women's AF, it is currently unclear what match-play performance analysis methods and techniques are implemented. Therefore, the aim of this scoping review was to describe and critically appraise physical, technical, and tactical performance analysis methods that have been employed in women's and girls' AF match-play.

Methodology

A systematic search was conducted on the 27th of June 2022 through five databases. Eligibility criteria were derived from the PCC framework with the population (P) of women and girls AF players, of any level of play; concepts (C) of interest which were measures, data, and methods related to the sport's physical, technical, and tactical performance; and the context (C) of methods that analysed any match-play performance. A narrative synthesis was conducted using extracted study characteristic data such as sample size, population, time period, collection standards, evaluation metrics for results, and application of thematic categorisations of previous sports performance reviews. Critical appraisal of eligible studies' methodologies was conducted to investigate research quality and identify methodological issues.

Results

From 183 studies screened, twelve eligible studies were included, which examined match-play through physical (9/12, 75%), technical (4/12, 33%), and tactical analysis (2/12, 17%). Running demands and game actions analysis were the most researched in senior women's AF. Research into junior girls' AF match-play performance has not been investigated. No research has been conducted on non-running physical demands, contact demands, acceleration, and tactical aspects of women's AF. All studies utilised either inferential statistics or basic predictive models. Critical appraisal deemed most studies as low risk of bias (11/12, 92%), with the remaining study having satisfactory risk.

Conclusions

Future research utilising increased longitudinal and greater contextual data is needed to combat the prominent issue of data representativeness to better characterise performance within women's and girls' AF. Additionally, research involving junior and sub-elite AF players across the talent pathways is important to conduct, as it provides greater context and insight regarding development to support the evolving elite women's AF competition. Women's AF has been constrained by its resource environment. As such, suggestions are provided for better utilisation of existing data, as well as for the creation of new data for appropriate future research. Greater data generation enables the use of detailed machine learning predictions, neural networks, and network analysis to better represent the intertwined nature of match-play performance from technical, physical, and tactical data.

Elit genç futbol akademisi sporcularında yaralanma insidansı: 3 yıllık geriye dönük takip

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence and characteristics of injuries suffered by elite soccer academy athletes. Materials and Methods: A retrospective analysis was made of the health records between 2016 and 2019 of athletes in the elite male soccer academy of an elite football club. The cause, type, location, recurrence, and severity of the injuries, where the injuries occured and time lost due to the injuries were recorded. The injury incidence and prevalence were calculated. Results: Overall, total injuries and seasonal incidence rate were 1.49 (1.33-1.68) and 8.06 (7.16-0.04) per 1000 hours, respectively. The injury burden ranged between 11.83 (10.53-13.29) days and 51.43 (49.11-53.85) days. The injury characteristics were not statistically different according to age groups (p˃0.05). Conclusion: Youth soccer players in the U19 and U21 age groups had more injuries than other junior age groups in a typical soccer season. It was concluded that there were more match injuries, the thigh was the most injured area, muscle injuries were more common, and the hamstring was the most frequently injured muscle.

Relationship Between Training Workloads, Match Workloads, and Match Performance in Elite Netball

PURPOSE

This study examined the relationships between training workloads, game workloads, and match performance in an elite netball team.

METHODS

Ten elite female netball athletes were monitored over a complete season. Training and game external workloads were determined through inertial movement units and expressed as absolute PlayerLoad (PL) and change of direction (COD). Monthly workload and training efficiency index were also calculated, which used internal workloads (session rating of perceived exertion and summated heart-rate zones). Game performance was assessed through a performance analysis statistic algorithm called NetPoints. To account for the influence of team game workloads on each other, the average workload for midcourt positions (avgMC) was calculated for each game. Data for each athlete were transformed into z scores, and linear mixed modeling was used to build models to examine the relationships between workloads and game performance.

RESULTS

Monthly PL, training efficiency index PL, and avgMC PL were statistically significant (P < .05) and positively related to game PL (z = 0.20-0.35, P < .001-.02). For game COD, statistically significant positive relationships were found between monthly COD (z = 0.29 [0.11], P = .01) and avgMC COD (z = 0.21 [0.09], P = .03). The models for NetPoints found significant negative relationships with monthly PL (z = 0.46 [0.12], P < .001) and COD (z = -0.36 [0.11], P = .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher monthly workloads are related to higher game workload; however, they are also related to decreases in match performance. Therefore, netball practitioners should consider that increases to training workload in a 4-week period prior to a game can influence game workloads and performance.

Effect of Situational and Individual Factors on Training Load and Game Performance in Liga Femenina 2 Basketball Female Players

There is research that has shown how individual characteristics and performance indicators influence the load in basketball; however, studies on the influence of situational variables on performance are lacking. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of certain situational and individual variables on the training load (weekly load, game load and pre-game recovery) and the individual performance (statistical game evaluation) of female basketball players of Liga Femenina 2 during competition. The 28 games played by the 13 players of a group B team of the Liga Femenina 2 of the Spanish Basketball Federation (FEB) during the 2020/2021 season were analyzed. Data on rate of perceived exertion (RPE), perceived performance and recovery were collected through the Quanter mobile application as well as performance statistics from the FEB website. Five mixed linear analyses for repeated measures were performed to evaluate the effect of each situational and individual variable on each dependent variable (weekly load, game load, game RPE, pre-game recovery, and game statistical assessment). The results show how the weekly load increases after playing against a low-level opponent (p < 0.001). In games, the players who play the most minutes and accumulate the most load are also the most valued (p < 0.001). The pre-game recovery worsens as the season progresses (p < 0.001). After playing against a high-level opponent, the pre-game recovery values for the next game are lower (p = 0.031). The results obtained indicate that the situational and individual variables should be taken into account to monitor the workload. These results help coaches and physical trainers to better plan training weeks, taking into account the situational variables studied.

Lower-limb injury in elite Australian football: A narrative review of kinanthropometric and physical risk factors

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to provide a succinct and critical analysis of the current physical and mechanical demands of elite Australian football while examining lower-limb injury and the associated physical and kinanthropometric risk factors.

METHODS

MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science and SPORTSDiscus electronic databases were searched for studies that investigated the playing demands, injury trends, and physical and kinanthropometric injury risk factors of elite Australian football. Articles from similar team sports including soccer and rugby (union and league) were also included.

RESULTS

While the physical demands of elite AF have steadied over the past decade, injury rates continue to rise with more than two-thirds of all injuries affecting the lower-limbs. Body composition and musculoskeletal morphological assessments are regularly adopted in many sporting settings with current research suggesting high and low body mass are both associated with heightened injury risk. However, more extensive investigations are required to determine whether the proportions of muscle and fat are linked. Repeated assessment of musculoskeletal morphology may also provide further insight into stress fracture rates.

CONCLUSIONS

While kinanthropometric and physical attributes are highly valued within elite sporting environments, establishing a deeper connection with injury may provide practitioners with more insight into current injury trends.

Methodological Considerations for Furthering the Understanding of Constraints in Applied Sports

Commonly classified as individual, task or environmental, constraints are boundaries which shape the emergence of functional movement solutions. In applied sport, an ongoing challenge is to improve the measurement, analysis and understanding of constraints to key stakeholders. Methodological considerations for furthering these pursuits should be centred around an interdisciplinary approach. This integration of methodology and knowledge from different disciplines also encourages the sharing of encompassing principles, concepts, methods and data to generate new solutions to existing problems. This narrative review discusses how a number of rapidly developing fields are positioned to help guide, support and progress an understanding of sport through constraints. It specifically focuses on examples from the fields of technology, analytics and perceptual science. It discusses how technology is generating large quantities of data which can improve our understanding of how constraints shape the movement solutions of performers in training and competition environments. Analytics can facilitate new insights from numerous and complex data through enhanced non-linear and multivariate analysis techniques. The role of the perceptual sciences is discussed with respect to generating outputs from analytics that are more interpretable for the end-user. Together, these three fields of technology, analytics and perceptual science may enable a more comprehensive understanding of constraints in sports performance.

Validity of Real-Time Ultra-wideband Global Navigation Satellite System Data Generated by a Wearable Microtechnology Unit

Johnston, RD, Hewitt, A, and Duthie, G. Validity of real-time ultra-wideband global navigation satellite system data generated by a wearable microtechnology unit. J Strength Cond Res 34(7): 2071-2075, 2020-This study aimed to determine the validity of real-time ultra-wideband data generated by a wearable microtechnology unit during rugby league training sessions using a repeated-measures crossover study. Twenty-four semiprofessional rugby league players wore a commercially available microtechnology device (StatSports Apex, Newry, Northern Ireland) during 10 training sessions. Total distance; moderate-speed running (3.6-4.9 m·s); high-speed running (5.0-6.9 m·s); very high-speed running (≥7 m·s); maximum velocity (m·s); the number of high-intensity accelerations (≥2.78 m·s) and decelerations (≥-2.78 m·s); dynamic stress load (AU); and high metabolic load distance (m) were recorded in real time through an Apex beacon over a secured wireless network before being exported to a csv file at the end of the session. The data were then downloaded to a computer after event. To determine the validity of the real-time data, they were compared with the postevent downloaded data using coefficient of variation and Pearson's correlation coefficient. There was almost perfect agreement between real-time and postevent downloaded data for all variables reported. The overall bias effect size scores were all trivial, ranging from 0.00 for total distance and high-speed running up to -0.12 for maximal velocity; Pearson's correlations were either perfect or nearly perfect (r = 0.98-1.00). Irrespective of the movement speed, the data collected by these devices in real time show excellent levels of agreement with postevent downloaded data.

The Validity and Reliability of Wearable Microtechnology for Intermittent Team Sports: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Technology has long been used to track player movements in team sports, with initial tracking via manual coding of video footage. Since then, wearable microtechnology in the form of global and local positioning systems has provided a less labour-intensive way of monitoring movements. As such, there has been a proliferation in research pertaining to these devices.

OBJECTIVE

A systematic review of studies that investigate the validity and/or reliability of wearable microtechnology to quantify movement and specific actions common to intermittent team sports.

METHODS

A systematic search of CINAHL, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus was performed; studies included must have been (1) original research investigations; (2) full-text articles written in English; (3) published in a peer-reviewed academic journal; and (4) assessed the validity and/or reliability of wearable microtechnology to quantify movements or specific actions common to intermittent team sports.

RESULTS

A total of 384 studies were retrieved and 187 were duplicates. The titles and abstracts of 197 studies were screened and the full texts of 88 manuscripts were assessed. A total of 62 studies met the inclusion criteria. Additional 10 studies, identified via reference list assessment, were included. Therefore, a total of 72 studies were included in this review.

CONCLUSION

There are many studies investigating the validity and reliability of wearable microtechnology to track movement and detect sport-specific actions. It is evident that for the majority of metrics, validity and reliability are multi-factorial, in that it is dependent upon a wide variety of factors including wearable technology brand and model, sampling rate, type of movement performed (e.g., straight line, change of direction) and intensity of movement (e.g., walk, sprint). Practitioners should be mindful of the accuracy and repeatability of the devices they are using when making decisions on player training loads.

A League-Wide Evaluation of Factors Influencing Match Activity Profile in Elite Australian Football

Introduction: Accurate interpretation of activity profile data requires an understanding of the variables influencing player movement during matches.

Methods: Over 65,000 stints (player rotations) from all 207 matches of the 2018 Australian Football League (AFL) season were evaluated. The relative activity profile including total distance per minute (TD), high-speed running distance per minute (HSR) and Player Load^TM per minute (PL) was determined for each stint and analysed against a range of match-related, player-related and environment-related predictor variables using multivariate linear mixed modelling. Effect size statistics along with the uncertainty in the estimates (95% confidence interval) were used to interpret the findings.

Results: The smallest important effects on TD, HSR, and PL were calculated as 1.5%, 5.5%, and 2.4%, respectively. Stint duration had small to moderate negative effects on TD (−6%), PL (−7.7%), and HSR (−13%), while recovery duration between stints had a small positive effect on HSR (+7%). There were moderate reductions in TD (−8%), HSR (−23%), and PL (−9.6%) in the last quarter compared to the first quarter of matches, while similar reductions existed in subsequent stints compared to the first stint in each quarter. Moderate to large differences of up to 9% in TD, 48% in HSR and 12% in PL existed between positions. The TD of less experienced players was slightly higher than their more experienced counterparts (2–3%). A 5% increase in body mass was associated with a small reduction in HSR (−5.5%). There were small reductions in TD (−2%), HSR (−10%), and PL (−3%) during the Finals Series compared to the Premiership Season. Moderate levels of rainfall during matches and higher apparent temperatures had small negative effects on TD (−2%) and HSR (−6 and −9%). The number of days break between matches, score margin, match outcome, ground hardness, ground size, and traveling for the current or the previous match had trivial effects on the activity profile.

Conclusion: Player position and stage of the match (quarter) had the largest effects on match activity profile while stint duration, recovery duration, stint timing, professional experience, body mass, stage of the season, and weather conditions also had substantial effects.

Train Smarter, Play More: Insights About Preparation and Game Participation in Youth National Team

Purpose: The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between physical preparation, training sessions (TS) and friendly matches' (FM) demands, and playing status during European Championship (EC). Method: Twelve under-16 (U-16) basketball players performed physical (jumping, agility, aerobic fitness, and lower limb asymmetry index [ASI]) tests prior to attending the national team training camp. External training load was assessed using the WIMU PRO System put in place during TS (n = 19) and FM (n = 3), integrating the national team preparation. Perceptual response (RPE), muscle soreness (DOMS), and game-related statistics were also collected. Playing status during the U-16 EC (starters vs nonstarters) were taken into consideration to analyze the between-subjects differences across all variables. A stepwise discriminant analysis was computed to identify the construct that best differentiated the players' playing status (starters vs nonstarters) during the EC. Results: The starters were characterized by lower movement demands in both TS (ES: -0.02 to -1.26) and FM (ES: -0.03 to -1.94), however, outscored nonstarters in most FM-related statistics (ES: 0.10 to 3.62), with exception to blocks and rebounds. The number of high-intensity decelerations during FM (p ≤ .05), but also training DOMS, number of steals, efficiency, minutes during FM, and countermovement jump (CMJ) (p ≤ .01) substantially discriminated the playing status over the course of the EC. Conclusion: Game-related statistics obtained in FM seem to be a determinant aspect that increases the probability to be the starter during the EC.

Aerobic fitness and game performance indicators in professional football players; playing position specifics and associations

The aim of this study was to identify associations between aerobic fitness (AF) and game performance indicator (GPI) in elite football. Participants were professional football players (males, n = 16; age: 23.76 ± 2.64; body height: 181.62 ± 7.09 cm; body mass: 77.01 ± 6.34 kg). AF testing was conducted by direct measurement and included VO2max, running speed at aerobic threshold (AeT), and running speed at anaerobic threshold (AT). The GPI were collected by the position-specific performance statistics index (InStat index). The players were observed over one competitive half-season, resulting in 82 game performances, grouped according to the positions in game: defenders (n = 39), midfielders (n = 32) and forwards (n = 11). VO2max was not found to be a good discriminator of AF among different playing positions. AeT (F-test = 26.36. p = 0.01) and AT (F-test = 7.25, p = 0.01) were highest among midfielders, and lowest among forwards. No correlations were found between AF and GPI. This study confirmed that AeT and AT are better indicators of AF than VO2max in football players at different playing positions. The lack of associations between AF and GPI was discussed with regard to calculation of InStat as a GPI.

Training load, recovery and game performance in semiprofessional male basketball: influence of individual characteristics and contextual factors

This study examined the effects of individual characteristics and contextual factors on training load, pre-game recovery and game performance in adult male semi-professional basketball. Fourteen players were monitored, across a whole competitive season, with the session-RPE method to calculate weekly training load, and the Total Quality Recovery Scale to obtain pre-game recovery scores. Additionally, game-related statistics were gathered during official games to calculate the Performance Index Rating (PIR). Individual characteristics and contextual factors were grouped using k-means cluster analyses. Separate mixed linear models for repeated measures were performed to evaluate the single and combined (interaction) effects of individual characteristics (playing experience; playing position; playing time) and contextual factors (season phase; recovery cycle; previous game outcome; previous and upcoming opponent level) on weekly training load, pre-game recovery and PIR. Weekly load was higher in guards and medium minute-per-game (MPG) players, and lower for medium-experienced players, before facing high-level opponents, during later season phases and short recovery cycles (all p < 0.05). Pre-game recovery was lower in centers and high-experience players (p < 0.05). Game performance was better in high-MPG players (p < 0.05) and when facing low and medium-level opponents (p < 0.001). Interestingly, players performed better in games when the previous week's training load was low (p = 0.042). This study suggests that several individual characteristics and contextual factors need to be considered when monitoring training load (playing experience, playing position, playing time, recovery cycle, upcoming opponent level), recovery (playing experience, playing position) and game performance (opponent level, weekly training load, pre-game recovery) in basketball players during the competitive season.

Absolute and Relative Load and Injury in Elite Junior Australian Football Players Over 1 Season

PURPOSE

To investigate the association between training and match loads and injury in elite junior Australian football players over 1 competitive season.

METHODS

Elite junior Australian football players (n = 290, age 17.7 [0.3] y, range 16-18 y) were recruited from the under-18 state league competition in Victoria to report load and injury information. One-week load (session rating of perceived exertion multiplied by duration) and all time-loss injuries were reported using an online sport-injury surveillance system. Absolute load measures (weekly sums) enabled the calculation of relative measures such as the acute:chronic workload ratio. Load measures were modeled against injury outcome (yes/no) using a generalized estimating equation approach, with a 1-wk lag for injury.

RESULTS

Low (<300 arbitrary units [au]) and high (>4650 au) 1-wk loads were associated with significantly higher risk of injury. Furthermore, low (<100 au) and high (>850 au) session loads were associated with a higher risk of injury. High strain values (>13,000) were associated with up to a 5-fold increase in the odds of injury. There was a relatively flat-line association between the acute:chronic workload ratio and injury.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first investigation of elite junior athletes demonstrating linear and nonlinear relationships between absolute and relative load measures and injury. Coaches should focus player loads on, or at least close to, the point at which injury risk starts to increase again (2214 au for 1-wk load and 458 au for session load) and use evidence-based strategies across the week and month to help reduce the risk of injury.

Rugby game performances and weekly workload: Using of data mining process to enter in the complexity

This study aimed to i) identify key performance indicators of professional rugby matches, ii) define synthetic indicators of performance and iii) analyze how weekly workload (2WL) influences match performance throughout an entire season at different time-points (considering WL of up to 8 weeks prior to competition). This study uses abundant sports data and data mining techniques to assess player performance and to determine the influence of 2WL on performance. WL, locomotor activity and rugby specific actions were collected on 14 professional players (26.9 ± 1.9 years) during training and official matches. In order to highlight key performance indicators, a mixed-linear model was used to compare the players’ activity relatively to competition results. This analysis showed that defensive skills represent a fundamental factor of team performance. Furthermore, a principal component analysis demonstrated that 88% of locomotor activity could be highlighted by 2 dimensions including total distance, high-speed/metabolic efforts and the number of sprints and accelerations. The final purpose of this study was to analyze the influence that WL has on match performance. To verify this, 2 different statistical models were used. A threshold-based model, from data mining processes, identified the positive influence (p<0.05) that chronic body impacts has on the ability to win offensive 1 on 1 duels during competition. This study highlights practical implications necessary for developing a better understanding of rugby match performance through the use of data mining processes.

A Prospective Cohort Study of Load and Wellness (Sleep, Fatigue, Soreness, Stress, and Mood) in Elite Junior Australian Football Players

Purpose:To investigate associations between load (training and competition) and wellness in elite junior Australian Football players across 1 competitive season.Methods:A prospective cohort study was conducted during the 2014 playing season in 562 players from 9 teams. Players recorded their training and match intensities according to the session-rating-of-perceived-exertion (sRPE) method. Based on sRPE player loads, a number of load variables were quantified, including cumulative load and the change in load across different periods of time (including the acute-to-chronic load ratio). Wellness was quantified using a wellness index including sleep, fatigue, soreness, stress, and mood on a Likert scale from 1 to 5.Results:Players spent an average of 85 (21) min in each match and 65 (31) min per training session. Average match loads were 637 (232) arbitrary units, and average training loads were 352 (233) arbitrary units. Over the 24 wk of the 2014 season, overall wellness had a significant linear negative association with 1-wk load (B = −0.152; 95% confidence interval, −0.261 to −0.043;P = .006) and an inverseU-curve relationship with session load (B = −0.078; 95% confidence interval, 0.143 to 0.014;P = .018). Mood, stress, and soreness were all found to have associations with load.Conclusions:This study demonstrates that load (within a session and across the week) is important in managing the wellness of elite junior Australian Football players. Quantifying loads and wellness at this level will help optimize player management and has the potential to reduce the risk of adverse events such as injury.

Determinants for success in climbing: A systematic review

Background

The number of athletes engaged in climbing sports has risen. Specific physical and psychological skills are required. The objective of this review was to determine factors for high climbing performance. We evaluated physiological, biomechanical and psychological characteristics that simplify the ascent. We also assessed training and recovery strategies.

Methods

Medline (Pubmed), Cochrane Library and Google scholar up to September 2018.

Results

A low skinfold thickness, body fat and large forearm volume were anthropometric traits in successful climbers. Well-trained forearm flexors with high aerobic capacities lead to an efficient style. Hand grip strength and endurance, postural stability and optimized kinematic motions were favourable. Elite climbers had long finger and bent-arm hang times. Psychologically, an “iceberg profile” was typical. Constant training with fingerboard and dynamic eccentric-concentric training helped to push the “red-point grade”.

Conclusion

Hand, forearm strength and endurance are highly important elements in elite climbers. An efficient climbing style with perpetual focus and accuracy, high speed and low exhaustion due to adaption to repeated isometric exercise is helpful in the ascent, while low body fat and a large bone-to-tip pulp make it easier. Constant training is essential, e.g. eccentric-concentric training of finger flexors, which should be followed by active recovery.

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Physiological parameters of high climbing performance are forearm flexor strength and a good strength-to-weight ratio.

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An efficient climbing style is based on perpetual focus, accuracy and a high postural stability.

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With constant training, especially isometric exercise, followed by active recovery, climbing red-point grade can be improved.

Individual Factors Affecting Rugby Sevens Match Performance

Purpose: To examine the collective independent influence of a range of individual characteristics on physical and technical match performance during international rugby sevens matches. Methods: Data were collected from 20 international rugby sevens players from 1 team across 1 season. Activity profiles were measured using wearable microtechnology devices, and technical performance measures were collected from match video analysis. Subjective well-being measures were collected using a well-being questionnaire completed on the morning of main training days, and groin-squeeze assessments at 0° and 60° knee flexion were also conducted using a sphygmomanometer. Assessments of aerobic fitness were completed periodically across the season, including time to complete a 2-km run and final velocity during the 30:15 Intermittent Fitness Test (V_IFT). A principal-components analysis was conducted to reduce the dimensionality of the physical and technical variables into single-factor values. Linear mixed models were then constructed to examine the collective influence of a range of individual contextual variables on physical and technical performance factors. Results: Increased muscle soreness, stress, and V_IFT were associated with trivial to small increases in physical and technical performance values, whereas trivial to small decreases were associated with higher perceived recovery, body weight, and groin squeeze (0° knee flexion). Conclusions: A range of well-being metrics are required to account for a significant portion of the variance in physical and technical performance. These factors may be manipulated by coaches or practitioners to achieve favorable physiological readiness that may lead to improved match performance.

Association Between Preseason Training and Performance in Elite Australian Football

PURPOSE

To examine the association between preseason training variables and subsequent in-season performance in an elite Australian football team.

METHODS

Data from 41 elite male Australian footballers (mean [SD] age = 23.4 [3.1] y, height =188.4 [7.1] cm, and mass = 86.7 [7.9] kg) were collected from 1 Australian Football League (AFL) club. Preseason training data (external load, internal load, fitness testing, and session participation) were collected across the 17-wk preseason phase (6 and 11 wk post-Christmas). Champion Data© Player Rank (CDPR), coaches' ratings, and round 1 selection were used as in-season performance measures. CDPR and coaches' ratings were examined over the entire season, first half of the season, and the first 4 games. Both Pearson and partial (controlling for AFL age) correlations were calculated to assess if any associations existed between preseason training variables and in-season performance measures. A median split was also employed to differentiate between higher- and lower-performing players for each performance measure.

RESULTS

Preseason training activities appeared to have almost no association with performance measured across the entire season and the first half of the season. However, many preseason training variables were significantly linked with performance measured across the first 4 games. Preseason training variables that were measured post-Christmas were the most strongly associated with in-season performance measures. Specifically, total on-field session rating of perceived exertion post-Christmas, a measurement of internal load, displayed the greatest association with performance.

CONCLUSION

Late preseason training (especially on-field match-specific training) is associated with better performance in the early season.

Associatons Between Self-Reported Well-being and Neuromuscular Performance During a Professional Rugby Union Season

Hills, SP, Rogerson, DJ. Associatons between self-reported well-being and neuromuscular performance during a professional rugby union season. J Strength Cond Res 32(9): 2498-2509, 2018-Self-reported wellness is often used to monitor fatigue responses to training and competition. Constraints within team sports mean short-form wellness questionnaires are typically preferred to literature-validated documents. This research aimed to assess the relationship between self-reported wellness and neuromuscular (NM) performance during a professional rugby union season, and to identify changes in these parameters over a 12-week period. On the first training day each week, before activity, 37 players rated 5 wellness subscales ("fatigue/vigor," "upper-body soreness," "lower-body soreness," "mood," and "sleep quality/duration") on a 1-5 Likert scale (1 representing the lowest wellness), and 5-repetition countermovement jumps (CMJs) were completed after a warm-up. Each week, total wellness, wellness subscales, and 4 CMJ measures for each participant were calculated as change from baseline. Within-participant correlations were determined between changes in wellness and CMJ measures, whereas week-to week differences and differences from baseline were assessed using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Within-participant correlations were compared for players grouped by age and position. Wellness and CMJ scores fluctuated according to physical stress, persisted beneath baseline throughout, and showed declining trends over 12 weeks. Very large (r = 0.7-0.89)/large (r = 0.5-0.69) correlations were identified between wellness and CMJ variables (positive: velocity, dip, time; negative: duration), and each wellness subscale displayed large/very large positive correlations with CMJ velocity. This was true for all subgroups, although subtle differences existed between ages and positions. It was concluded that players' subjective wellness is a useful tool, ideally used within a broader monitoring scheme, for monitoring ongoing NM fatigue, which increased from week to week.

Physical Preparation Factors That Influence Technical and Physical Match Performance in Professional Australian Football

OBJECTIVES

To examine the collective influence of a range of physical preparation elements on selected performance measures during Australian football match play.

DESIGN

Prospective and longitudinal.

METHODS

Data were collected from 34 professional Australian football players from the same club during the 2016 Australian Football League competition season. Match activity profiles and acute (7-d) and chronic (3-wk) training loads were collected using global positioning system devices. Training response was measured by well-being questionnaires completed prior to the main training session each week. Maximal aerobic running speed (MAS) was estimated by a 2-km time trial conducted during preseason. Coach ratings were collected from the senior coach and 4 assistants after each match on a 5-point Likert scale. Player ratings were obtained from a commercial statistics provider. Fifteen matches were analyzed. Linear mixed models were constructed to examine the collective influence of training-related factors on 4 performance measures.

RESULTS

Muscle soreness had a small positive effect (ES: 0.12) on Champion Data rating points. Three-week average high-speed running distance had a small negative effect (ES: 0.14) on coach ratings. MAS had large to moderate positive effects (ES: 0.55 to 0.47) on relative total and high-speed running distances. Acute total and chronic average total running distance had small positive (ES: 0.13) and negative (ES: 0.14) effects on relative total and high-speed running distance performed during matches, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

MAS should be developed to enhance players' running performance during competition. Monitoring of physical preparation data may assist in reducing injury and illness and increasing player availability but not enhance football performance.

Effects of Training and Competition Load on Neuromuscular Recovery, Testosterone, Cortisol, and Match Performance During a Season of Professional Football

Introduction: Training load and other measures potentially related to match performance are routinely monitored in team-sport athletes. The aim of this research was to examine the effect of training load on such measures and on match performance during a season of professional football. Materials and Methods: Training load was measured daily as session duration times perceived exertion in 23 A-League football players. Measures of exponentially weighted cumulative training load were calculated using decay factors representing time constants of 3-28 days. Players performed a countermovement jump for estimation of a measure of neuromuscular recovery (ratio of flight time to contraction time, FT:CT), and provided a saliva sample for measurement of testosterone and cortisol concentrations 1-day prior to each of 34 matches. Match performance was assessed via ratings provided by five coaching and fitness staff on a 5-point Likert scale. Effects of training load on FT:CT, hormone concentrations and match performance were modeled as quadratic predictors and expressed as changes in the outcome measure for a change in the predictor of one within-player standard deviation (1 SD) below and above the mean. Changes in each of five playing positions were assessed using standardization and magnitude-based inference. Results: The largest effects of training were generally observed in the 3- to 14-day windows. Center defenders showed a small reduction in coach rating when 14-day a smoothed load increased from -1 SD to the mean (-0.31, ±0.15; mean, ±90% confidence limits), whereas strikers and wide midfielders displayed a small increase in coach rating when load increased 1 SD above the mean. The effects of training load on FT:CT were mostly unclear or trivial, but effects of training load on hormones included a large increase in cortisol (102, ±58%) and moderate increase in testosterone (24, ±18%) in center defenders when 3-day smoothed training load increased 1 SD above the mean. A 1 SD increase in training load above the mean generally resulted in substantial reductions in testosterone:cortisol ratio. Conclusion: The effects of recent training on match performance and hormones in A-League football players highlight the importance of position-specific monitoring and training.

Elite Junior Australian Football Players Experience Significantly Different Loads Across Levels of Competition and Training Modes

Lathlean, TJH, Gastin, PB, Newstead, S, and Finch, CF. Elite junior Australian football players experience significantly different loads across levels of competition and training modes. J Strength Cond Res 32(7): 2031-2038, 2018-Well-developed physical qualities such as high jumping ability, running endurance, acceleration, and speed can help aspiring junior elite Australian football (AF) players transition to the Australian Football League competition. To do so, players need to experience sufficient load to enhance their physical resilience without increasing their risk of negative outcomes in terms of impaired wellness or injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the differences in load for different levels of competition and training modes across one competitive season. Elite junior AF players (n = 562, aged 17.7 ± 0.3, range: 16-18 years) were recruited from 9 teams across the under-18 state league competition in Victoria. All players recorded their training and match intensities according to the session rating of perceived exertion method. Training sessions were categorized according to skills, strength, conditioning, and other activities, whereas matches were identified according to level of competition. The loads in U18 state league matches (656.7 ± 210.9 au) were significantly higher (p = 0.027) than those in school matches (643.3 ± 260.9 au) and those in U18 representative matches (617.2 ± 175.4). Players, who undertook more than one match per week, experienced significantly less load in subsequent matches (p < 0.001). Furthermore, U18 state league training sessions carried the most load when compared with other training modes. This article highlights that different combinations of training and match involvement affect overall player load, which may predispose players to negative outcomes such as impaired wellness or increased injury risk.

Factors Affecting Match Outcome in Elite Australian Football: A 14-Year Analysis

Effects of fixture and team characteristics on match outcome in elite Australian football were quantified using data accessed at AFLtables.com for 5109 matches for seasons 2000 to 2013. Aspects of each match included number of days' break between matches (≤7 d vs ≥8 d), location (home vs away), travel status (travel vs no travel), and differences between opposing teams' mean age, body mass, and height (expressed as quintiles). A logistic-regression version of the generalized mixed linear model estimated each effect, which was assessed with magnitude-based inference using 1 extra win or loss in every 10 matches as the smallest important change. For every 10 matches played, the effects were days' break, 0.1 ± 0.3 (90% CL) wins; playing away, 1.5 ± 0.6 losses; traveling, 0.7 ± 0.6 losses; and being in the oldest, heaviest, or shortest, quintile, 1.9 ± 0.4, 1.3 ± 0.4, and 0.4 ± 0.4 wins, respectively. The effects of age and body-mass difference were not reduced substantially when adjusted for each other. All effects were clear, mostly at the 99% level. The effects of playing away, travel, and age difference were not unexpected, but the trivial effect of days' break and the advantage of a heavier team will challenge current notions about balancing training with recovery and about team selection.

Physical characteristics of players within the Australian Football League participation pathways: a systematic review

Background

Australian football (AF) players require endurance, strength, speed, and agility to be successful. Tests assessing physical characteristics are commonly used for talent identification; however, their ability to differentiate between players across the Australian Football League’s (AFL) participation pathway remains unclear. The objective of this review was to quantify the physical characteristics of male AF players across the AFL participation pathway.

Methods

A search of databases was undertaken. Studies examining tests of physical performance were included, with 27 meeting the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Study appraisal was conducted using a checklist of selection criteria.

Results

The 20-m sprint time was the most reported test, followed by vertical jump (VJ), AFL planned agility, and 20-m multi-stage fitness test (MSFT). The fastest times for 20-m sprint were for Elite AFL players (range 2.94–3.13 s), with local-level players the slowest (3.22–4.06 s). State Junior Under (U) 18s (58–66 cm) had higher jumps than senior players, with the lowest jumps reported for Local U10s (mean 31 cm). No elite-level data were reported for the AFL planned agility or 20-m MSFT. AFL planned agility times were only reported for talent pathway levels, with large performance variability evident across all levels (8.17–9.12 s). Only mean 20-m MSFT scores were reported from Local U10s to National Draft Camp (6.10–13.50 shuttles).

Conclusions

Talent pathway players exhibit similar mean test scores irrespective of the physical test, with the exception of 20-m sprint and VJ. Physical tests can discriminate between local participation level players but are less useful within the AFL talent pathway.

Comparison of Strength Levels Between Players From Within the Same Club Who Were Selected vs. Not Selected to Play in the Grand Final of the National Rugby League Competition

A number of studies have established that higher levels of strength and power, tested at the end of the preseason, distinguish between playing level in professional rugby league. How this may impact the ability of players to get selected for final payoff games some 30 weeks later has not been fully investigated. The purpose of this study was to compare measures of upper- and lower-body strength between players from the same professional club, designated as those 17 players who attained selection and played in the team that won the Grand Final of the National Rugby League competition (GF) and those who did not attain selection (NSGF). Players were tested and compared for 1 repetition maximum bench press and full squat strength levels at the end of the preparation period, 30 weeks before the GF, using traditional significance analysis of variance and effect size (ES) statistics. Furthermore, the players were analyzed according to the 2 broad positional playing groups of forwards (FWD) and backs (BL). The results demonstrated that overall, the GF players were stronger than NSGF players by approximately 10 and 15%, respectively, for the upper and lower body. When analyzed according to positional groupings, there were significant differences and large ES for GF forwards, who were significantly stronger, heavier, and older than NSGF FWD players. For the BL groups, the differences between the groups were not significant. Because of the intense physical collisions inherent in rugby league, it would appear that higher levels of strength afford players greater performance benefits, resiliency against injury, and greater likelihood of being selected in the most important games at the end of the season.

Match running performance and skill execution improves with age but not the number of disposals in young Australian footballers

This study investigated age-related differences in maturity, physical and functional characteristics and playing performance in youth Australian Football (AF). Young male players (n = 156) were recruited from 12 teams across 6 age groups (U10-U15) of a recreational AF club. All players were tested for body size, maturity and fitness. Player performance was assessed during a match in which disposals (kicks and handballs) and their effectiveness were coded from a video recording and match running performance measured using Global Positioning System. Significant main effects (P < 0.01) for age group were observed for age, years to peak height velocity, body mass, height, 20 m sprint, maximal speed over 20 m, vertical jump, 20 m multistage shuttle run, match distance, high-speed running distance, peak speed, number of effective disposals and percentage of effective disposals. Age-related differences in fitness characteristics (speed, lower body power and endurance) appeared to transfer to match running performance. The frequency in which players disposed of the football did not differ between age groups, however the effectiveness of each disposal (i.e., % effective disposals) improved with age. Match statistics, particularly those that evaluate skill execution outcome (i.e., effectiveness), are useful to assess performance and to track player development over time. Differences between age groups, and probably variability within age groups, are strongly associated with chronological age and maturity.

Live-high train-low improves repeated time-trial and Yo-Yo IR2 performance in sub-elite team-sport athletes

OBJECTIVES

To determine the efficacy of live-high train-low on team-sport athlete physical capacity and the time-course for adaptation.

DESIGN

Pre-post parallel-groups.

METHODS

Fifteen Australian footballers were matched for Yo-Yo Intermittent recovery test level 2 (Yo-YoIR2) performance and assigned to LHTL (n=7) or control (Con; n=8). LHTL spent 19 nights (3×5 nights, 1×4 nights, each block separated by 2 nights at sea level) at 3000-m simulated altitude (F_IO₂: 0.142). Yo-Yo IR2 was performed pre and post 5, 15, and 19 nights. A 2- and 1-km time-trial (TT) was performed pre and post intervention. Haemoglobin mass (Hb_mass) was measured in LHTL after 5, 10, 15, and 19 nights. A contemporary statistical approach using effect size, confidence limits, and magnitude-based inferences was used to measure changes between groups.

RESULTS

Compared to pre, Hb_mass was possibly higher after 15 (3.8%, effect size (ES) 0.19, 90% confidence limits 0.05-0.33) and very likely higher after 19 nights (6.7%, 0.35, 0.10; 0.52). For Yo-Yo IR2, LHTL group change was not meaningfully different to Con after 5 nights, possibly greater after 15 (10.2%, 0.37, -0.29; 1.04), and likely greater after 19 nights (13.5%, 0.49, -0.16; 1.14). Both groups improved 2-km TT, with LHTL improvement possibly higher than CON (1.9%, 0.22, -0.18; 0.62). Only LHTL improved 1-km TT, with LHTL improvement likely greater than CON (4.6%, 0.56, -0.08; 1.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Fifteen nights of LHTL was possibly effective, while 19 nights was effective at increasing Hb_mass, Yo-Yo IR2 and repeated TT performance more than sea-level training.

The effect of intense exercise periods on physical and technical performance during elite Australian Football match-play: A comparison of experienced and less experienced players

OBJECTIVES

The physical and technical responses of experienced (≥5 years) and less experienced (1-4 years) elite Australian Football (AF) players were compared following the most intense passages of match-play.

DESIGN

Descriptive cohort study.

METHODS

Time-motion analyses were performed using global positioning systems (MinimaxX S4, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia) on one elite AF team during 13 matches. The global positioning data were categorised into total distance, low-speed activity (0-2.78ms(-1)), moderate-speed running (2.79-4.14ms(-1)) and high-speed running (≥4.15ms(-1)) distances. A standardised 5-point technical coding criteria was used to rate the number and quality of skill involvements during match-play.

RESULTS

Following the most intense 3-min running period the experienced players covered greater distances at high-speeds in match quarters two (effect size, ES=0.42±0.30) and three (ES=0.38±0.33) than their less experienced counterparts. Compared with less experienced players, experienced players performed more skill involvements during the second quarter (ES=0.42±0.33) and fourth quarter peak 3-min bouts of exercise intensity (ES=0.40±0.30) and quarter one (ES=0.49±0.29) and three subsequent periods (ES=0.33±0.20).

CONCLUSIONS

Less experienced players exhibited greater reductions in physical and technical performance following peak periods of match-play. These findings suggest that training may require a greater emphasis on developing the ability of less experienced players to maintain physical performance and gain possession of the football following intense periods of match-play.

Tackle and impact detection in elite Australian football using wearable microsensor technology

The effectiveness of a wearable microsensor device (MinimaxX(TM) S4, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, VIC, Australia) to automatically detect tackles and impact events in elite Australian football (AF) was assessed during four matches. Video observation was used as the criterion measure. A total of 352 tackles were observed, with 78% correctly detected as tackles by the manufacturer's software. Tackles against (i.e. tackled by an opponent) were more accurately detected than tackles made (90% v 66%). Of the 77 tackles that were not detected at all, the majority (74%) were categorised as low-intensity. In contrast, a total of 1510 "tackle" events were detected, with only 18% of these verified as tackles. A further 57% were from contested ball situations involving player contact. The remaining 25% were in general play where no contact was evident; these were significantly lower in peak Player Load™ than those involving player contact (P < 0.01). The tackle detection algorithm, developed primarily for rugby, was not suitable for tackle detection in AF. The underlying sensor data may have the potential to detect a range of events within contact sports such as AF, yet to do so is a complex task and requires sophisticated sport and event-specific algorithms.