1
|
Karan KR, Andrzejewski S, Stiles KM, Hackett NR, Crystal RG. Suppression of CNS APOE4 Expression by miRNAs Delivered by the S2 AAVrh.10 Capsid-Modified AAV Vector. Hum Gene Ther 2024. [PMID: 39318239 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2024.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The homozygous Apolipoprotein E (APOE4) genotype is the major risk factor for the development of early Alzheimer's disease. Genome engineering studies in mouse models of human APOE4-dependent pathology have established that reduction of APOE4 expression can rescue the phenotype. We hypothesized that APOE4 could be suppressed in the CNS of APOE4 homozygotes using adeno-associated virus (AAV) expression of microRNAs (miRNA) designed to hybridize to APOE mRNA. We screened nine different miRNAs targeting APOE following transfection in HEK293T and Huh7 cells. Optimal APOE suppression was obtained with mir2A (targeting coding region nt330-351) and mirN4 (3' untranslated region nt1142-1162). miRNA expression cassettes were designed with two copies of each of these two miRNAs co-expressed with a mCherry transgene. To optimize delivery of these miRNAs, an engineered AAVrh.10 variant was identified from a screen of multiple peptide insertions into capsid loop IV and substitutions in loop VIII. This led to identifying the AAV.S2 capsid with enhanced transduction of both neurons and glia and enhanced distribution in the brain. The engineered capsid was used to deliver the APOE miRNA suppression cassette to the hippocampus of TRE4 mice (human APOE4 knock-in replacement of the murine apoE locus). Two weeks after intra-hippocampus administration, regional expression of miRNA at the injection site was quantified at the mRNA level relative to an endogenous reference. The AAV.S2 capsid provided 2.31 ± 0.37-fold higher expression of miRNA over that provided by AAVrh.10 (p < 0.05). In the targeted region, a single intra-hippocampus AAV.S2 administration suppressed hippocampal APOE4 mRNA levels by 76.5 ± 3.9% compared with 41.3 ± 3.3% with the same cassette delivered by the wildtype AAVrh.10 capsid (p < 0.0001). We conclude that an expression cassette with two different miRNAs targeting APOE4 delivered by the AAV.S2 capsid will generate highly significant suppression of APOE4 in the CNS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kalpita R Karan
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Slawomir Andrzejewski
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Katie M Stiles
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Neil R Hackett
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ronald G Crystal
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Moon HJ, Luo Y, Chugh D, Zhao L. Human apolipoprotein E glycosylation and sialylation: from structure to function. Front Mol Neurosci 2024; 17:1399965. [PMID: 39169951 PMCID: PMC11335735 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2024.1399965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Human apolipoprotein E (ApoE) was first identified as a polymorphic gene in the 1970s; however, the genetic association of ApoE genotypes with late-onset sporadic Alzheimer's disease (sAD) was only discovered 20 years later. Since then, intensive research has been undertaken to understand the molecular effects of ApoE in the development of sAD. Despite three decades' worth of effort and over 10,000 papers published, the greatest mystery in the ApoE field remains: human ApoE isoforms differ by only one or two amino acid residues; what is responsible for their significantly distinct roles in the etiology of sAD, with ApoE4 conferring the greatest genetic risk for sAD whereas ApoE2 providing exceptional neuroprotection against sAD. Emerging research starts to point to a novel and compelling hypothesis that the sialoglycans posttranslationally appended to human ApoE may serve as a critical structural modifier that alters the biology of ApoE, leading to the opposing impacts of ApoE isoforms on sAD and likely in the peripheral systems as well. ApoE has been shown to be posttranslationally glycosylated in a species-, tissue-, and cell-specific manner. Human ApoE, particularly in brain tissue and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), is highly glycosylated, and the glycan chains are exclusively attached via an O-linkage to serine or threonine residues. Moreover, studies have indicated that human ApoE glycans undergo sialic acid modification or sialylation, a structural alteration found to be more prominent in ApoE derived from the brain and CSF than plasma. However, whether the sialylation modification of human ApoE has a biological role is largely unexplored. Our group recently first reported that the three major isoforms of human ApoE in the brain undergo varying degrees of sialylation, with ApoE2 exhibiting the most abundant sialic acid modification, whereas ApoE4 is the least sialylated. Our findings further indicate that the sialic acid moiety on human ApoE glycans may serve as a critical modulator of the interaction of ApoE with amyloid β (Aβ) and downstream Aβ pathogenesis, a prominent pathologic feature in AD. In this review, we seek to provide a comprehensive summary of this exciting and rapidly evolving area of ApoE research, including the current state of knowledge and opportunities for future exploration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Jung Moon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Yan Luo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Diksha Chugh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Liqin Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Azargoonjahromi A. The duality of amyloid-β: its role in normal and Alzheimer's disease states. Mol Brain 2024; 17:44. [PMID: 39020435 PMCID: PMC11256416 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-024-01118-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative neurological condition that gradually impairs cognitive abilities, disrupts memory retention, and impedes daily functioning by impacting the cells of the brain. A key characteristic of AD is the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, which play pivotal roles in disease progression. These plaques initiate a cascade of events including neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, tau pathology, oxidative stress, impaired protein clearance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and disrupted calcium homeostasis. Aβ accumulation is also closely associated with other hallmark features of AD, underscoring its significance. Aβ is generated through cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and plays a dual role depending on its processing pathway. The non-amyloidogenic pathway reduces Aβ production and has neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, whereas the amyloidogenic pathway leads to the production of Aβ peptides, including Aβ40 and Aβ42, which contribute to neurodegeneration and toxic effects in AD. Understanding the multifaceted role of Aβ, particularly in AD, is crucial for developing effective therapeutic strategies that target Aβ metabolism, aggregation, and clearance with the aim of mitigating the detrimental consequences of the disease. This review aims to explore the mechanisms and functions of Aβ under normal and abnormal conditions, particularly in AD, by examining both its beneficial and detrimental effects.
Collapse
|
4
|
Grenon MB, Papavergi MT, Bathini P, Sadowski M, Lemere CA. Temporal Characterization of the Amyloidogenic APPswe/PS1dE9;hAPOE4 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5754. [PMID: 38891941 PMCID: PMC11172317 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating disorder with a global prevalence estimated at 55 million people. In clinical studies administering certain anti-beta-amyloid (Aβ) antibodies, amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIAs) have emerged as major adverse events. The frequency of these events is higher among apolipoprotein ε4 allele carriers (APOE4) compared to non-carriers. To reflect patients most at risk for vascular complications of anti-Aβ immunotherapy, we selected an APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mouse model bearing the human APOE4 gene (APPPS1:E4) and compared it with the same APP/PS1 mouse model bearing the human APOE3 gene (APOE ε3 allele; APPPS1:E3). Using histological and biochemical analyses, we characterized mice at three ages: 8, 12, and 16 months. Female and male mice were assayed for general cerebral fibrillar and pyroglutamate (pGlu-3) Aβ deposition, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), microhemorrhages, apoE and cholesterol composition, astrocytes, microglia, inflammation, lysosomal dysfunction, and neuritic dystrophy. Amyloidosis, lipid deposition, and astrogliosis increased with age in APPPS1:E4 mice, while inflammation did not reveal significant changes with age. In general, APOE4 carriers showed elevated Aβ, apoE, reactive astrocytes, pro-inflammatory cytokines, microglial response, and neuritic dystrophy compared to APOE3 carriers at different ages. These results highlight the potential of the APPPS1:E4 mouse model as a valuable tool in investigating the vascular side effects associated with anti-amyloid immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martine B. Grenon
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
- Section Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Maria-Tzousi Papavergi
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Praveen Bathini
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
| | - Martin Sadowski
- Departments of Neurology, Psychiatry, and Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA;
| | - Cynthia A. Lemere
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (M.B.G.); (M.-T.P.); (P.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Fruhwürth S, Zetterberg H, Paludan SR. Microglia and amyloid plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease - Evidence, possible mechanisms, and future challenges. J Neuroimmunol 2024; 390:578342. [PMID: 38640827 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2024.578342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive decline that severely affects patients and their families. Genetic and environmental risk factors, such as viral infections, synergize to accelerate the aging-associated neurodegeneration. Genetic risk factors for late-onset AD (LOAD), which accounts for most AD cases, are predominantly implicated in microglial and immune cell functions. As such, microglia play a major role in formation of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, the major pathological hallmark of AD. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge regarding the role of microglia in Aβ plaque formation, as well as their impact on morphological and functional diversity of Aβ plaques. Based on this discussion, we seek to identify challenges and opportunities in this field with potential therapeutic implications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Fruhwürth
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden; Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, Institute of Neurology, University College London Queen Square, London, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, UK; Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China; Wisconsin Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA
| | - Søren R Paludan
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammatory Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ahmed H, Wang Y, Griffiths WJ, Levey AI, Pikuleva I, Liang SH, Haider A. Brain cholesterol and Alzheimer's disease: challenges and opportunities in probe and drug development. Brain 2024; 147:1622-1635. [PMID: 38301270 PMCID: PMC11068113 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol homeostasis is impaired in Alzheimer's disease; however, attempts to modulate brain cholesterol biology have not translated into tangible clinical benefits for patients to date. Several recent milestone developments have substantially improved our understanding of how excess neuronal cholesterol contributes to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Indeed, neuronal cholesterol was linked to the formation of amyloid-β and neurofibrillary tangles through molecular pathways that were recently delineated in mechanistic studies. Furthermore, remarkable advances in translational molecular imaging have now made it possible to probe cholesterol metabolism in the living human brain with PET, which is an important prerequisite for future clinical trials that target the brain cholesterol machinery in Alzheimer's disease patients-with the ultimate aim being to develop disease-modifying treatments. This work summarizes current concepts of how the biosynthesis, transport and clearance of brain cholesterol are affected in Alzheimer's disease. Further, current strategies to reverse these alterations by pharmacotherapy are critically discussed in the wake of emerging translational research tools that support the assessment of brain cholesterol biology not only in animal models but also in patients with Alzheimer's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Ahmed
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Center for Radiopharmaceutical Sciences ETH-PSI-USZ, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences ETH, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yuqin Wang
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - William J Griffiths
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Allan I Levey
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Irina Pikuleva
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Steven H Liang
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ahmed Haider
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Patil SP, Kuehn BR. Discovery of Small Molecule Glycolytic Stimulants for Enhanced ApoE Lipidation in Alzheimer's Disease Cell Model. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:491. [PMID: 38675451 PMCID: PMC11054693 DOI: 10.3390/ph17040491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by pathophysiological deposits of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles of tau. The central role of Aβ in AD pathology is well-established, with its increased deposition attributed mainly to its decreased cerebral clearance. Here, it is noteworthy that apolipoprotein E (ApoE), the most significant risk factor for AD, has been shown to play an isoform-specific role in clearing Aβ deposits (ApoE2 > ApoE3 > ApoE4), owing mainly to its lipidation status. In addition to the pathophysiological Aβ deposits, AD is also characterized by abnormal glucose metabolism, which is a distinct event preceding Aβ deposition. The present study established, for the first time, a possible link between these two major AD etiologies, with glucose metabolism directly influencing ApoE lipidation and its secretion by astrocytes expressing human ApoE4. Specifically, glucose dose-dependently activated liver X receptor (LXR), leading to elevated ABCA1 and ABCG1 protein levels and enhanced ApoE lipidation. Moreover, co-treatment with a glycolytic inhibitor significantly inhibited this LXR activation and subsequent ApoE lipidation, further supporting a central role of glucose metabolism in LXR activation leading to enhanced ApoE lipidation, which may help against AD through potential Aβ clearance. Therefore, we hypothesized that pharmacological agents that can target cellular energy metabolism, specifically aerobic glycolysis, may hold significant therapeutic potential against AD. In this context, the present study also led to the discovery of novel, small-molecule stimulants of astrocytic glucose metabolism, leading to significantly enhanced lipidation status of ApoE4 in astrocytic cells. Three such newly discovered compounds (lonidamine, phenformin, and berberine), owing to their promising cellular effect on the glycolysis-ApoE nexus, warrant further investigation in suitable in vivo models of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sachin P. Patil
- NanoBio Lab, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA;
| | - Bella R. Kuehn
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ingannato A, Bagnoli S, Mazzeo S, Giacomucci G, Bessi V, Ferrari C, Sorbi S, Nacmias B. Plasma GFAP, NfL and pTau 181 detect preclinical stages of dementia. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2024; 15:1375302. [PMID: 38654932 PMCID: PMC11035722 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1375302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Plasma biomarkers are preferable to invasive and expensive diagnostic tools, such as neuroimaging and lumbar puncture that are gold standard in the clinical management of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Here, we investigated plasma Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP), Neurofilament Light Chain (NfL) and Phosphorylated-tau-181 (pTau 181) in AD and in its early stages: Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) and Mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Material and methods This study included 152 patients (42 SCD, 74 MCI and 36 AD). All patients underwent comprehensive clinical and neurological assessment. Blood samples were collected for Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotyping and plasma biomarker (GFAP, NfL, and pTau 181) measurements. Forty-three patients (7 SCD, 27 MCI, and 9 AD) underwent a follow-up (FU) visit after 2 years, and a second plasma sample was collected. Plasma biomarker levels were detected using the Simoa SR-X technology (Quanterix Corp.). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software version 28 (IBM SPSS Statistics). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results GFAP, NfL and pTau 181 levels in plasma were lower in SCD and MCI than in AD patients. In particular, plasma GFAP levels were statistically significant different between SCD and AD (p=0.003), and between MCI and AD (p=0.032). Plasma NfL was different in SCD vs MCI (p=0.026), SCD vs AD (p<0.001), SCD vs AD FU (p<0.001), SCD FU vs AD (p=0.033), SCD FU vs AD FU (p=0.011), MCI vs AD (p=0.002), MCI FU vs AD (p=0.003), MCI FU vs AD FU (p=0.003) and MCI vs AD FU (p=0.003). Plasma pTau 181 concentration was significantly different between SCD and AD (p=0.001), MCI and AD (p=0.026), MCI FU and AD (p=0.020). In APOE ϵ4 carriers, a statistically significant increase in plasma NfL (p<0.001) and pTau 181 levels was found (p=0.014). Moreover, an association emerged between age at disease onset and plasma GFAP (p = 0.021) and pTau181 (p < 0.001) levels. Discussion and conclusions Plasma GFAP, NfL and pTau 181 are promising biomarkers in the diagnosis of the prodromic stages and prognosis of dementia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Assunta Ingannato
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Silvia Bagnoli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Salvatore Mazzeo
- Research and Innovation Centre for Dementia-CRIDEM, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Policlinico San Donato, San Donato Milanese, Italy
| | - Giulia Giacomucci
- Research and Innovation Centre for Dementia-CRIDEM, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy
| | - Valentina Bessi
- Research and Innovation Centre for Dementia-CRIDEM, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy
| | - Camilla Ferrari
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Sandro Sorbi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Florence, Italy
| | - Benedetta Nacmias
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Florence, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Valencia-Olvera AC, Balu D, Moore A, Shah M, Ainis R, Xiang B, Saleh Y, Cai D, LaDu MJ, Tai LM. APOE2 Heterozygosity Reduces Hippocampal Soluble Amyloid-β42 Levels in Non-Hyperlipidemic Mice. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 97:1629-1639. [PMID: 38306049 DOI: 10.3233/jad-231210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
APOE2 lowers Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk; unfortunately, the mechanism remains poorly understood and the use of mice models is problematic as APOE2 homozygosity is associated with hyperlipidemia. In this study, we developed mice that are heterozygous for APOE2 and APOE3 or APOE4 and overexpress amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) (EFAD) to evaluate the effect of APOE2 dosage on Aβ pathology. We found that heterozygous mice do not exhibit hyperlipidemia. Hippocampal but not cortical levels of soluble Aβ42 followed the order E2/2FAD > E2/3FAD≤E3/3FAD and E2/2FAD > E2/4FAD < E4/4FAD without an effect on insoluble Aβ42. These findings offer initial insights on the impact of APOE2 on Aβ pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Valencia-Olvera
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Deebika Balu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Maitri Shah
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Rebecca Ainis
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Yaseen Saleh
- University of Miami/Jackson Healthcare System, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Dongming Cai
- Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Research and Development Service, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Neurology, N. Bud Grossman Center for Memory Research and Care, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center (GRECC), Minneapolis VA Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Leon M Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Singh A, Ansari VA, Mahmood T, Ahsan F, Maheshwari S. Repercussion of Primary Nucleation Pathway: Dementia and Cognitive Impairment. Curr Aging Sci 2024; 17:196-204. [PMID: 38083895 DOI: 10.2174/0118746098243327231117113748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and prion disease, are characterized by the conversion of normally soluble proteins or peptides into aggregated amyloidal fibrils. These diseases result in the permanent loss of specific types of neurons, making them incurable and devastating. Research on animal models of memory problems mentioned in this article contributes to our knowledge of brain health and functionality. Neurodegenerative disorders, which often lead to cognitive impairment and dementia, are becoming more prevalent as global life expectancy increases. These diseases cause severe neurological impairment and neuronal death, making them highly debilitating. Exploring and understanding these complex diseases offer significant insights into the fundamental processes essential for maintaining brain health. Exploring the intricate mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative diseases not only holds promise for potential treatments but also enhances our understanding of fundamental brain health and functionality. By unraveling the complexities of these disorders, researchers can pave the way for advancements in diagnosis, treatment, and ultimately, improving the lives of individuals affected by neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Singh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, 226026, India
| | - Vaseem A Ansari
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, 226026, India
| | - Tarique Mahmood
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, 226026, India
| | - Farogh Ahsan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, 226026, India
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gao Y, Yu H, Liu Y, Xu Z, He B, Liu H, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Liang Y, Yang Y, Zheng J, Wang J. GSK-3β activation mediates apolipoprotein E4-associated cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A multicenter, cross-sectional study. J Diabetes 2024; 16:e13470. [PMID: 37700547 PMCID: PMC10809305 DOI: 10.1111/1753-0407.13470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Both the activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) and the presence of ApoE ε4 genotype have been found to respectively correlate with cognitive decline in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), who further show a high incidence of developing Alzheimer's disease. However, the relationship between ApoE ε4 and GSK-3β in the cognitive impairment of T2DM patients remains unclear. METHODS ApoE genotypes and platelet GSK-3β level were measured in 1139 T2DM patients recruited from five medical centers in Wuhan, China. Cognitive functions were assessed by Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). The association and the relationships among apolipoprotein E (ApoE) genotypes, GSK-3β activity and cognitive function were analyzed by regression and mediating effect analyses, respectively. RESULTS T2DM patients with ApoE ε4 but not ApoE ε2 haplotype showed poorer cognitive function and elevated platelet GSK-3β activity, when using ApoE ε3 as reference. The elevation of GSK-3β activity was positively correlated the diabetes duration, as well as plasma glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and glucose levels. Moreover, correlation and regression analysis also revealed significant pairwise correlations among GSK-3β activity, ApoE gene polymorphism and cognitive function. Lastly, using Baron and Kenny modeling, we unveiled a mediative role of GSK-3β activity between ApoE ε4 and cognitive impairment. CONCLUSION We reported here that the upregulation of GSK-3β activity mediates the exacerbation of cognitive impairment by ApoE ε4-enhanced cognitive impairment in T2DM patients, suggesting GSK-3β inhibitors as promising drugs for preserving cognitive function in T2DM patients, especially to those with ApoE ε4 genotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Gao
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Neurological Disorders, Hubei Key Laboratory for Neurological DisordersTongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
- Department of RadiologyWuhan Brain HospitalWuhanChina
| | - Haitao Yu
- Department of Fundamental Medicine, Wuxi School of MedicineJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
| | - Yanchao Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Zhipeng Xu
- Department of NeurologyZhongnan Hospital of Wuhan UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Benrong He
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Neurological Disorders, Hubei Key Laboratory for Neurological DisordersTongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Honghai Liu
- School of Medicine and Health Management, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Yuying Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Neurological Disorders, Hubei Key Laboratory for Neurological DisordersTongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Yao Zhang
- Li‐Yuan Hospital, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Yi Liang
- Department of RadiologyWuhan Brain HospitalWuhanChina
| | - Ying Yang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Neurological Disorders, Hubei Key Laboratory for Neurological DisordersTongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Jie Zheng
- Neuroscience Research Institute and Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical SciencesPeking University; Key Laboratory for Neuroscience, Ministry of Education/National Health Commission, Peking UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jian‐Zhi Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Neurological Disorders, Hubei Key Laboratory for Neurological DisordersTongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
- Co‐innovation Center of NeuroregenerationNantong UniversityNantongChina
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Valencia-Olvera AC, Balu D, Bellur S, McNally T, Saleh Y, Pham D, Ghura S, York J, Johansson JO, LaDu MJ, Tai L. A novel apoE-mimetic increases brain apoE levels, reduces Aβ pathology and improves memory when treated before onset of pathology in male mice that express APOE3. Alzheimers Res Ther 2023; 15:216. [PMID: 38102668 PMCID: PMC10722727 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-023-01353-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by cognitive dysfunction and amyloid plaques composed of the amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ). APOE is the greatest genetic risk for AD with APOE4 increasing risk up to ~ 15-fold compared to APOE3. Evidence suggests that levels and lipidation of the apoE protein could regulate AD progression. In glia, apoE is lipidated via cholesterol efflux from intracellular pools, primarily by the ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1). Therefore, increasing ABCA1 activity is suggested to be a therapeutic approach for AD. CS-6253 (CS) is a novel apoE mimetic peptide that was developed to bind and stabilize ABCA1 and maintain its localization into the plasma membrane therefore promoting cholesterol efflux. The goal of this study was to determine whether CS could modulate apoE levels and lipidation, Aβ pathology, and behavior in a model that expresses human APOE and overproduce Aβ. METHODS In vitro, APOE3-glia or APOE4-glia were treated with CS. In vivo, male and female, E3FAD (5xFAD+/-/APOE3+/+) and E4FAD (5xFAD+/-/APOE4+/+) mice were treated with CS via intraperitoneal injection at early (from 4 to 8 months of age) and late ages (from 8 to 10 months of age). ApoE levels, ABCA1 levels and, apoE lipidation were measured by western blot and ELISA. Aβ and amyloid levels were assessed by histochemistry and ELISA. Learning and memory were tested by Morris Water Maze and synaptic proteins were measured by Western blot. RESULTS CS treatment increased apoE levels and cholesterol efflux in primary glial cultures. In young male E3FAD mice, CS treatment increased soluble apoE and lipid-associated apoE, reduced soluble oAβ and insoluble Aβ levels as well as Aβ and amyloid deposition, and improved memory and synaptic protein levels. CS treatment did not induce any therapeutic benefits in young female E3FAD and E4FAD mice or in any groups when treatment was started at later ages. CONCLUSIONS CS treatment reduced Aβ pathology and improved memory only in young male E3FAD, the cohort with the least AD pathology. Therefore, the degree of Aβ pathology or Aβ overproduction may impact the ability of targeting ABCA1 to be an effective AD therapeutic. This suggests that ABCA1-stabilizing treatment by CS-6253 works best in conditions of modest Aβ levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Valencia-Olvera
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Deebika Balu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shreya Bellur
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Thomas McNally
- Department of Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yaseen Saleh
- University of Miami/Jackson Healthcare System, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Don Pham
- Department of Dentistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shivesh Ghura
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jason York
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Mary Jo LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Leon Tai
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Liu S, Yang S, Zhu X, Li X, Zhang X, Zhou X, Cheng H, Huo FQ, Mao Q, Liang L. Spinal apolipoprotein E is involved in inflammatory pain via regulating lipid metabolism and glial activation in the spinal dorsal horn. Biol Direct 2023; 18:85. [PMID: 38071369 PMCID: PMC10710718 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-023-00444-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Inflammation and nerve injury promote astrocyte activation, which regulates the development and resolution of pain, in the spinal dorsal horn. APOE regulates lipid metabolism and is predominantly expressed in the astrocytes. However, the effect of astrocytic APOE and lipid metabolism on spinal cellular function is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effect of spinal Apoe on spinal cellular functions using the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammatory pain mouse model. METHODS After intraplantar injection of CFA, we assessed pain behaviors in C57BL6 and Apoe knockout (Apoe-/-) mice using von Frey and Hargreaves' tests and analyzed dorsal horn samples (L4-5) using western blotting, immunofluorescence, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and RNA sequencing. RESULTS The Apoe levels were markedly upregulated at 2 h and on days 1 and 3 post-CFA treatment. Apoe was exclusively expressed in the astrocytes. Apoe-/- mice exhibited decreased pain on day 1, but not at 2 h, post-CFA treatment. Apoe-/- mice also showed decreased spinal neuron excitability and paw edema on day 1 post-CFA treatment. Global transcriptomic analysis of the dorsal horn on day 1 post-CFA treatment revealed that the differentially expressed mRNAs in Apoe-/- mice were associated with lipid metabolism and the immune system. Astrocyte activation was impaired in Apoe-/- mice on day 1 post-CFA treatment. The intrathecal injection of Apoe antisense oligonucleotide mitigated CFA-induced pain hypersensitivity. CONCLUSIONS Apoe deficiency altered lipid metabolism in astrocytes, exerting regulatory effects on immune response, astrocyte activation, and neuronal activity and consequently disrupting the maintenance of inflammatory pain after peripheral inflammation. Targeting APOE is a potential anti-nociception and anti-inflammatory strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siyi Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuting Yang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Zhu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Anesthesiology, Central Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xi Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoqiong Zhou
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Cheng
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Fu-Quan Huo
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Qingxiang Mao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
| | - Lingli Liang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Ministry of Education, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Takebayashi Y, Yamazaki Y, Yamada H, Yazawa K, Nakamori M, Kurashige T, Morino H, Takahashi T, Sotomaru Y, Maruyama H. Apolipoprotein E genotype-dependent accumulation of amyloid β in APP-knock-in mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 683:149106. [PMID: 37857162 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), the strongest risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD), has been revealed to cause greater accumulation of extracellular amyloid β (Aβ) aggregates than does APOE3 in traditional transgenic mouse models of AD. However, concerns that the overexpression paradigm might have affected the phenotype remain. Amyloid precursor protein (APP)-knock-in (KI) mice, incorporating APP mutations associated with AD development, offer an alternative approach for overproducing pathogenic Aβ without needing overexpression of APP. Here, we present the results of comprehensive analyses of pathological and biochemical traits in the brains of APP-KI mice harboring APP-associated familial AD mutations (APPNL-G-F/NL-G-F mice) crossed with human APOE-KI mice. Immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses revealed the APOE genotype-dependent increase in Aβ pathology and glial activation, which was evident within 8 months in the mouse model. These results suggested that this mouse model may be valuable for investigating APOE pathobiology within a reasonable experimental time frame. Thus, this model can be considered in investigating the interaction between APOE and Aβ in vivo, which may not be addressed appropriately by using other transgenic mouse models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Takebayashi
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yu Yamazaki
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan.
| | - Hidetada Yamada
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kyosuke Yazawa
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan; Department of Pharmacotherapy, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nakamori
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takashi Kurashige
- Department of Neurology, National Hospital Organization Kure Medical Center and Chugoku Cancer Center, Kure, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Morino
- Department of Medical Genetics, Tokushima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Takahashi
- Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Rehabilitation, Hiroshima International University, Higashihiroshima, Japan
| | - Yusuke Sotomaru
- Natural Science Center for Basic Research and Development, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Maruyama
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Konings SC, Nyberg E, Martinsson I, Torres-Garcia L, Klementieva O, Guimas Almeida C, Gouras GK. Apolipoprotein E intersects with amyloid-β within neurons. Life Sci Alliance 2023; 6:e202201887. [PMID: 37290814 PMCID: PMC10250689 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) is the most important genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Among the earliest changes in AD is endosomal enlargement in neurons, which was reported as enhanced in ApoE4 carriers. ApoE is thought to be internalized into endosomes of neurons, whereas β-amyloid (Aβ) accumulates within neuronal endosomes early in AD. However, it remains unknown whether ApoE and Aβ intersect intracellularly. We show that internalized astrocytic ApoE localizes mostly to lysosomes in neuroblastoma cells and astrocytes, whereas in neurons, it preferentially localizes to endosomes-autophagosomes of neurites. In AD transgenic neurons, astrocyte-derived ApoE intersects intracellularly with amyloid precursor protein/Aβ. Moreover, ApoE4 increases the levels of endogenous and internalized Aβ42 in neurons. Taken together, we demonstrate differential localization of ApoE in neurons, astrocytes, and neuron-like cells, and show that internalized ApoE intersects with amyloid precursor protein/Aβ in neurons, which may be of considerable relevance to AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabine C Konings
- Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Medical Microspectroscopy, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Emma Nyberg
- Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Isak Martinsson
- Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Laura Torres-Garcia
- Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Oxana Klementieva
- Medical Microspectroscopy, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Claudia Guimas Almeida
- iNOVA4Health, NOVA Medical School | Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Gunnar K Gouras
- Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Sawmiller D, Koyama N, Fujiwara M, Segawa T, Maeda M, Mori T. Targeting apolipoprotein E and N-terminal amyloid β-protein precursor interaction improves cognition and reduces amyloid pathology in Alzheimer's mice. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104846. [PMID: 37211092 PMCID: PMC10331488 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) interaction with amyloid β-protein precursor (APP) has garnered attention as the therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Having discovered the apoE antagonist (6KApoEp) that blocks apoE binding to N-terminal APP, we tested the therapeutic potential of 6KApoEp on AD-relevant phenotypes in amyloid β-protein precursor/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) mice that express each human apoE isoform of apoE2, apoE3, or apoE4 (designated APP/PS1/E2, APP/PS1/E3, or APP/PS1/E4 mice). At 12 months of age, we intraperitoneally administered 6KApoEp (250 μg/kg) or vehicle once daily for 3 months. At 15 months of age, blockage of apoE and N-terminal APP interaction by 6KApoEp treatment improved cognitive impairment in most tests of learning and memory, including novel object recognition and maze tasks in APP/PS1/E2, APP/PS1/E3, and APP/PS1/E4 mice versus each vehicle-treated mouse line and did not alter behavior in nontransgenic littermates. Moreover, 6KApoEp therapy ameliorated brain parenchymal and cerebral vascular β-amyloid deposits and decreased abundance of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) in APP/PS1/E2, APP/PS1/E3, and APP/PS1/E4 mice versus each vehicle-treated mouse group. Notably, the highest effect in Aβ-lowering by 6KApoEp treatment was observed in APP/PS1/E4 mice versus APP/PS1/E2 or APP/PS1/E3 mice. These effects occured through shifting toward lessened amyloidogenic APP processing due to decreasing APP abundance at the plasma membrane, reducing APP transcription, and inhibiting p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation. Our findings provide the preclinical evidence that 6KApoEp therapy aimed at targeting apoE and N-terminal APP interaction is a promising strategy and may be suitable for patients with AD carrying the apoE4 isoform.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Darrell Sawmiller
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, Center of Excellence for Aging and Brain Repair, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA.
| | - Naoki Koyama
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Saitama Medical Center and University, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan
| | - Masakazu Fujiwara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Saitama Medical Center and University, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Segawa
- Immuno-Biological Laboratories Co, Ltd, Fujioka, Gunma, Japan
| | - Masahiro Maeda
- Immuno-Biological Laboratories Co, Ltd, Fujioka, Gunma, Japan
| | - Takashi Mori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Saitama Medical Center and University, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan; Department of Pathology, Saitama Medical Center and University, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Young-Pearse TL, Lee H, Hsieh YC, Chou V, Selkoe DJ. Moving beyond amyloid and tau to capture the biological heterogeneity of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 2023; 46:426-444. [PMID: 37019812 PMCID: PMC10192069 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2023.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) manifests along a spectrum of cognitive deficits and levels of neuropathology. Genetic studies support a heterogeneous disease mechanism, with around 70 associated loci to date, implicating several biological processes that mediate risk for AD. Despite this heterogeneity, most experimental systems for testing new therapeutics are not designed to capture the genetically complex drivers of AD risk. In this review, we first provide an overview of those aspects of AD that are largely stereotyped and those that are heterogeneous, and we review the evidence supporting the concept that different subtypes of AD are important to consider in the design of agents for the prevention and treatment of the disease. We then dive into the multifaceted biological domains implicated to date in AD risk, highlighting studies of the diverse genetic drivers of disease. Finally, we explore recent efforts to identify biological subtypes of AD, with an emphasis on the experimental systems and data sets available to support progress in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L Young-Pearse
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Hyo Lee
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yi-Chen Hsieh
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vicky Chou
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dennis J Selkoe
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Lefterov I, Fitz NF, Lu Y, Koldamova R. APOEε4 and risk of Alzheimer's disease - time to move forward. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1195724. [PMID: 37274212 PMCID: PMC10235508 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1195724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The inheritance of Apolipoprotein E4 (APOEε4) brings the highest genetic risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), arguably the highest genetic risk in human pathology. Since the discovery of the association, APOE protein isoforms have been at the center of tens of thousands of studies and reports. While, without a doubt, our knowledge about the normal physiological function of APOE isoforms in the brain has increased tremendously, the questions of how the inheritance of the APOEε4 allele translates into a risk of AD, and the risk is materialized, remain unanswered. Moreover, the knowledge about the risk associated with APOEε4 has not helped design a meaningful preventative or therapeutic strategy. Animal models with targeted replacement of Apoe have been generated and, thanks to the recent NIH/NIA/Alzheimer's disease Association initiative, are now freely available to AD researchers. While helpful in many aspects, none of the available models recapitulates normal physiological transcriptional regulation of the human APOE gene cluster. Changes in epigenetic regulation of APOE alleles in animal models in response to external insults have rarely been if ever, addressed. However, these animal models provide a useful tool to handle questions and investigate protein-protein interactions with proteins expressed by other recently discovered genes and gene variants considered genetic risk factors of AD, like Triggering Receptor expressed on Myeloid cells 2 (TREM2). In this review, we discuss genetic and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms controlling and influencing APOE expression and focus on interactions of APOE and TREM2 in the context of microglia and astrocytes' role in AD-like pathology in animal models.
Collapse
|
19
|
Singh A, Ansari VA, Ansari TM, Hasan SM, Ahsan F, Singh K, Wasim R, Maheshwari S, Ahmad A. Consequence of Dementia and Cognitive Impairment by Primary Nucleation Pathway. Horm Metab Res 2023; 55:304-314. [PMID: 37130536 DOI: 10.1055/a-2052-8462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
An acquired loss of cognition in several cognitive domains that is severe enough to interfere with social or professional functioning is called dementia. As well as a moderately in-depth mental status examination by a clinician to identify impairments in memory, language, attention, visuospatial cognition, such as spatial orientation, executive function, and mood, the diagnosis of dementia requires a history evaluating for cognitive decline and impairment in daily activities, with confirmation from a close friend or family member. The start and organization of the cognitive assessment can be helped by short screening tests for cognitive impairment. Clinical presentations show that neurodegenerative diseases are often incurable because patients permanently lose some types of neurons. It has been determined through an assessment that, at best, our understanding of the underlying processes is still rudimentary, which presents exciting new targets for further study as well as the development of diagnostics and drugs. A growing body of research suggests that they also advance our knowledge of the processes that are probably crucial for maintaining the health and functionality of the brain. We concentrate on a number of the animal models of memory problems that have been mentioned in this review article because dementia has numerous etiologies. Serious neurological impairment and neuronal death are the main features of neurodegenerative illnesses, which are also extremely crippling ailments. The most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders are followed by those primary nucleation pathways responsible for cognitive impairment and dementia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Singh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | | | | | | | - Farogh Ahsan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Kuldeep Singh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Rufaida Wasim
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | | | - Asad Ahmad
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Padmanabhan P, Götz J. Clinical relevance of animal models in aging-related dementia research. NATURE AGING 2023; 3:481-493. [PMID: 37202516 DOI: 10.1038/s43587-023-00402-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other, less prevalent dementias are complex age-related disorders that exhibit multiple etiologies. Over the past decades, animal models have provided pathomechanistic insight and evaluated countless therapeutics; however, their value is increasingly being questioned due to the long history of drug failures. In this Perspective, we dispute this criticism. First, the utility of the models is limited by their design, as neither the etiology of AD nor whether interventions should occur at a cellular or network level is fully understood. Second, we highlight unmet challenges shared between animals and humans, including impeded drug transport across the blood-brain barrier, limiting effective treatment development. Third, alternative human-derived models also suffer from the limitations mentioned above and can only act as complementary resources. Finally, age being the strongest AD risk factor should be better incorporated into the experimental design, with computational modeling expected to enhance the value of animal models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pranesh Padmanabhan
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jürgen Götz
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Amyloid-β in Alzheimer's disease - front and centre after all? Neuronal Signal 2023; 7:NS20220086. [PMID: 36687366 PMCID: PMC9829960 DOI: 10.1042/ns20220086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The amyloid hypothesis, which proposes that accumulation of the peptide amyloid-β at synapses is the key driver of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, has been the dominant idea in the field of Alzheimer's research for nearly 30 years. Recently, however, serious doubts about its validity have emerged, largely motivated by disappointing results from anti-amyloid therapeutics in clinical trials. As a result, much of the AD research effort has shifted to understanding the roles of a variety of other entities implicated in pathogenesis, such as microglia, astrocytes, apolipoprotein E and several others. All undoubtedly play an important role, but the nature of this has in many cases remained unclear, partly due to their pleiotropic functions. Here, we propose that all of these AD-related entities share at least one overlapping function, which is the local regulation of amyloid-β levels, and that this may be critical to their role in AD pathogenesis. We also review what is currently known of the actions of amyloid-β at the synapse in health and disease, and consider in particular how it might interact with the key AD-associated protein tau in the disease setting. There is much compelling evidence in support of the amyloid hypothesis; rather than detract from this, the implication of many disparate AD-associated cell types, molecules and processes in the regulation of amyloid-β levels may lend further support.
Collapse
|
22
|
Iliyasu MO, Musa SA, Oladele SB, Iliya AI. Amyloid-beta aggregation implicates multiple pathways in Alzheimer's disease: Understanding the mechanisms. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1081938. [PMID: 37113145 PMCID: PMC10128090 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1081938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition characterized by tau pathology and accumulations of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) along with amyloid-beta (Aβ). It has been associated with neuronal damage, synaptic dysfunction, and cognitive deficits. The current review explained the molecular mechanisms behind the implications of Aβ aggregation in AD via multiple events. Beta (β) and gamma (γ) secretases hydrolyzed amyloid precursor protein (APP) to produce Aβ, which then clumps together to form Aβ fibrils. The fibrils increase oxidative stress, inflammatory cascade, and caspase activation to cause hyperphosphorylation of tau protein into neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which ultimately lead to neuronal damage. Acetylcholine (Ach) degradation is accelerated by upstream regulation of the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme, which leads to a deficiency in neurotransmitters and cognitive impairment. There are presently no efficient or disease-modifying medications for AD. It is necessary to advance AD research to suggest novel compounds for treatment and prevention. Prospectively, it might be reasonable to conduct clinical trials with unclean medicines that have a range of effects, including anti-amyloid and anti-tau, neurotransmitter modulation, anti-neuroinflammatory, neuroprotective, and cognitive enhancement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Musa O. Iliyasu
- Department of Anatomy, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Nigeria
- *Correspondence: Musa O. Iliyasu, ;
| | - Sunday A. Musa
- Department of Human Anatomy, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Sunday B. Oladele
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Raulin AC, Doss SV, Trottier ZA, Ikezu TC, Bu G, Liu CC. ApoE in Alzheimer’s disease: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:72. [PMID: 36348357 PMCID: PMC9644639 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00574-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia worldwide, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing due to extended lifespans. Among the increasing number of genetic risk factors identified, the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene remains the strongest and most prevalent, impacting more than half of all AD cases. While the ε4 allele of the APOE gene significantly increases AD risk, the ε2 allele is protective relative to the common ε3 allele. These gene alleles encode three apoE protein isoforms that differ at two amino acid positions. The primary physiological function of apoE is to mediate lipid transport in the brain and periphery; however, additional functions of apoE in diverse biological functions have been recognized. Pathogenically, apoE seeds amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in the brain with apoE4 driving earlier and more abundant amyloids. ApoE isoforms also have differential effects on multiple Aβ-related or Aβ-independent pathways. The complexity of apoE biology and pathobiology presents challenges to designing effective apoE-targeted therapeutic strategies. This review examines the key pathobiological pathways of apoE and related targeting strategies with a specific focus on the latest technological advances and tools.
Collapse
|
24
|
Staurenghi E, Leoni V, Lo Iacono M, Sottero B, Testa G, Giannelli S, Leonarduzzi G, Gamba P. ApoE3 vs. ApoE4 Astrocytes: A Detailed Analysis Provides New Insights into Differences in Cholesterol Homeostasis. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:2168. [PMID: 36358540 PMCID: PMC9686673 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11112168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the presence of the ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene, the major apolipoprotein involved in brain cholesterol homeostasis. Being astrocytes the main producers of cholesterol and ApoE in the brain, we investigated the impact of the ApoE genotype on astrocyte cholesterol homeostasis. Two mouse astrocytic cell lines expressing the human ApoE3 or ApoE4 isoform were employed. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis pointed out that the levels of total cholesterol, cholesterol precursors, and various oxysterols are altered in ApoE4 astrocytes. Moreover, the gene expression analysis of more than 40 lipid-related genes by qRT-PCR showed that certain genes are up-regulated (e.g., CYP27A1) and others down-regulated (e.g., PPARγ, LXRα) in ApoE4, compared to ApoE3 astrocytes. Beyond confirming the significant reduction in the levels of PPARγ, a key transcription factor involved in the maintenance of lipid homeostasis, Western blotting showed that both intracellular and secreted ApoE levels are altered in ApoE4 astrocytes, as well as the levels of receptors and transporters involved in lipid uptake/efflux (ABCA1, LDLR, LRP1, and ApoER2). Data showed that the ApoE genotype clearly affects astrocytic cholesterol homeostasis; however, further investigation is needed to clarify the mechanisms underlying these differences and the consequences on neighboring cells. Indeed, drug development aimed at restoring cholesterol homeostasis could be a potential strategy to counteract AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erica Staurenghi
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| | - Valerio Leoni
- Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Hospital Pius XI of Desio, ASST-Brianza, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Monza, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Monza, Italy
| | - Marco Lo Iacono
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| | - Barbara Sottero
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| | - Gabriella Testa
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| | - Serena Giannelli
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| | - Gabriella Leonarduzzi
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| | - Paola Gamba
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano, 10043 Turin, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Pedrini S, Doecke JD, Hone E, Wang P, Thota R, Bush AI, Rowe CC, Dore V, Villemagne VL, Ames D, Rainey‐Smith S, Verdile G, Sohrabi HR, Raida MR, Taddei K, Gandy S, Masters CL, Chatterjee P, Martins R. Plasma high-density lipoprotein cargo is altered in Alzheimer's disease and is associated with regional brain volume. J Neurochem 2022; 163:53-67. [PMID: 36000528 PMCID: PMC9804612 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol levels have been repeatedly linked to Alzheimer's Disease (AD), suggesting that high levels could be detrimental, but this effect is likely attributed to Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. On the other hand, High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) cholesterol levels have been associated with reduced brain amyloidosis and improved cognitive function. However, recent findings have suggested that HDL-functionality, which depends upon the HDL-cargo proteins associated with HDL, rather than HDL levels, appears to be the key factor, suggesting a quality over quantity status. In this report, we have assessed the HDL-cargo (Cholesterol, ApoA-I, ApoA-II, ApoC-I, ApoC-III, ApoD, ApoE, ApoH, ApoJ, CRP, and SAA) in stable healthy control (HC), healthy controls who will convert to MCI/AD (HC-Conv) and AD patients (AD). Compared to HC we observed an increased cholesterol/ApoA-I ratio in AD and HC-Conv, as well as an increased ApoD/ApoA-I ratio and a decreased ApoA-II/ApoA-I ratio in AD. Higher cholesterol/ApoA-I ratio was also associated with lower cortical grey matter volume and higher ventricular volume, while higher ApoA-II/ApoA-I and ApoJ/ApoA-I ratios were associated with greater cortical grey matter volume (and for ApoA-II also with greater hippocampal volume) and smaller ventricular volume. Additionally, in a clinical status-independent manner, the ApoE/ApoA-I ratio was significantly lower in APOE ε4 carriers and lowest in APOE ε4 homozygous. Together, these data indicate that in AD patients the composition of HDL is altered, which may affect HDL functionality, and such changes are associated with altered regional brain volumetric data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steve Pedrini
- School of Medical SciencesEdith Cowan UniversityJoondalupWestern AustraliaAustralia,CRC for Mental HealthMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - James D. Doecke
- Australian E‐Health Research CentreCSIROBrisbaneQueenslandAustralia
| | - Eugene Hone
- School of Medical SciencesEdith Cowan UniversityJoondalupWestern AustraliaAustralia,CRC for Mental HealthMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Penghao Wang
- College of Science, Health, Engineering and EducationMurdoch UniversityMurdochWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Rohith Thota
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Department of Biomedical SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Ashley I. Bush
- CRC for Mental HealthMelbourneVictoriaAustralia,The Florey Institute, The University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Christopher C. Rowe
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Centre for PETAustin HealthHeidelbergVictoriaAustralia
| | - Vincent Dore
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Centre for PETAustin HealthHeidelbergVictoriaAustralia
| | | | - David Ames
- National Ageing Research InstituteParkvilleVictoriaAustralia,University of Melbourne Academic unit for Psychiatry of Old AgeSt George's HospitalKewVictoriaAustralia
| | - Stephanie Rainey‐Smith
- School of Medical SciencesEdith Cowan UniversityJoondalupWestern AustraliaAustralia,Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures InstituteMurdoch UniversityMurdochWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Giuseppe Verdile
- Curtin Medical SchoolCurtin UniversityBentleyWestern AustraliaAustralia,Curtin Health Innovation Research InstituteCurtin UniversityBentleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Hamid R. Sohrabi
- Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures InstituteMurdoch UniversityMurdochWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Manfred R. Raida
- Life Science Institute, Singapore Lipidomics IncubatorNational University of SingaporeSingapore CitySingapore
| | - Kevin Taddei
- School of Medical SciencesEdith Cowan UniversityJoondalupWestern AustraliaAustralia,CRC for Mental HealthMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Sam Gandy
- Department of NeurologyIcahn School of Medicine at Mount SinaiNew York CityNew YorkUSA
| | - Colin L. Masters
- The Florey Institute, The University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Pratishtha Chatterjee
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Department of Biomedical SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Ralph N. Martins
- School of Medical SciencesEdith Cowan UniversityJoondalupWestern AustraliaAustralia,CRC for Mental HealthMelbourneVictoriaAustralia,Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Department of Biomedical SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNew South WalesAustralia,School of Psychiatry and Clinical NeurosciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Fernández-Calle R, Konings SC, Frontiñán-Rubio J, García-Revilla J, Camprubí-Ferrer L, Svensson M, Martinson I, Boza-Serrano A, Venero JL, Nielsen HM, Gouras GK, Deierborg T. APOE in the bullseye of neurodegenerative diseases: impact of the APOE genotype in Alzheimer's disease pathology and brain diseases. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:62. [PMID: 36153580 PMCID: PMC9509584 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00566-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
ApoE is the major lipid and cholesterol carrier in the CNS. There are three major human polymorphisms, apoE2, apoE3, and apoE4, and the genetic expression of APOE4 is one of the most influential risk factors for the development of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). Neuroinflammation has become the third hallmark of AD, together with Amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated aggregated tau protein. This review aims to broadly and extensively describe the differential aspects concerning apoE. Starting from the evolution of apoE to how APOE's single-nucleotide polymorphisms affect its structure, function, and involvement during health and disease. This review reflects on how APOE's polymorphisms impact critical aspects of AD pathology, such as the neuroinflammatory response, particularly the effect of APOE on astrocytic and microglial function and microglial dynamics, synaptic function, amyloid-β load, tau pathology, autophagy, and cell-cell communication. We discuss influential factors affecting AD pathology combined with the APOE genotype, such as sex, age, diet, physical exercise, current therapies and clinical trials in the AD field. The impact of the APOE genotype in other neurodegenerative diseases characterized by overt inflammation, e.g., alpha- synucleinopathies and Parkinson's disease, traumatic brain injury, stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis, is also addressed. Therefore, this review gathers the most relevant findings related to the APOE genotype up to date and its implications on AD and CNS pathologies to provide a deeper understanding of the knowledge in the APOE field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosalía Fernández-Calle
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Sabine C. Konings
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Javier Frontiñán-Rubio
- Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration Group, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Juan García-Revilla
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla-Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - Lluís Camprubí-Ferrer
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Martina Svensson
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Isak Martinson
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Antonio Boza-Serrano
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla-Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - José Luís Venero
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, and Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla-Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - Henrietta M. Nielsen
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics at, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gunnar K. Gouras
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Dementia Research Unit, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Kim H, Devanand DP, Carlson S, Goldberg TE. Apolipoprotein E Genotype e2: Neuroprotection and Its Limits. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:919712. [PMID: 35912085 PMCID: PMC9329577 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.919712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, we comprehensively, qualitatively, and critically synthesized several features of APOE-e2, a known APOE protective variant, including its associations with longevity, cognition, and neuroimaging, and neuropathology, all in humans. If e2’s protective effects—and their limits—could be elucidated, it could offer therapeutic windows for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) prevention or amelioration. Literature examining e2 within the years 1994–2021 were considered for this review. Studies on human subjects were selectively reviewed and were excluded if observation of e2 was not specified. Effects of e2 were compared with e3 and e4, separately and as a combined non-e2 group. Our examination of existing literature indicated that the most robust protective role of e2 is in longevity and AD neuropathologies, but e2’s effect on cognition and other AD imaging markers (brain structure, function, and metabolism) were inconsistent, thus inconclusive. Notably, e2 was associated with greater risk of non-AD proteinopathies and a disadvantageous cerebrovascular profile. We identified multiple methodological shortcomings of the literature on brain function and cognition that could have contributed to inconsistent and potentially misleading findings. We make careful interpretations of existing findings and provide directions for research strategies that could effectively examine the independent and unbiased effect of e2 on AD risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Davangere P. Devanand
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Scott Carlson
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Terry E. Goldberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
- *Correspondence: Terry E. Goldberg,
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Noveir SD, Kerman BE, Xian H, Meuret C, Smadi S, Martinez AE, Johansson J, Zetterberg H, Parks BA, Kuklenyik Z, Mack WJ, Johansson JO, Yassine HN. Effect of the ABCA1 agonist CS-6253 on amyloid-β and lipoprotein metabolism in cynomolgus monkeys. Alzheimers Res Ther 2022; 14:87. [PMID: 35751102 PMCID: PMC9229758 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-022-01028-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inducing brain ATP-binding cassette 1 (ABCA1) activity in Alzheimer's disease (AD) mouse models is associated with improvement in AD pathology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the ABCA1 agonist peptide CS-6253 on amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) and lipoproteins in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of cynomolgus monkeys, a species with amyloid and lipoprotein metabolism similar to humans. METHODS CS-6253 peptide was injected intravenously into cynomolgus monkeys at various doses in three different studies. Plasma and CSF samples were collected at several time points before and after treatment. Levels of cholesterol, triglyceride (TG), lipoprotein particles, apolipoproteins, and Aβ were measured using ELISA, ion-mobility analysis, and asymmetric-flow field-flow fractionation (AF4). The relationship between the change in levels of these biomarkers was analyzed using multiple linear regression models and linear mixed-effects models. RESULTS Following CS-6253 intravenous injection, within minutes, small plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles were increased. In two independent experiments, plasma TG, apolipoprotein E (apoE), and Aβ42/40 ratio were transiently increased following CS-6253 intravenous injection. This change was associated with a non-significant decrease in CSF Aβ42. Both plasma total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol levels were reduced following treatment. AF4 fractionation revealed that CS-6253 treatment displaced apoE from HDL to intermediate-density- and low density-lipoprotein (IDL/LDL)-sized particles in plasma. In contrast to plasma, CS-6253 had no effect on the assessed CSF apolipoproteins or lipids. CONCLUSIONS Treatment with the ABCA1 agonist CS-6253 appears to favor Aβ clearance from the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sasan D Noveir
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Bilal E Kerman
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Haotian Xian
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Cristiana Meuret
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Sabrina Smadi
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Ashley E Martinez
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | | | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, UK
- Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong, China
| | - Bryan A Parks
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA
| | | | - Wendy J Mack
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | | | - Hussein N Yassine
- Departments of Medicine and Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Aguilar-Pineda JA, Paco-Coralla SG, Febres-Molina C, Gamero-Begazo PL, Shrivastava P, Vera-López KJ, Davila-Del-Carpio G, López-C P, Gómez B, Lino Cardenas CL. In Silico Analysis of the Antagonist Effect of Enoxaparin on the ApoE4–Amyloid-Beta (Aβ) Complex at Different pH Conditions. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12040499. [PMID: 35454088 PMCID: PMC9027285 DOI: 10.3390/biom12040499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) is thought to increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Several studies have shown that ApoE4-Amyloid β (Aβ) interactions can increment amyloid depositions in the brain and that this can be augmented at low pH values. On the other hand, experimental studies in transgenic mouse models have shown that treatment with enoxaparin significantly reduces cortical Aβ levels, as well as decreases the number of activated astrocytes around Aβ plaques. However, the interactions between enoxaparin and the ApoE4-Aβ proteins have been poorly explored. In this work, we combine molecular dynamics simulations, molecular docking, and binding free energy calculations to elucidate the molecular properties of the ApoE4-Aβ interactions and the competitive binding affinity of the enoxaparin on the ApoE4 binding sites. In addition, we investigated the effect of the environmental pH levels on those interactions. Our results showed that under different pH conditions, the closed form of the ApoE4 protein, in which the C-terminal domain folds into the protein, remains stabilized by a network of hydrogen bonds. This closed conformation allowed the generation of six different ApoE4-Aβ interaction sites, which were energetically favorable. Systems at pH5 and 6 showed the highest energetic affinity. The enoxaparin molecule was found to have a strong energetic affinity for ApoE4-interacting sites and thus can neutralize or disrupt ApoE4-Aβ complex formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Alberto Aguilar-Pineda
- Laboratory of Genomics and Neurovascular Diseases, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (S.G.P.-C.); (P.S.); (K.J.V.-L.); (G.D.-D.-C.)
- Centro de Investigación en Ingeniería Molecular—CIIM, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (P.L.G.-B.); (B.G.)
- Correspondence: (J.A.A.-P.); (C.L.L.C.)
| | - Silvana G. Paco-Coralla
- Laboratory of Genomics and Neurovascular Diseases, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (S.G.P.-C.); (P.S.); (K.J.V.-L.); (G.D.-D.-C.)
| | - Camilo Febres-Molina
- Doctorado en Fisicoquímica Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370134, Chile;
| | - Pamela L. Gamero-Begazo
- Centro de Investigación en Ingeniería Molecular—CIIM, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (P.L.G.-B.); (B.G.)
| | - Pallavi Shrivastava
- Laboratory of Genomics and Neurovascular Diseases, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (S.G.P.-C.); (P.S.); (K.J.V.-L.); (G.D.-D.-C.)
| | - Karin J. Vera-López
- Laboratory of Genomics and Neurovascular Diseases, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (S.G.P.-C.); (P.S.); (K.J.V.-L.); (G.D.-D.-C.)
- Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Bioquímicas y Biotecnológicas, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru
| | - Gonzalo Davila-Del-Carpio
- Laboratory of Genomics and Neurovascular Diseases, Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (S.G.P.-C.); (P.S.); (K.J.V.-L.); (G.D.-D.-C.)
- Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru;
| | - Patricia López-C
- Vicerrectorado de Investigación, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru;
| | - Badhin Gómez
- Centro de Investigación en Ingeniería Molecular—CIIM, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru; (P.L.G.-B.); (B.G.)
- Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Bioquímicas y Biotecnológicas, Universidad Católica de Santa María, Urb. San José s/n—Umacollo, Arequipa 04000, Peru
| | - Christian L. Lino Cardenas
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Correspondence: (J.A.A.-P.); (C.L.L.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Gharibyan AL, Wasana Jayaweera S, Lehmann M, Anan I, Olofsson A. Endogenous Human Proteins Interfering with Amyloid Formation. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12030446. [PMID: 35327638 PMCID: PMC8946693 DOI: 10.3390/biom12030446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid formation is a pathological process associated with a wide range of degenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and diabetes mellitus type 2. During disease progression, abnormal accumulation and deposition of proteinaceous material are accompanied by tissue degradation, inflammation, and dysfunction. Agents that can interfere with the process of amyloid formation or target already formed amyloid assemblies are consequently of therapeutic interest. In this context, a few endogenous proteins have been associated with an anti-amyloidogenic activity. Here, we review the properties of transthyretin, apolipoprotein E, clusterin, and BRICHOS protein domain which all effectively interfere with amyloid in vitro, as well as displaying a clinical impact in humans or animal models. Their involvement in the amyloid formation process is discussed, which may aid and inspire new strategies for therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna L. Gharibyan
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden;
- Correspondence: (A.L.G.); (A.O.)
| | | | - Manuela Lehmann
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden; (M.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Intissar Anan
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden; (M.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Anders Olofsson
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden;
- Correspondence: (A.L.G.); (A.O.)
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
ApoE4 reduction: an emerging and promising therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2022; 115:20-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
32
|
Machlovi SI, Neuner SM, Hemmer BM, Khan R, Liu Y, Huang M, Zhu JD, Castellano JM, Cai D, Marcora E, Goate AM. APOE4 confers transcriptomic and functional alterations to primary mouse microglia. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 164:105615. [PMID: 35031484 PMCID: PMC8934202 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Common genetic variants in more than forty loci modulate risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD risk alleles are enriched within enhancers active in myeloid cells, suggesting that microglia, the brain-resident macrophages, may play a key role in the etiology of AD. A major genetic risk factor for AD is Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype, with the ε4/ε4 (E4) genotype increasing risk for AD by approximately 15 fold compared to the most common ε3/ε3 (E3) genotype. However, the impact of APOE genotype on microglial function has not been thoroughly investigated. To address this, we cultured primary microglia from mice in which both alleles of the mouse Apoe gene have been humanized to encode either human APOE ε3 or APOE ε4. Relative to E3 microglia, E4 microglia exhibit altered morphology, increased endolysosomal mass, increased cytokine/chemokine production, and increased lipid and lipid droplet accumulation at baseline. These changes were accompanied by decreased translation and increased phosphorylation of eIF2ɑ and eIF2ɑ-kinases that participate in the integrated stress response, suggesting that E4 genotype leads to elevated levels of cellular stress in microglia relative to E3 genotype. Using live-cell imaging and flow cytometry, we also show that E4 microglia exhibited increased phagocytic uptake of myelin and other substrates compared to E3 microglia. While transcriptomic profiling of myelin-challenged microglia revealed a largely overlapping response profile across genotypes, differential enrichment of genes in interferon signaling, extracellular matrix and translation-related pathways was identified in E4 versus E3 microglia both at baseline and following myelin challenge. Together, our results suggest E4 genotype confers several important functional alterations to microglia even prior to myelin challenge, providing insight into the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which APOE4 may increase risk for AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saima I Machlovi
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sarah M Neuner
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Brittany M Hemmer
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Riana Khan
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yiyuan Liu
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Min Huang
- James J Peters VA Medical Center, Research & Development, Bronx, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Zhu
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joseph M Castellano
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dongming Cai
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; James J Peters VA Medical Center, Research & Development, Bronx, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, New York, NY, USA; Alzheimer Disease Research Center, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Edoardo Marcora
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alison M Goate
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, New York, NY, USA; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, New York, NY, USA; Alzheimer Disease Research Center, New York, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Novy MJ, Newbury SF, Liemisa B, Morales-Corraliza J, Alldred MJ, Ginsberg SD, Mathews PM. Expression and proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein is unaffected by the expression of the three human apolipoprotein E alleles in the brains of mice. Neurobiol Aging 2022; 110:73-76. [PMID: 34875506 PMCID: PMC8758539 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The 3 human apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene alleles modify an individual's risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD): compared to the risk-neutral APOE ε3 allele, the ε4 allele (APOE4) is strongly associated with increased AD risk while the ε2 allele is protective. Multiple mechanisms have been shown to link APOE4 expression and AD risk, including the possibility that APOE4 increases the expression of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) (Y-W.A. Huang, B. Zhou, A.M. Nabet, M. Wernig, T.C. Südhof, 2019). In this study, we investigated the impact of APOE genotype on the expression, and proteolytic processing of endogenously expressed APP in the brains of mice humanized for the 3 APOE alleles. In contrast to prior studies using neuronal cultures, we found in the brain that both App gene expression, and the levels of APP holoprotein were not affected by APOE genotype. Additionally, our analysis of APP fragments showed that APOE genotype does not impact APP processing in the brain: the levels of both α- and β-cleaved soluble APP fragments (sAPPs) were similar across genotypes, as were the levels of the membrane-associated α- and β-cleaved C-terminal fragments (CTFs) of APP. Lastly, APOE genotype did not impact the level of soluble amyloid beta (Aβ). These findings argue that the APOE-allele-dependent AD risk is independent of the brain expression and processing of APP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariah J Novy
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Samantha F Newbury
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Braison Liemisa
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Jose Morales-Corraliza
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Melissa J Alldred
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Stephen D Ginsberg
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA; NYU Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Paul M Mathews
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan S. Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA; NYU Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Klonarakis M, De Vos M, Woo E, Ralph L, Thacker JS, Gil-Mohapel J. The three sisters of fate: Genetics, pathophysiology and outcomes of animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 135:104541. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
35
|
Parhizkar S, Holtzman DM. APOE mediated neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Semin Immunol 2022; 59:101594. [PMID: 35232622 PMCID: PMC9411266 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2022.101594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a central mechanism involved in neurodegeneration as observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent form of neurodegenerative disease. Apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4), the strongest genetic risk factor for AD, directly influences disease onset and progression by interacting with the major pathological hallmarks of AD including amyloid-β plaques, neurofibrillary tau tangles, as well as neuroinflammation. Microglia and astrocytes, the two major immune cells in the brain, exist in an immune-vigilant state providing immunological defense as well as housekeeping functions that promote neuronal well-being. It is becoming increasingly evident that under disease conditions, these immune cells become progressively dysfunctional in regulating metabolic and immunoregulatory pathways, thereby promoting chronic inflammation-induced neurodegeneration. Here, we review and discuss how APOE and specifically APOE4 directly influences amyloid-β and tau pathology, and disrupts microglial as well as astroglial immunomodulating functions leading to chronic inflammation that contributes to neurodegeneration in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samira Parhizkar
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer Disease, Research Center, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - David M. Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Knight Alzheimer Disease, Research Center, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Buchanan H, Hull C, Cacho Barraza M, Delibegovic M, Platt B. Apolipoprotein E loss of function: Influence on murine brain markers of physiology and pathology. AGING BRAIN 2022; 2:100055. [PMID: 36908879 PMCID: PMC9997145 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbas.2022.100055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The canonical role of Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is related to lipid and cholesterol metabolism, however, additional functions of this protein have not been fully described. Given the association of ApoE with diseases such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD), it is clear that further characterisation of its roles, especially within the brain, is needed. Therefore, using protein and gene expression analyses of neonatal and 6-month old brain tissues from an ApoE knockout mouse model, we examined ApoE's contribution to several CNS pathways, with an emphasis on those linked to AD. Early neonatal changes associated with ApoE-/- were observed, with decreased soluble phosphorylated tau (p-tau, -40 %), increased synaptophysin (+36 %) and microglial Iba1 protein levels (+25 %) vs controls. Progression of the phenotype was evident upon analysis of 6-month-old tissue, where decreased p-tau was also confirmed in the insoluble fraction, alongside reduced synaptic and increased amyloid precursor protein (APP) protein levels. An age comparison further underlined deviations from WT animals and thus the impact of ApoE loss on neuronal maturation. Taken together, our data implicate ApoE modulation of multiple CNS roles. Loss of function is associated with alterations from birth, and include synaptic deficits, neuroinflammation, and changes to key AD pathologies, amyloid-β and tau.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Bettina Platt
- Corresponding author at: Chair in Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences & Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Staurenghi E, Giannelli S, Testa G, Sottero B, Leonarduzzi G, Gamba P. Cholesterol Dysmetabolism in Alzheimer's Disease: A Starring Role for Astrocytes? Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10121890. [PMID: 34943002 PMCID: PMC8750262 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10121890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, the impairment of cholesterol metabolism in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been intensively investigated, and it has been recognized to affect amyloid β (Aβ) production and clearance, tau phosphorylation, neuroinflammation and degeneration. In particular, the key role of cholesterol oxidation products, named oxysterols, has emerged. Brain cholesterol metabolism is independent from that of peripheral tissues and it must be preserved in order to guarantee cerebral functions. Among the cells that help maintain brain cholesterol homeostasis, astrocytes play a starring role since they deliver de novo synthesized cholesterol to neurons. In addition, other physiological roles of astrocytes are to modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity and support neurons providing energy. In the AD brain, astrocytes undergo significant morphological and functional changes that contribute to AD onset and development. However, the extent of this contribution and the role played by oxysterols are still unclear. Here we review the current understanding of the physiological role exerted by astrocytes in the brain and their contribution to AD pathogenesis. In particular, we focus on the impact of cholesterol dysmetabolism on astrocyte functions suggesting new potential approaches to develop therapeutic strategies aimed at counteracting AD development.
Collapse
|
38
|
He Z, You G, Liu Q, Li N. Alzheimer's Disease and Diabetes Mellitus in Comparison: The Therapeutic Efficacy of the Vanadium Compound. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111931. [PMID: 34769364 PMCID: PMC8584792 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an intractable neurodegenerative disease that leads to dementia, primarily in elderly people. The neurotoxicity of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and tau protein has been demonstrated over the last two decades. In line with these findings, several etiological hypotheses of AD have been proposed, including the amyloid cascade hypothesis, the oxidative stress hypothesis, the inflammatory hypothesis, the cholinergic hypothesis, et al. In the meantime, great efforts had been made in developing effective drugs for AD. However, the clinical efficacy of the drugs that were approved by the US Food and Drug Association (FDA) to date were determined only mild/moderate. We recently adopted a vanadium compound bis(ethylmaltolato)-oxidovanadium (IV) (BEOV), which was originally used for curing diabetes mellitus (DM), to treat AD in a mouse model. It was shown that BEOV effectively reduced the Aβ level, ameliorated the inflammation in brains of the AD mice, and improved the spatial learning and memory activities of the AD mice. These finding encouraged us to further examine the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of BEOV in AD. In this review, we summarized the achievement of vanadium compounds in medical studies and investigated the prospect of BEOV in AD and DM treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun He
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (Z.H.); (G.Y.); (Q.L.)
| | - Guanying You
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (Z.H.); (G.Y.); (Q.L.)
| | - Qiong Liu
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (Z.H.); (G.Y.); (Q.L.)
- Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Nan Li
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518055, China; (Z.H.); (G.Y.); (Q.L.)
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-(0)755-2653-5432; Fax: +86-(0)755-8671-3951
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (APOE) has three different isoforms, with APOE4 carriers representing a major risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD is the most common form of dementia, and is a relentlessly progressive disorder that afflicts the aged, characterized by severe memory loss. Presently, AD does not have a cure, increasing the urgency for the development of novel therapeutics for the prevention/treatment of AD. The APOE4 isoform is associated with many pathological mechanisms, such as increased neuroinflammation and a reduction in β-amyloid (Aβ) clearance. The accumulation of Aβ plaques in the brain is a hallmark of AD. The presence of APOE4 can increase neuroinflammation via overactivation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. The NF-κB pathway is a family of transcription factors involved with regulating over 400 genes involved with inflammation. AD is associated with sustained inflammation and an overactivation of the NF-κB pathway. Therefore, targeting the APOE4 isoform and suppressing the NF-κB pathway using anti-inflammatory compounds may result in the development of novel therapeutics for the prevention/treatment of AD.
Collapse
|
40
|
Prasanna P, Rathee S, Rahul V, Mandal D, Chandra Goud MS, Yadav P, Hawthorne S, Sharma A, Gupta PK, Ojha S, Jha NK, Villa C, Jha SK. Microfluidic Platforms to Unravel Mysteries of Alzheimer's Disease: How Far Have We Come? Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11101022. [PMID: 34685393 PMCID: PMC8537508 DOI: 10.3390/life11101022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a significant health concern with enormous social and economic impact globally. The gradual deterioration of cognitive functions and irreversible neuronal losses are primary features of the disease. Even after decades of research, most therapeutic options are merely symptomatic, and drugs in clinical practice present numerous side effects. Lack of effective diagnostic techniques prevents the early prognosis of disease, resulting in a gradual deterioration in the quality of life. Furthermore, the mechanism of cognitive impairment and AD pathophysiology is poorly understood. Microfluidics exploits different microscale properties of fluids to mimic environments on microfluidic chip-like devices. These miniature multichambered devices can be used to grow cells and 3D tissues in vitro, analyze cell-to-cell communication, decipher the roles of neural cells such as microglia, and gain insights into AD pathophysiology. This review focuses on the applications and impact of microfluidics on AD research. We discuss the technical challenges and possible solutions provided by this new cutting-edge technique to understand disease-associated pathways and mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pragya Prasanna
- School of Applied Sciences, KK University, Nalanda 803115, Bihar, India;
- Correspondence: or (P.P.); (S.K.J.)
| | - Shweta Rathee
- Department of Food Science and Technology, National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonipat 131028, Haryana, India;
| | - Vedanabhatla Rahul
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India;
| | - Debabrata Mandal
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hajipur 844101, Bihar, India;
| | | | - Pardeep Yadav
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India; (P.Y.); (N.K.J.)
| | - Susan Hawthorne
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulster University, Cromore Road, Coleraine, Co., Londonderry BT52 1SA, UK;
| | - Ankur Sharma
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Science and Research (SBSR), Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India; (A.S.); (P.K.G.)
| | - Piyush Kumar Gupta
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Basic Science and Research (SBSR), Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India; (A.S.); (P.K.G.)
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, P.O. Box 17666, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates;
| | - Niraj Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India; (P.Y.); (N.K.J.)
| | - Chiara Villa
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20900 Monza, Italy;
| | - Saurabh Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India; (P.Y.); (N.K.J.)
- Correspondence: or (P.P.); (S.K.J.)
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Chai AB, Lam HHJ, Kockx M, Gelissen IC. Apolipoprotein E isoform-dependent effects on the processing of Alzheimer's amyloid-β. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2021; 1866:158980. [PMID: 34044125 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2021.158980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Since the identification of the apolipoprotein E (apoE) *ε4 allele as a major genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease, significant efforts have been aimed at elucidating how apoE4 expression confers greater brain amyloid-β (Aβ) burden, earlier disease onset and worse clinical outcomes compared to apoE2 and apoE3. ApoE primarily functions as a lipid carrier to regulate cholesterol metabolism in circulation as well as in the brain. However, it has also been suggested to interact with hydrophobic Aβ peptides to influence their processing in an isoform-dependent manner. Here, we review evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies extricating the effects of the three apoE isoforms, on different stages of the Aβ processing pathway including synthesis, aggregation, deposition, clearance and degradation. ApoE4 consistently correlates with impaired Aβ clearance, however data regarding Aβ synthesis and aggregation are conflicting and likely reflect inconsistencies in experimental approaches across studies. We further discuss the physical and chemical properties of apoE that may explain the inherent differences in activity between the isoforms. The lipidation status and lipid transport function of apoE are intrinsically linked with its ability to interact with Aβ. Traditionally, apoE-oriented therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease have been proposed to non-specifically enhance or inhibit apoE activity. However, given the wide-ranging physiological functions of apoE in the brain and periphery, a more viable approach may be to specifically target and neutralise the pathological apoE4 isoform.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda B Chai
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Hin Hei Julian Lam
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Maaike Kockx
- ANZAC Research Institute, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, University of Sydney, Concord, NSW 2139, Australia
| | - Ingrid C Gelissen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Wu Y, Johnson G, Zhao F, Wu Y, Zhao G, Brown A, You S, Zou MH, Song P. Features of Lipid Metabolism in Humanized ApoE Knockin Rat Models. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22158262. [PMID: 34361033 PMCID: PMC8347964 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), an essential plasma apolipoprotein, has three isoforms (E2, E3, and E4) in humans. E2 is associated with type III hyperlipoproteinemia. E4 is the major susceptibility gene to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and coronary heart disease (CHD). We investigated lipid metabolism and atherosclerotic lesions of novel humanized ApoE knockin (hApoE KI) rats in comparison to wide-type (WT) and ApoE knockout (ApoE KO) rats. The hApoE2 rats showed the lowest bodyweight and white fat mass. hApoE2 rats developed higher serum total cholesterol (TC), total triglyceride (TG), and low- and very low density lipoprotein (LDL-C&VLDL-C). ApoE KO rats also exhibited elevated TC and LDL-C&VLDL-C. Only mild atherosclerotic lesions were detected in hApoE2 and ApoE KO aortic roots. Half of the hApoE2 rats developed hepatic nodular cirrhosis. A short period of the Paigen diet (PD) treatment led to the premature death of the hApoE2 and ApoE KO rats. Severe vascular wall thickening of the coronary and pulmonary arteries was observed in 4-month PD-treated hApoE4 rats. In conclusion, hApoE2 rats develop spontaneous hyperlipidemia and might be suitable for studies of lipid metabolism-related diseases. With the PD challenge, hApoE4 KI rats could be a novel model for the analysis of vascular remodeling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wu
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
| | - Gem Johnson
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
| | - Fujie Zhao
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
| | - Yin Wu
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
| | - Guojun Zhao
- Envigo RMS, Inc., St. Louis, MO 63146, USA; (G.Z.); (A.B.)
| | - Andrew Brown
- Envigo RMS, Inc., St. Louis, MO 63146, USA; (G.Z.); (A.B.)
| | - Shaojin You
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
| | - Ming-Hui Zou
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
| | - Ping Song
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (Y.W.); (G.J.); (F.Z.); (Y.W.); (S.Y.); (M.-H.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-404-413-6636
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Davis AA, Inman CE, Wargel ZM, Dube U, Freeberg BM, Galluppi A, Haines JN, Dhavale DD, Miller R, Choudhury FA, Sullivan PM, Cruchaga C, Perlmutter JS, Ulrich JD, Benitez BA, Kotzbauer PT, Holtzman DM. APOE genotype regulates pathology and disease progression in synucleinopathy. Sci Transl Med 2021; 12:12/529/eaay3069. [PMID: 32024799 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay3069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 genotype is associated with increased risk of dementia in Parkinson's disease (PD), but the mechanism is not clear, because patients often have a mixture of α-synuclein (αSyn), amyloid-β (Aβ), and tau pathologies. APOE ε4 exacerbates brain Aβ pathology, as well as tau pathology, but it is not clear whether APOE genotype independently regulates αSyn pathology. In this study, we generated A53T αSyn transgenic mice (A53T) on Apoe knockout (A53T/EKO) or human APOE knockin backgrounds (A53T/E2, E3, and E4). At 12 months of age, A53T/E4 mice accumulated higher amounts of brainstem detergent-insoluble phosphorylated αSyn compared to A53T/EKO and A53T/E3; detergent-insoluble αSyn in A53T/E2 mice was undetectable. By immunohistochemistry, A53T/E4 mice displayed a higher burden of phosphorylated αSyn and reactive gliosis compared to A53T/E2 mice. A53T/E2 mice exhibited increased survival and improved motor performance compared to other APOE genotypes. In a complementary model of αSyn spreading, striatal injection of αSyn preformed fibrils induced greater accumulation of αSyn pathology in the substantia nigra of A53T/E4 mice compared to A53T/E2 and A53T/EKO mice. In two separate cohorts of human patients with PD, APOE ε4/ε4 individuals showed the fastest rate of cognitive decline over time. Our results demonstrate that APOE genotype directly regulates αSyn pathology independent of its established effects on Aβ and tau, corroborate the finding that APOE ε4 exacerbates pathology, and suggest that APOE ε2 may protect against αSyn aggregation and neurodegeneration in synucleinopathies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Albert A Davis
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA. .,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Casey E Inman
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Zachary M Wargel
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Umber Dube
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Brittany M Freeberg
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Alexander Galluppi
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jessica N Haines
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Dhruva D Dhavale
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Rebecca Miller
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Fahim A Choudhury
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Patrick M Sullivan
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham VAMC and Geriatric Research Clinical Center, Durham, NC 27705, USA
| | - Carlos Cruchaga
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Joel S Perlmutter
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Departments of Neuroscience and Radiology, Programs in Physical and Occupational Therapy, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jason D Ulrich
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Bruno A Benitez
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Paul T Kotzbauer
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Hope Center for Neurologic Disease, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA. .,Department of Neurology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Nakai T, Yamada K, Mizoguchi H. Alzheimer's Disease Animal Models: Elucidation of Biomarkers and Therapeutic Approaches for Cognitive Impairment. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5549. [PMID: 34074018 PMCID: PMC8197360 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related and progressive neurodegenerative disorder. It is widely accepted that AD is mainly caused by the accumulation of extracellular amyloid β (Aβ) and intracellular neurofibrillary tau tangles. Aβ begins to accumulate years before the onset of cognitive impairment, suggesting that the benefit of currently available interventions would be greater if they were initiated in the early phases of AD. To understand the mechanisms of AD pathogenesis, various transgenic mouse models with an accelerated accumulation of Aβ and tau tangles have been developed. However, none of these models exhibit all pathologies present in human AD. To overcome these undesirable phenotypes, APP knock-in mice, which were presented with touchscreen-based tasks, were developed to better evaluate the efficacy of candidate therapeutics in mouse models of early-stage AD. This review assesses several AD mouse models from the aspect of biomarkers and cognitive impairment and discusses their potential as tools to provide novel AD therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Nakai
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology and Hospital Pharmacy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8560, Japan; (T.N.); (K.Y.)
| | - Kiyofumi Yamada
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology and Hospital Pharmacy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8560, Japan; (T.N.); (K.Y.)
| | - Hiroyuki Mizoguchi
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology and Hospital Pharmacy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8560, Japan; (T.N.); (K.Y.)
- Medical Interactive Research and Academia Industry Collaboration Center, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Curtis D. Analysis of whole genome sequenced cases and controls shows that the association of variants in TOMM40, BCAM, NECTIN2 and APOC1 with late onset Alzheimer's disease is driven by linkage disequilibrium with APOE ε2/ε3/ε4 alleles. J Neurogenet 2021; 35:59-66. [PMID: 33970751 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2020.1866569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Variants in APOE are associated with risk of late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) but the magnitude of the effect has been reported to vary across ancestries. Also, other variants in the region have been reported to show association though it has been unclear whether this was secondary to their linkage disequilibrium with the APOE variants rs429358 and rs7412. Previous analyses of exome-sequenced samples have identified other genes in which rare variants impact risk of disease. In this study 2000 whole genome sequenced cases and controls with different ancestries were subjected to gene-based weighted burden analysis to identify risk genes. Additionally, individual variants in the APOE region were tested for association with LOAD. When using the APOE variants as covariates no individual genes showed statistically significant evidence for association after Bonferroni correction for multiple testing, which may well be a consequence of the modest sample size. Likewise, for those variants initially showing evidence of association with LOAD incorporating the APOE variants as covariates dramatically reduced the strength of association. These results demonstrate that the differential association of APOE across ancestries does not appear to be driven by another variant in the region. It seems likely that no other genes in the region have a direct effect on LOAD risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Curtis
- UCL Genetics Institute, University College London, London, UK
- Centre for Psychiatry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Gao Y, Wei S, Gao F, Gao L, Dang L, Shang S, Chen C, Huo K, Wang J, Wang J, Qu Q. Sleep Disturbance is Associated With Higher Plasma Aβ Levels in Cognitively Normal Adults-A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 12:615838. [PMID: 33536896 PMCID: PMC7848159 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.615838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Growing evidence suggests that sleep disturbance is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the brain is a main pathophysiology of AD. Considering that peripheral Aβ level is associated with brain Aβ deposition, the present study investigated the relationship between sleep disturbance and plasma Aβ levels. Methods: This is a population-based cross-sectional study. A total of 1,459 participants from a village in the suburbs of Xi'an, China, were enrolled from January 3, 2017 to March 26, 2017. Sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and a PSQI score of <5 points was considered as good sleep quality and a PSQI score of >10 points as poor sleep quality. Cognitive function was assessed with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Fasting venous blood was taken in the morning, and the plasma Aβ levels were measured using ELISA. The relationships between plasma Aβ levels and sleep quality were analyzed using multiple linear regression. Results: Among the participants, 231 had poor sleep quality (15.83%). The log-transformed Aβ40 level had significant differences among the different sleep groups (F = 3.216, p = 0.040). The log-transformed Aβ40 level was higher in the poor sleep quality group than that in the general sleep quality group [87.17 (73.42, 107.34) vs. 89.69 (74.81, 125.79) pg/ml, p = 0.016]. In bivariate analysis, sleep quality was negatively associated with the log-transformed plasma Aβ40 level (β = −0.025, p = 0.011). Conclusion: In the community population, poorer sleep quality is associated with a higher plasma Aβ40 level. This indicated that sleep disturbance might also involve in dysfunction of peripheral Aβ clearance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yao Gao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Shan Wei
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Fan Gao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ling Gao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Liangjun Dang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Suhang Shang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Kang Huo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jingyi Wang
- Huyi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi'an, China
| | - Jin Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qiumin Qu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Wong E, Frost GR, Li YM. γ-Secretase Modulatory Proteins: The Guiding Hand Behind the Running Scissors. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:614690. [PMID: 33343338 PMCID: PMC7738330 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.614690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Described as the "proteasome of the membrane" or the "scissors in the membrane," γ-secretase has notoriously complicated biology, and even after decades of research, the full extent of its regulatory mechanism remains unclear. γ-Secretase is an intramembrane aspartyl protease complex composed of four obligatory subunits: Nicastrin (NCT), Presenilin (PS), Presenilin Enhancer-2 (Pen-2), and Anterior pharynx-defective-1 (Aph-1). γ-Secretase cleaves numerous type 1 transmembrane substrates, with no apparent homology, and plays major roles in broad biological pathways such as development, neurogenesis, and cancer. Notch and the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and are undoubtedly the best-studied γ-secretase substrates because of their role in cancer and Alzheimer's disease (AD) and therefore became the focus of increasing studies as an attractive therapeutic target. The regulation of γ-secretase is intricate and involves the function of multiple cellular entities. Recently, γ-secretase modulatory proteins (GSMPs), which are non-essential subunits and yet modulate γ-secretase activity and specificity, have emerged as an important component in guiding γ-secretase. GSMPs are responsive to cellular and environmental changes and therefore, provide another layer of regulation of γ-secretase. This type of enzymatic regulation allows for a rapid and fine-tuning of γ-secretase activity when appropriate signals appear enabling a temporal level of regulation. In this review article, we discuss the latest developments on GSMPs and implications on the development of effective therapeutics for γ-secretase-associated diseases such as AD and cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eitan Wong
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | | | - Yue-Ming Li
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Chen Y, Strickland MR, Soranno A, Holtzman DM. Apolipoprotein E: Structural Insights and Links to Alzheimer Disease Pathogenesis. Neuron 2020; 109:205-221. [PMID: 33176118 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is of great interest due to its role as a cholesterol/lipid transporter in the central nervous system (CNS) and as the most influential genetic risk factor for Alzheimer disease (AD). Work over the last four decades has given us important insights into the structure of ApoE and how this might impact the neuropathology and pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we highlight the history and progress in the structural and molecular understanding of ApoE and discuss how these studies on ApoE have illuminated the physiology of ApoE, receptor binding, and interaction with amyloid-β (Aβ). We also identify future areas of study needed to advance our understanding of how ApoE influences neurodegeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; The Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Michael R Strickland
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; The Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Andrea Soranno
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Center for Science & Engineering of Living Systems, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Center for Science & Engineering of Living Systems, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Li Z, Shue F, Zhao N, Shinohara M, Bu G. APOE2: protective mechanism and therapeutic implications for Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:63. [PMID: 33148290 PMCID: PMC7640652 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00413-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Investigations of apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, the major genetic risk modifier for Alzheimer's disease (AD), have yielded significant insights into the pathogenic mechanism. Among the three common coding variants, APOE*ε4 increases, whereas APOE*ε2 decreases the risk of late-onset AD compared with APOE*ε3. Despite increased understanding of the detrimental effect of APOE*ε4, it remains unclear how APOE*ε2 confers protection against AD. Accumulating evidence suggests that APOE*ε2 protects against AD through both amyloid-β (Aβ)-dependent and independent mechanisms. In addition, APOE*ε2 has been identified as a longevity gene, suggesting a systemic effect of APOE*ε2 on the aging process. However, APOE*ε2 is not entirely benign; APOE*ε2 carriers exhibit increased risk of certain cerebrovascular diseases and neurological disorders. Here, we review evidence from both human and animal studies demonstrating the protective effect of APOE*ε2 against AD and propose a working model depicting potential underlying mechanisms. Finally, we discuss potential therapeutic strategies designed to leverage the protective effect of APOE2 to treat AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zonghua Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Francis Shue
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Mitsuru Shinohara
- Department of Aging Neurobiology, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, 7-430 Morioka, Obu, Aichi, 474-8511, Japan.
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Pedrini S, Chatterjee P, Hone E, Martins RN. High‐density lipoprotein‐related cholesterol metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurochem 2020; 159:343-377. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steve Pedrini
- Sarich Neurosciences Research InstituteEdith Cowan University Nedlands WA Australia
| | - Pratishtha Chatterjee
- Sarich Neurosciences Research InstituteEdith Cowan University Nedlands WA Australia
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences Macquarie University Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Eugene Hone
- Sarich Neurosciences Research InstituteEdith Cowan University Nedlands WA Australia
| | - Ralph N. Martins
- Sarich Neurosciences Research InstituteEdith Cowan University Nedlands WA Australia
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences Macquarie University Sydney NSW Australia
- School of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences University of Western Australia Nedlands WA Australia
| |
Collapse
|