In Vivo Inhibition of miR-155 Promotes Recovery after Experimental Mouse Stroke

Non-coding RNAs in acute ischemic stroke: from brain to periphery

Acute ischemic stroke is a clinical emergency and a condition with high morbidity, mortality, and disability. Accurate predictive, diagnostic, and prognostic biomarkers and effective therapeutic targets for acute ischemic stroke remain undetermined. With innovations in high-throughput gene sequencing analysis, many aberrantly expressed non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the brain and peripheral blood after acute ischemic stroke have been found in clinical samples and experimental models. Differentially expressed ncRNAs in the post-stroke brain were demonstrated to play vital roles in pathological processes, leading to neuroprotection or deterioration, thus ncRNAs can serve as therapeutic targets in acute ischemic stroke. Moreover, distinctly expressed ncRNAs in the peripheral blood can be used as biomarkers for acute ischemic stroke prediction, diagnosis, and prognosis. In particular, ncRNAs in peripheral immune cells were recently shown to be involved in the peripheral and brain immune response after acute ischemic stroke. In this review, we consolidate the latest progress of research into the roles of ncRNAs (microRNAs, long ncRNAs, and circular RNAs) in the pathological processes of acute ischemic stroke-induced brain damage, as well as the potential of these ncRNAs to act as biomarkers for acute ischemic stroke prediction, diagnosis, and prognosis. Findings from this review will provide novel ideas for the clinical application of ncRNAs in acute ischemic stroke.

Non-coding RNAs and angiogenesis in cardiovascular diseases: a comprehensive review

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have key roles in the etiology of many illnesses, including heart failure, myocardial infarction, stroke, and in physiological processes like angiogenesis. In transcriptional regulatory circuits that control heart growth, signaling, and stress response, as well as remodeling in cardiac disease, ncRNAs have become important players. Studies on ncRNAs and cardiovascular disease have made great progress recently. Here, we go through the functions of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) like circular RNAs (circRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs) as well as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in modulating cardiovascular disorders.

Considering Context-Specific microRNAs in Ischemic Stroke with Three "W": Where, When, and What

MicroRNAs are short non-coding RNA molecules that function as critical regulators of various biological processes through negative regulation of gene expression post-transcriptionally. Recent studies have indicated that microRNAs are potential biomarkers for ischemic stroke. In this review, we first illustrate the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke and demonstrate the biogenesis and transportation of microRNAs from cells. We then discuss several promising microRNA biomarkers in ischemic stroke in a context-specific manner from three dimensions: biofluids selection for microRNA extraction (Where), the timing of sample collection after ischemic stroke onset (When), and the clinical application of the differential-expressed microRNAs during stroke pathophysiology (What). We show that microRNAs have the utilities in ischemic stroke diagnosis, risk stratification, subtype classification, prognosis prediction, and treatment response monitoring. However, there are also obstacles in microRNA biomarker research, and this review will discuss the possible ways to improve microRNA biomarkers. Overall, microRNAs have the potential to assist clinical treatment, and developing microRNA panels for clinical application is worthwhile.

Gut microbiota-derived acetate promotes long-term recovery through angiogenesis guided by lymphatic ingrowth in older adults with stroke

Introduction

Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in older adults. Therefore, in this study, we sought to understand the interplay between the microbiota, gut, and brain in the context of stroke in older adults.

Objective

To determine whether gut microbiota from younger individuals promotes recovery through angiogenesis in both elderly stroke patients and aged stroke mice, we explored the changes in gut microbiota and the correlation between short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and angiogenesis in the aged stroke population. Then, we altered the gut microbiome in aged mice by transplanting microbiota from younger donors before inducing experimental stroke to explore the mechanism by which gut microbiota-derived SCFAs promote angiogenesis.

Methods

Part I: We conducted a single-center, double-blind trial to compare gut microbiota diversity and SCFA levels in fecal samples from older stroke patients with those from younger stroke patients. Additionally, we measured levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGFC levels in plasma to assess their correlation with SCFA levels. Part II: We performed fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) 3 days before inducing ischemic stroke in aged male mice (16-18) via distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO). The FMT was conducted using gut microbiomes from either young donors (2-3 months) or aged donors (16-18 months).

Results

In older stroke patients, gut microbiota diversity was significantly reduced compared to that in younger stroke patients. Furthermore, levels of acetate, a bacterially derived SCFA, were lower and positively correlated with angiogenesis markers (VEGF and VEGF-C). In aged stroke mice, transplantation of young microbiota improved stroke outcomes by promoting angiogenesis, which was facilitated by lymphatic ingrowth into the cortex. This protective effect was linked to gut microbiota-derived acetate, which enhanced lymphangiogenesis by replenishing acetyl coenzyme A.

Conclusions

(a) Gut microbiota-derived acetate promotes angiogenesis post-stroke and (b) lymphatic ingrowth into the cerebral cortex was observed in post-dMCAO mice. These findings suggest that selectively promoting SCFA-producing bacteria, particularly acetate-producers, could be a promising therapeutic strategy to reduce functional impairments in older stroke subjects.

Arterial specification precedes microvascular restitution in the peri-infarct cortex that is driven by small microvessels

Evaluation of microvascular networks was impeded until recently by the need of histological tissue sectioning, which precluded 3D analyses. Using light-sheet microscopy, we investigated microvascular network characteristics in the peri-infarct cortex of mice 3-56 days after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. In animal subgroups, the sphingosine-1-phosphate analog FTY720 (Fingolimod) was administered starting 24 hours post-ischemia. Light-sheet microscopy revealed a striking pattern of microvascular changes in the peri-infarct cortex, that is, a loss of microvessels, which was most prominent after 7 days and followed by the reappearance of microvessels over 56 days which revealed an increased branching point density and shortened branches. Using a novel AI-based image analysis algorithm we found that the length density of microvessels expressing the arterial specification marker α-smooth muscle actin markedly increased in the peri-infarct cortex already at 7 days post-ischemia. The length and branch density of small microvessels, but not of intermediate or large microvessels increased above pre-ischemic levels within 14-56 days. FTY720 increased the length and branch density of small microvessels. This study demonstrates long-term alterations of microvascular architecture post-ischemia indicative of increased collateralization most notably of small microvessels. Light-sheet microscopy will greatly advance the assessment of microvascular responses to restorative stroke therapies.

Microvascular plasticity in mouse stroke model recovery: Anatomy statistics, dynamics measured by longitudinal in vivo two-photon angiography, network vectorization

This manuscript quantitatively investigates remodeling dynamics of the cortical microvascular network (thousands of connected capillaries) following photothrombotic ischemia (cubic millimeter volume, imaged weekly) using a novel in vivo two-photon angiography and high throughput vascular vectorization method. The results suggest distinct temporal patterns of cerebrovascular plasticity, with acute remodeling peaking at one week post-stroke. The network architecture then gradually stabilizes, returning to a new steady state after four weeks. These findings align with previous literature on neuronal plasticity, highlighting the correlation between neuronal and neurovascular remodeling. Quantitative analysis of neurovascular networks using length- and strand-based statistical measures reveals intricate changes in network anatomy and topology. The distance and strand-length statistics show significant alterations, with a peak of plasticity observed at one week post-stroke, followed by a gradual return to baseline. The orientation statistic plasticity peaks at two weeks, gradually approaching the (conserved across subjects) stroke signature. The underlying mechanism of the vascular response (angiogenesis vs. tissue deformation), however, is yet unexplored. Overall, the combination of chronic two-photon angiography, vascular vectorization, reconstruction/visualization, and statistical analysis enables both qualitative and quantitative assessments of neurovascular remodeling dynamics, demonstrating a method for investigating cortical microvascular network disorders and the therapeutic modes of action thereof.

Mechanisms of Postischemic Stroke Angiogenesis: A Multifaceted Approach

Ischemic stroke constitutes a significant global health care challenge, and a comprehensive understanding of its recovery mechanisms is imperative for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. Angiogenesis, a pivotal element of ischemic tissue repair, facilitates the restoration of blood flow to damaged regions, thereby promoting neuronal regeneration and functional recovery. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying postischemic stroke angiogenesis remain incompletely elucidated. This review meticulously examines the constituents of the neurovascular unit, ion channels, molecular mediators, and signaling pathways implicated in angiogenesis following stroke. Furthermore, it delves into prospective therapeutic strategies informed by these factors. Our objective is to provide detailed and exhaustive information on the intricate mechanisms governing postischemic stroke angiogenesis, thus providing a robust scientific foundation for the advancement of novel neurorepair therapies.

Analysis of ischemic stroke-mediated effects on blood-brain barrier properties along the arteriovenous axis assessed by intravital two-photon imaging

Early breach of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and consequently extravasation of blood-borne substances into the brain parenchyma is a common hallmark of ischemic stroke. Although BBB breakdown is associated with an increased risk of cerebral hemorrhage and poor clinical prognosis, the cause and mechanism of this process are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to establish an imaging and analysis protocol which enables investigation of the dynamics of BBB breach in relation to hemodynamic properties along the arteriovenous axis. Using longitudinal intravital two-photon imaging following photothrombotic induction of ischemic stroke through a cranial window, we were able to study the response of the cerebral vasculature to ischemia, from the early critical hours to the days/weeks after the infarct. We demonstrate that disruption of the BBB and hemodynamic parameters, including perturbed blood flow, can be studied at single-vessel resolution in the three-dimensional space as early as 30 min after vessel occlusion. Further, we show that this protocol permits longitudinal studies on the response of individual blood vessels to ischemia over time, thus enabling detection of (maladaptive) vascular remodeling such as intussusception, angiogenic sprouting and entanglement of vessel networks. Taken together, this in vivo two-photon imaging and analysis protocol will be useful in future studies investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms, and the spatial contribution, of BBB breach to disease progression which might ultimately aid the development of new and more precise treatment strategies for ischemic stroke.

MicroRNA Regulatory Pattern in Diabetic Mouse Cortex at Different Stages Following Ischemic Stroke

After ischemic stroke, microRNAs (miRNAs) participate in various processes, including immune responses, inflammation, and angiogenesis. Diabetes is a key factor increasing the risk of ischemic stroke; however, the regulatory pattern of miRNAs at different stages of diabetic stroke remains unclear. This study comprehensively analyzed the miRNA expression profiles in diabetic mice at 1, 3, and 7 days post-reperfusion following the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). We identified differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs in diabetic stroke and found significant dysregulation of some novel miRNAs (novel_mir310, novel_mir89, and novel_mir396) post-stroke. These DEmiRNAs were involved in apoptosis and the formation of tight junctions. Finally, we identified three groups of time-dependent DE miRNAs (miR-6240, miR-135b-3p, and miR-672-5p). These have the potential to serve as biomarkers of diabetic stroke. These findings provide a new perspective for future research, emphasizing the dynamic changes in miRNA expression after diabetic stroke and offering potential candidates as biomarkers for future clinical applications.

Exogenous modification of EL-4 T cell extracellular vesicles with miR-155 induce macrophage into M1-type polarization

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) show promising potential to be used as therapeutics, disease biomarkers, and drug delivery vehicles. We aimed to modify EVs with miR-155 to modulate macrophage immune response that can be potentially used against infectious diseases. Primarily, we characterized T cells (EL-4) EVs by several standardized techniques and confirmed that the EVs could be used for experimental approaches. The bioactivities of the isolated EVs were confirmed by the uptake assessment, and the results showed that target cells can successfully uptake EVs. To standardize the loading protocol by electroporation for effective biological functionality, we chose fluorescently labelled miR-155 mimics because of its important roles in the immune regulations to upload them into EVs. The loading procedure showed that the dosage of 1 µg of miRNA mimics can be efficiently loaded to the EVs at 100 V, further confirmed by flow cytometry. The functional assay by incubating these modified EVs (mEVs) with in vitro cultured cells led to an increased abundance of miR-155 and decreased the expressions of its target genes such as TSHZ3, Jarid2, ZFP652, and WWC1. Further evaluation indicated that these mEVs induced M1-type macrophage polarization with increased TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and iNOS expression. The bioavailability analysis revealed that mEVs could be detected in tissues of the livers. Overall, our study demonstrated that EVs can be engineered with miR-155 of interest to modulate the immune response that may have implications against infectious diseases.

Microvascular Network Remodeling in the Ischemic Mouse Brain Defined by Light Sheet Microscopy

BACKGROUND

Until now, the analysis of microvascular networks in the reperfused ischemic brain has been limited due to tissue transparency challenges.

METHODS

Using light sheet microscopy, we assessed microvascular network remodeling in the striatum from 3 hours to 56 days post-ischemia in 2 mouse models of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion lasting 20 or 40 minutes, resulting in mild ischemic brain injury or brain infarction, respectively. We also examined the effect of a clinically applicable S1P (sphingosine-1-phosphate) analog, FTY720 (fingolimod), on microvascular network remodeling.

RESULTS

Over 56 days, we observed progressive microvascular degeneration in the reperfused striatum, that is, the lesion core, which was followed by robust angiogenesis after mild ischemic injury induced by 20-minute middle cerebral artery occlusion. However, more severe ischemic injury elicited by 40-minute middle cerebral artery occlusion resulted in incomplete microvascular remodeling. In both cases, microvascular networks did not return to their preischemic state but displayed a chronically altered pattern characterized by higher branching point density, shorter branches, higher unconnected branch density, and lower tortuosity, indicating enhanced network connectivity. FTY720 effectively increased microvascular length density, branching point density, and volume density in both models, indicating an angiogenic effect of this drug.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing light sheet microscopy together with automated image analysis, we characterized microvascular remodeling in the ischemic lesion core in unprecedented detail. This technology will significantly advance our understanding of microvascular restorative processes and pave the way for novel treatment developments in the stroke field.

Downregulation of miR-337-3p in hypoxia/reoxygenation neuroblastoma cells increases KCTD11 expression

Neurodegeneration is linked to the progressive loss of neural function and is associated with several diseases. Hypoxia is a hallmark in many of these diseases, and several therapies have been developed to treat this disease, including gene expression therapies that should be tightly controlled to avoid side effects. Cells experiencing hypoxia undergo a series of physiological responses that are induced by the activation of various transcription factors. Modulation of microRNA (miRNA) expression to alter transcriptional regulation has been demonstrated to be beneficial in treating multiple diseases, and in this study, we therefore explored potential miRNA candidates that could influence hypoxia-induced nerve cell death. Our data suggest that in mouse neuroblasts Neuro-2a cells with hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R), miR-337-3p is downregulated to increase the expression of Potassium channel tetramerization domain containing 11 (KCTD11) and subsequently promote apoptosis. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that KCTD11 plays a role in the cellular response to hypoxia, and we also provide a possible regulatory mechanism by identifying the axis of miR-337-3p/KCTD11 as a promising candidate modulator of nerve cell survival after H/R exposure.

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells expression of miR-200c, miR-125b, miR-27b, miR-203, and miR-155 in patients with significant or insignificant coronary artery stenosis

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the principal causes of death worldwide. Among several predisposing factors, inflammation and inflammatory genes play a significant role in disease pathogenesis. Inflammatory microRNAs, small noncoding RNAs involved in regulating inflammation, are promising candidates for understanding pathogenesis of CAD and developing diagnostic biomarkers. The aim of the study was to evaluate the alteration of miR-200c, miR-125b, miR-27b, miR-203 and, miR-155 in patients suffering from coronary artery stenosis and insignificant coronary artery stenosis compared to healthy subjects. In this study we compared expressions of five inflammatory miRNAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of 72 patients suffering significant coronary artery stenosis (CAD), 74 individuals without coronary artery disease and 30 individuals with insignificant coronary artery stenosis (ICAD). After blood collection, PBMCs were isolated and RNA was extracted. Gene expression levels were assessed by SYBR green based real-time PCR. Statistical analysis was performed using R program. Expression levels of miR-200c, miR-203, and miR-155 were lower in subjects with ICAD than that in CAD patients and subjects of the control group. MiR-125b was downregulated in CAD and ICAD groups compared to the control group. PBMC miR-27b was upregulated in the CAD group as compared to the ICAD and control groups. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis verified potential of three miRNAs in separating subjects with ICAD from CAD patients and healthy individuals. In conclusion, this original investigation suggested that altered expression of these five miRNAs may serve as a novel diagnostic biomarker discriminating clinical presentations of coronary artery diseases.

From static to dynamic: live observation of the support system after ischemic stroke by two photon-excited fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy

Ischemic stroke is one of the most common causes of mortality and disability worldwide. However, treatment efficacy and the progress of research remain unsatisfactory. As the critical support system and essential components in neurovascular units, glial cells and blood vessels (including the blood-brain barrier) together maintain an optimal microenvironment for neuronal function. They provide nutrients, regulate neuronal excitability, and prevent harmful substances from entering brain tissue. The highly dynamic networks of this support system play an essential role in ischemic stroke through processes including brain homeostasis, supporting neuronal function, and reacting to injuries. However, most studies have focused on postmortem animals, which inevitably lack critical information about the dynamic changes that occur after ischemic stroke. Therefore, a high-precision technique for research in living animals is urgently needed. Two-photon fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy is a powerful imaging technique that can facilitate live imaging at high spatiotemporal resolutions. Two-photon fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy can provide images of the whole-cortex vascular 3D structure, information on multicellular component interactions, and provide images of structure and function in the cranial window. This technique shifts the existing research paradigm from static to dynamic, from flat to stereoscopic, and from single-cell function to multicellular intercommunication, thus providing direct and reliable evidence to identify the pathophysiological mechanisms following ischemic stroke in an intact brain. In this review, we discuss exciting findings from research on the support system after ischemic stroke using two-photon fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy, highlighting the importance of dynamic observations of cellular behavior and interactions in the networks of the brain's support systems. We show the excellent application prospects and advantages of two-photon fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy and predict future research developments and directions in the study of ischemic stroke.

Tight junction proteins related to blood-brain barrier and their regulatory signaling pathways in ischemic stroke

Tight junctions (TJs) are crucial for intercellular connections. The abnormal expression of proteins related to TJs can result in TJ destruction, structural damage, and endothelial and epithelial cell dysfunction. These factors are associated with the occurrence and progression of several diseases. Studies have shown that blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage and dysfunction are the prominent pathological features of stroke. TJs are directly associated with the BBB integrity. In this article, we first discuss the structure and function of BBB TJ-related proteins before focusing on the crucial events that cause TJ dysfunction and BBB damage, as well as the regulatory mechanisms that affect the qualitative and quantitative expression of TJ proteins during ischemic stroke. Multiple regulatory mechanisms, including phosphorylation, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and microRNAs, regulate TJ-related proteins and affect BBB permeability. Some signaling pathways and mechanisms have been demonstrated to have dual functions. Hopefully, our understanding of the regulation of BBB TJs in ischemic stroke will be applied to the development of targeted medications and therapeutic therapies.

Oxygen-Glucose Deprived Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Protect Against Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is the leading cause of severe long-term disability. Cell therapy has recently emerged as an approach to facilitate functional recovery in stroke. Although administration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells preconditioned by oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD-PBMCs) has been shown to be a therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke, the recovery mechanisms remain largely unknown. We hypothesised that cell-cell communications within PBMCs and between PBMCs and resident cells are necessary for a polarising protective phenotype. Here, we investigated the therapeutic mechanisms underlying the effects of OGD-PBMCs through the secretome. We compared levels of transcriptomes, cytokines, and exosomal microRNA in human PBMCs by RNA sequences, Luminex assay, flow cytometric analysis, and western blotting under normoxic and OGD conditions. We also performed microscopic analyses to assess the identification of remodelling factor-positive cells and evaluate angiogenesis, axonal outgrowth, and functional recovery by blinded examination by administration of OGD-PBMCs after ischemic stroke in Sprague-Dawley rats. We found that the therapeutic potential of OGD-PBMCs was mediated by a polarised protective state through decreased levels of exosomal miR-155-5p, and upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor and a pluripotent stem cell marker stage-specific embryonic antigen-3 through the hypoxia-inducible factor-1α axis. After administration of OGD-PBMCs, microenvironment changes in resident microglia by the secretome promoted angiogenesis and axonal outgrowth, resulting in functional recovery after cerebral ischemia. Our findings revealed the mechanisms underlying the refinement of the neurovascular unit by secretome-mediated cell-cell communications through reduction of miR-155-5p from OGD-PBMCs, highlighting the therapeutic potential carrier of this approach against ischemic stroke.

MicroRNA-based therapeutics for inflammatory disorders of the microbiota-gut-brain axis

An emerging but less explored shared pathophysiology across microbiota-gut-brain axis disorders is aberrant miRNA expression, which may represent novel therapeutic targets. miRNAs are small, endogenous non-coding RNAs that are important transcriptional repressors of gene expression. Most importantly, they regulate the integrity of the intestinal epithelial and blood-brain barriers and serve as an important communication channel between the gut microbiome and the host. A well-defined understanding of the mode of action, therapeutic strategies and delivery mechanisms of miRNAs is pivotal in translating the clinical applications of miRNA-based therapeutics. Accumulating evidence links disorders of the microbiota-gut-brain axis with a compromised gut-blood-brain-barrier, causing gut contents such as immune cells and microbiota to enter the bloodstream leading to low-grade systemic inflammation. This has the potential to affect all organs, including the brain, causing central inflammation and the development of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. In this review, we have examined in detail miRNA biogenesis, strategies for therapeutic application, delivery mechanisms, as well as their pathophysiology and clinical applications in inflammatory gut-brain disorders. The research data in this review was drawn from the following databases: PubMed, Google Scholar, and Clinicaltrials.gov. With increasing evidence of the pathophysiological importance for miRNAs in microbiota-gut-brain axis disorders, therapeutic targeting of cross-regulated miRNAs in these disorders displays potentially transformative and translational potential. Further preclinical research and human clinical trials are required to further advance this area of research.

Two-photon microscopy: application advantages and latest progress for in vivo imaging of neurons and blood vessels after ischemic stroke

Two-photon microscopy (TPM) plays an important role in the study of the changes of the two important components of neurovascular units (NVU) - neurons and blood vessels after ischemic stroke (IS). IS refers to sudden neurological dysfunction caused by focal cerebral ischemia, which is one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. TPM is a new and rapidly developing high-resolution real-time imaging technique used in vivo that has attracted increasing attention from scientists in the neuroscience field. Neurons and blood vessels are important components of neurovascular units, and they undergo great changes after IS to respond to and compensate for ischemic injury. Here, we introduce the characteristics and pre-imaging preparations of TPM, and review the common methods and latest progress of TPM in the neuronal and vascular research for injury and recovery of IS in recent years. With the review, we clearly recognized that the most important advantage of TPM in the study of ischemic stroke is the ability to perform chronic longitudinal imaging of different tissues at a high resolution in vivo. Finally, we discuss the limitations of TPM and the technological advances in recent years.

Pathogenesis of miR-155 on nonmodifiable and modifiable risk factors in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common age-related neurodegenerative disease in the central nervous system and is the primary cause of dementia. It is clinically characterized by the memory impairment, aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, visuospatial and executive dysfunction, behavioral changes, and so on. Incidence of this disease was bound up with age, genetic factors, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular dysfunction, and other basic diseases, but the exact etiology has not been clarified. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small endogenous non-coding RNAs that were involved in the regulation of post-transcriptional gene expression. miRNAs have been extensively studied as noninvasive potential biomarkers for disease due to their relative stability in bodily fluids. In addition, they play a significant role in the physiological and pathological processes of various neurological disorders, including stroke, AD, and Parkinson's disease. MiR-155, as an important pro-inflammatory mediator of neuroinflammation, was reported to participate in the progression of β-amyloid peptide and tau via regulating immunity and inflammation. In this review, we put emphasis on the effects of miR-155 on AD and explore the underlying biological mechanisms which could provide a novel approach for diagnosis and treatment of AD.

Emerging effects of non-coding RNA in vascular endothelial cells during strokes

Vascular and neurological damage are the typical outcomes of ischemic strokes. Vascular endothelial cells (VECs), a substantial component of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), are necessary for normal cerebrovascular physiology. During an ischemic stroke (IS), changes in the brain endothelium can lead to a BBB rupture, inflammation, and vasogenic brain edema, and VECs are essential for neurotrophic effects and angiogenesis. Non-coding RNAs (nc-RNAs) are endogenous molecules, and brain ischemia quickly changes the expression patterns of several non-coding RNA types, such as microRNA (miRNA/miR), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), and circular RNA (circRNA). Furthermore, vascular endothelium-associated nc-RNAs are important mediators in the maintenance of healthy cerebrovascular function. In order to better understand how VECs are regulated epigenetically during an IS, in this review, we attempted to assemble the molecular functions of nc-RNAs that are linked with VECs during an IS.

Long non-coding RNA HOXA11-AS regulates ischemic neuronal death by targeting miR-337-3p/YBX1 signaling pathway: protective effect of dexmedetomidine

Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) is a common neurological disease. Homeobox A11 antisense RNA (HOXA11-AS), a long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), has been demonstrated as an important regulator in diverse human cancers. However, its function and regulatory mechanism in ischemic stroke remains largely unknown. Dexmedetomidine (Dex) have received wide attraction because of its neuroprotective effects. This study aimed to explore the possible link between Dex and HOXA11-AS in protecting neuronal cells from by ischemia/reperfusion-induced apoptosis. We used oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) in mouse neuroblastoma Neuro-2a cells and middle cerebral artery occlusion (MACO) mouse model to test the link. We found that Dex significantly alleviated OGD/R-induced DNA fragmentation, cell viability and apoptosis, and rescued the decreased HOXA11-AS expression after ischemic damage in Neuro-2a cells. Gain-/loss-of-function studies revealed that HOXA11-AS promoted proliferation, inhibited apoptosis in Neuro-2a cells exposed to OGD/R. Knockdown of HOXA11-AS decreased the protective effect of Dex on OGD/R cells. HOXA11-AS was found to transcriptionally regulate microRNA-337-3p (miR-337-3p) expression as evidenced by luciferase reporter assay, while miR-337-3p expression was upregulated following ischemia in vitro and in vivo. Besides, knockdown of miR-337-3p protected OGD/R-induced apoptotic death of Neuro-2a cells. Furthermore, HOXA11-AS functioned as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) and competed with Y box protein 1 (Ybx1) mRNA for directly binding to miR-337-3p, which protected ischemic neuronal death. Dex treatment protected against ischemic damage and improved overall neurological functions in vivo. Our data suggest a novel mechanism of Dex neuroprotection for ischemic stroke through regulating lncRNA HOXA11-AS by targeting the miR-337-3p/Ybx1 signaling pathway, which might help develop new strategies for the therapeutic interventions in cerebral ischemic stroke.

MicroRNA therapeutic targets in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury: a narrative review

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI) is a devastating injury resulting from impaired blood flow and oxygen delivery to the brain at or around the time of birth. Despite the use of therapeutic hypothermia, more than one in four survivors suffer from major developmental disabilities-an indication of the critical need for more effective therapies. MicroRNAs (miRNA) have the potential to act as biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets in neonatal HIBI as a step toward improving outcomes in this high-risk population. This review summarizes the current literature around the use of cord blood and postnatal circulating blood miRNA expression for diagnosis or prognosis in human infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, as well as animal studies assessing endogenous brain miRNA expression and potential for therapeutic targeting of miRNA expression for neuroprotection. Ultimately, the lack of knowledge regarding brain specificity of circulating miRNAs and the temporal variability in expression currently limit the use of miRNAs as biomarkers. However, given their broad effect profile, ease of administration, and small size allowing for effective blood-brain barrier crossing, miRNAs represent promising therapeutic targets for improving brain injury and reducing developmental impairments in neonates after HIBI. IMPACT: The high morbidity and mortality of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI) despite current therapies demonstrates a need for developing more sensitive biomarkers and superior therapeutic options. MicroRNAs have been evaluated both as biomarkers and therapeutic options after neonatal HIBI. The limited knowledge regarding brain specificity of circulating microRNAs and temporal variability in expression currently limit the use of microRNAs as biomarkers. Future studies comparing the neuroprotective effects of modulating microRNA expression must consider temporal changes in the endogenous expression to determine appropriate timing of therapy, while also optimizing techniques for delivery.

Roles of the miR-155 in Neuroinflammation and Neurological Disorders: A Potent Biological and Therapeutic Target

Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the development and progression of neurological disorders. MicroRNA-155 (miR-155), a miR is known to play in inflammatory responses, is associated with susceptibility to inflammatory neurological disorders and neurodegeneration, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis as well as epilepsy, stroke, and brain malignancies. MiR-155 damages the central nervous system (CNS) by enhancing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IRF3. It also disturbs the blood-brain barrier by decreasing junctional complex molecules such as claudin-1, annexin-2, syntenin-1, and dedicator of cytokinesis 1 (DOCK-1), a hallmark of many neurological disorders. This review discusses the molecular pathways which involve miR-155 as a critical component in the progression of neurological disorders, representing miR-155 as a viable therapeutic target.

microRNA as a therapeutic for ischemic stroke

microRNA (miRNA) are important regulators of gene expression. miRNA have the potential as a treatment to modulate genes, pathways and cells involved in ischemic stroke. In this review, we specifically present miRNA in stroke as a treatment to decrease thrombosis, reduce blood brain barrier (BBB) disruption and hemorrhagic transformation (HT), modulate inflammation, and modify angiogenesis. miRNA as a treatment for stroke is an emerging area with evidence from animal studies demonstrating its potential. While no miRNA is currently approved for human use, several have shown promise in clinical trials to treat medical conditions, such as miR-122 for hepatitis C. The role of miRNA as a treatment for specific applications in ischemic stroke is presented including a discussion of the benefits and barriers of miRNA as a treatment, and directions for future advancement.

Receptor-Interacting Protein 3/Calmodulin-Dependent Kinase II/Proline-Rich Tyrosine Kinase 2 Pathway is Involved in Programmed Cell Death in a Mouse Model of Brain Ischaemic Stroke

Neuronal necroptosis and apoptosis are the most important pathways for programmed cell death after brain ischaemic stroke. Although apoptosis signalling pathways have been extensively studied, molecular mechanisms underlying necroptosis remain unclear. In this study, we found that receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3) deficiency reduced cerebral infarction volume, neurological deficits, and neuronal ultrastructural damage in a mouse model of brain ischaemic stroke by inhibiting programmed cell death. RIP3 deficiency inhibited the activation of both calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) and proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2) cascade, decreased the expression of classic necroptotic and apoptotic proteins, and ultimately decreased neuronal necroptosis and apoptosis. We further confirmed that RIP3 deficiency inhibited the decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential, the increase of calcium influx and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In addition, compared with WT primary cortical neurons, the decreased expression of CaMKII and Pyk2 was further verified in a Ripk3^-/- primary cortical neurons underlying oxygen and glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) model. In conclusion, we first identified that the RIP3/CaMKII/Pyk2 pathway is involved in programmed cell death after brain ischaemic stroke, which suggests it is a promising therapeutic target in ischaemia-induced neuronal injury.

Some miRNA expressions and their targets in ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a global health challenge leading to life-long disabilities or the deaths of patients. IS is a complex disease where genetic and environmental factors are both concerned with the pathophysiology of the condition. Here, we aimed to investigate various microRNA (miRNA) expressions and their targets in IS. A rapid and accurate diagnosis of acute IS is important to perform appropriate treatment. Therefore, there is a need for a more rapid and simple tool to carry out an acute diagnosis of IS. miRNAs are small RNA molecules serving as precious biomarkers due to their easy detection and stability in blood samples. The present systematic review aimed to summarize previous studies investigating several miRNA expressions and their targets in IS.

MicroRNA: An Emerging Predictive, Diagnostic, Prognostic and Therapeutic Strategy in Ischaemic Stroke

Stroke continues to be the third-leading cause of death and disability worldwide. The limited availability of diagnostic tools approved therapeutics and biomarkers that help monitor disease progression or predict future events remain as the major challenges in the field of stroke medicine. Hence, attempts to discover safe and efficacious therapeutics and reliable biomarkers are of paramount importance. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs that play important roles in regulating gene expression. Since miRNAs also play important roles in key mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of stroke, including energy failure, inflammation and cell death, it is possible that miRNAs may serve as reliable blood-based markers for risk prediction, diagnosis and prognosis of ischaemic stroke. Discovery of better neurological outcome and smaller cerebral infarcts in animal models of ischaemic stroke treated with miRNA agomirs or antagomirs indicate that miRNAs may also play a cerebrovascular protective role after an ischaemic stroke. Nonetheless, further evidences on the optimum time for treatment and route of administration are required before effective translation of these findings into clinical practice. Bearing these in mind, this paper reviews the current literature discussing the involvement of miRNAs in major pathologies associated with ischaemic stroke and evaluates their value as reliable biomarkers and therapeutics for ischaemic stroke.

Systemic Listeria monocytogenes infection in aged mice induces long-term neuroinflammation: the role of miR-155

BACKGROUND

Understanding mechanisms of pathologic neuroinflammation is essential for improving outcomes after central nervous system infections. Brain tissue-resident memory T cells (bT_RM) are recruited during central nervous system infection and promote pathogen control as well as noxious inflammation. Our prior studies in young mice showed optimal recruitment of CD8⁺ bT_RM during neuroinvasive Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) infection required miR-155, and was significantly inhibited by anti-miR-155 oligonucleotides. Since Lm is an important pathogen in the elderly, we hypothesized anti-miR-155 would also inhibit accumulation of CD8⁺ bT_RM in aged mice infected with Lm.

METHODS

Young (2 mo) and aged (> 18 mo) male C57BL/6 mice were infected intra-peritoneally with wild-type Lm, or avirulent Lm mutants lacking the genes required for intracellular motility (ΔactA) or phagosomal escape (Δhly), then were given antibiotics. Brain leukocytes and their intracellular cytokine production were quantified by flow cytometry >28d post-infection (p.i.). The role of miR-155 was tested by injecting mice with anti-miR-155 or control oligonucleotides along with antibiotics.

RESULTS

Aged mice had significantly more homeostatic CD8⁺ bT_RM than did young mice, which did not increase after infection with wild-type Lm despite 50% mortality, whereas young mice suffered no mortality after a larger inoculum. For direct comparison of post-infectious neuroinflammation after the same inoculum, young and aged mice were infected with 10⁷ CFU ΔactA Lm. This mutant caused no mortality and significantly increased CD8⁺ bT_RM 28d p.i. in both groups, whereas bone marrow-derived myeloid cells, particularly neutrophils, increased only in aged mice. Notably, anti-miR-155 reduced accumulation of brain myeloid cells in aged mice after infection, whereas CD8⁺ bT_RM were unaffected.

CONCLUSIONS

Systemic infection with Lm ΔactA is a novel model for studying infection-induced brain inflammation in aged mice without excessive mortality. CD8⁺ bT_RM increase in both young and aged mice after infection, whereas only in aged mice bone marrow-derived myeloid cells increase long-term. In aged mice, anti-miR-155 inhibits brain accumulation of myeloid cells, but not CD8⁺ bT_RM. These results suggest young and aged mice differ in manifestations and mechanisms of infection-induced neuroinflammation and give insight for developing therapies to ameliorate brain inflammation following severe infection in the elderly.

MicroRNAs as Regulators of Phagocytosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression and thus act as important regulators of cellular phenotype and function. As their expression may be dysregulated in numerous diseases, they are of interest as biomarkers. What is more, attempts of modulation of some microRNAs for therapeutic reasons have been undertaken. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge regarding the influence of microRNAs on phagocytosis, which may be exerted on different levels, such as through macrophages polarization, phagosome maturation, reactive oxygen species production and cytokines synthesis. This phenomenon plays an important role in numerous pathological conditions.

Loss of neurodevelopmental-associated miR-592 impairs neurogenesis and causes social interaction deficits

microRNA-592 (miR-592) has been linked to neurogenesis, but the influence of miR-592 knockout in vivo remains unknown. Here, we report that miR-592 knockout represses IPC-to-mature neuron transition, impairs motor coordination and reduces social interaction. Combining the RNA-seq and tandem mass tagging-based quantitative proteomics analysis (TMT protein quantification) and luciferase reporter assays, we identified MeCP2 as the direct targetgene of miR-592 in the mouse cortex. In Tg(MECP2) mice, lipofection of miR-592 efficiently reduced MECP2 expression in the brains of Tg(MECP2) mice at E14.5. Furthermore, treatment with miR-592 partially ameliorated the autism-like phenotypes observed in adult Tg(MECP2) mice. The findings demonstrate that miR-592 might play a novel role in treating the neurodevelopmental-associated disorder.

miR-155 regulates physiological angiogenesis but an miR-155-rich microenvironment disrupts the process by promoting unproductive endothelial sprouting

Angiogenesis involves cell specification orchestrated by regulatory interactions between the vascular endothelial growth factor and Notch signaling pathways. However, the role of microRNAs in these regulations remains poorly explored. Here we show that a controlled level of miR-155 is essential for proper angiogenesis. In the mouse retina angiogenesis model, antimiR-155 altered neovascularization. In vitro assays established that endogenous miR-155 is involved in podosome formation, activation of the proteolytic machinery and cell migration but not in morphogenesis. The role of miR-155 was explored using miR-155 mimics. In vivo, exposing the developing vasculature to miR-155 promoted hypersprouting, thus phenocopying defects associated with Notch deficiency. Mechanistically, miR-155 overexpression weakened Notch signaling by reducing Smad1/5 expression, leading to the formation of tip cell-like cells which did not reach full invasive capacity and became unable to undergo morphogenesis. These results identify miR-155 as a novel regulator of physiological angiogenesis and as a novel actor of pathological angiogenesis.

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Aggravates Ischemic Stroke Injury by the Inflammatory Activation of Microglia

Ischemic stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Therefore, exploring effective and emerging molecular targets for ischemic stroke is a primary task of basic and clinical research. The aim of the present study was to investigate the function of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in ischemic stroke and its related mechanisms, to provide a reference for the treatment of ischemic stroke. CRF, antalarmin, or astressin-2B were used to activate or block the CRF1 (CRF receptor 1) or CRF2 (CRF receptor 2) in BV2 cells and adult male mice, thus constructing a distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO) model. CRF not only accelerated microglial activity by promoting transcription and production of inflammatory factors, but also promoted the transformation of activated BV2 cells from a neuroprotective phenotype (M2) to cytotoxic phenotype (M1), and these effects were mediated by the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. These effects can be blocked by antalarmin but not by astressin-2B. CRF significantly aggravated the neurological deficit, increased infarction volume, and exacerbated neuronal injuries. Additionally, CRF significantly improved the levels of TNF-α and phospho-NF-κB in the ischemia penumbra. Finally, CRF significantly increased the number of CD16/Iba-1-positive cells and decreased the number of CD206/Iba-1-positive cells in the ischemia penumbra. These results provide evidence of the proinflammatory role of CRF in an ischemic stroke model and a possible underlying mechanism, which may facilitate the elucidation of potential treatment approaches for ischemic stroke.

MicroRNA miR-155 Activity in Mouse Choline Acetyltransferase-Positive Neurons Is Critical for the Rate of Early and Late Paraplegia After Transient Aortic Cross-Clamping

Aortic aneurism open repair surgery can cause spinal cord (SC) injury with 5–15% of patients developing paraparesis or paraplegia. Using a mouse model of transient aortic cross-clamping (ACC), we have previously found that the expression of proinflammatory microRNA miR-155 increases in motoneurons (MNs) and endothelial cells (ECs) of ischemic SCs, and that global miR-155 deletion decreases the percentage of paraplegia by 37.4% at 48-h post-ACC. Here, we investigated the cell-specific contribution of miR-155 in choline acetyltransferase-positive (ChAT+) neurons (that include all MNs of the SC) and ECs to SC injury after ACC. Mice lacking miR-155 in ChAT+ neurons (MN-miR-155-KO mice) developed 24.6% less paraplegia than control mice at 48-h post-ACC. In contrast, mice lacking miR-155 in ECs (ECs-miR-155-KO mice) experienced the same percentage of paraplegia as control mice, despite presenting smaller central cord edema. Unexpectedly, mice overexpressing miR-155 in ChAT+ neurons were less likely than control mice to develop early paraplegia during the first day post-ACC, however they reached the same percentage of paraplegia at 48-h. In addition, all mice overexpressing miR-155 in ECs (ECs-miR-155-KI mice) were paraplegic at 48-h post-ACC. Altogether, our results suggest that miR-155 activity in ChAT+ neurons protects the SC against ischemic injury during the first day post-ACC before becoming deleterious during the second day, which indicates that early and late paraplegias arise from different molecular malfunctions. These results point to the need to develop specific protective therapeutics aimed at inhibiting both the early and late deleterious events after open repair surgery of aortic aneurisms.

Temporal brain microRNA expression changes in a mouse model of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic injury

BACKGROUND

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI) results in significant morbidity and mortality despite current standard therapies. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a promising therapeutic target; however, there is a paucity of data on endogenous miRNA expression of the brain after HIBI during the primary therapeutic window (6-72 h after injury).

METHODS

Postnatal day 9 mouse pups underwent unilateral carotid ligation+hypoxia (HIBI), sham surgery+hypoxia, or sham surgery+normoxia (controls). miRNA sequencing was performed on the ipsilateral brain of each of the three groups plus the contralateral HIBI brain at 24 and 72 h after injury. Findings were validated in eight key miRNAs by quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Hypoxia resulted in significant differential expression of 38 miRNAs at both time points. Mir-2137, -335, -137, and -376c were significantly altered by neonatal HIBI at 24 and 72 h, with 3 of the 4 demonstrating multiphasic expression (different direction of differential expression at 24 versus 72 h).

CONCLUSIONS

Our global assessment of subacute changes in brain miRNA expression after hypoxia or HIBI will advance research into targeted miRNA-based interventions. It will be important to consider the multiphasic miRNA expression patterns after HIBI to identify optimal timing for individual interventions.

IMPACT

This study is the first to comprehensively define endogenous brain microRNA expression changes outside of the first hours after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI). Mir-2137, -335, -137, and -376c were significantly altered by neonatal HIBI and therefore deserve further investigation as possible therapeutic targets. The expression profiles described will support the design of future studies attempting to develop miRNA-based interventions for infants with HIBI. At 24 h after injury, contralateral HIBI miRNA expression patterns were more similar to ipsilateral HIBI than to controls, suggesting that the contralateral brain is not an appropriate "internal control" for miRNA studies in this model.

MiR-155: An Important Regulator of Neuroinflammation

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and that play an important role in many cellular processes, including modulation of inflammation. MiRNAs are present in high concentrations in the central nervous system (CNS) and are spatially and temporally expressed in a specific way. Therefore, an imbalance in the expression pattern of these small molecules can be involved in the development of neurological diseases. Generally, CNS responds to damage or disease through the activation of an inflammatory response, but many neurological disorders are characterized by uncontrolled neuroinflammation. Many studies support the involvement of miRNAs in the activation or inhibition of inflammatory signaling and in the promotion of uncontrolled neuroinflammation with pathological consequences. MiR-155 is a pro-inflammatory mediator of the CNS and plays an important regulatory role. The purpose of this review is to summarize how miR-155 is regulated and the pathological consequences of its deregulation during neuroinflammatory disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and other neuroinflammatory disorders. Modulation of miRNAs' expression could be used as a therapeutic strategy in the treatment of pathological neuroinflammation.

MicroRNA Analysis of Human Stroke Brain Tissue Resected during Decompressive Craniectomy/Stroke-Ectomy Surgery

BACKGROUND

Signaling pathways mediated by microRNAs (miRNAs) have been identified as one of the mechanisms that regulate stroke progression and recovery. Recent investigations using stroke patient blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) demonstrated disease-specific alterations in miRNA expression. In this study, for the first time, we investigated miRNA expression signatures in freshly removed human stroke brain tissue.

METHODS

Human brain samples were obtained during craniectomy and brain tissue resection in severe stroke patients with life-threatening brain swelling. The tissue samples were subjected to histopathological and immunofluorescence microscopy evaluation, next generation miRNA sequencing (NGS), and bioinformatic analysis.

RESULTS

miRNA NGS analysis detected 34 miRNAs with significantly aberrant expression in stroke tissue, as compared to non-stroke samples. Of these miRNAs, 19 were previously identified in stroke patient blood and CSF, while dysregulation of 15 miRNAs was newly detected in this study. miRNA direct target gene analysis and bioinformatics approach demonstrated a strong association of the identified miRNAs with stroke-related biological processes and signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Dysregulated miRNAs detected in our study could be regarded as potential candidates for biomarkers and/or targets for therapeutic intervention. The results described herein further our understanding of the molecular basis of stroke and provide valuable information for the future functional studies in the experimental models of stroke.

Emerging Impact of Non-coding RNAs in the Pathology of Stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is an acute cerebral vascular event with high mortality and morbidity. Though the precise pathophysiologic routes leading to this condition are not entirely clarified, growing evidence from animal and human experiments has exhibited the impact of non-coding RNAs in the pathogenesis of IS. Various lncRNAs namely MALAT1, linc-SLC22A2, linc-OBP2B-1, linc_luo_1172, linc-DHFRL1-4, SNHG15, linc-FAM98A-3, H19, MEG3, ANRIL, MIAT, and GAS5 are possibly involved in the pathogenesis of IS. Meanwhile, lots of miRNAs contribute in this process. Differential expression of lncRNAs and miRNAs in the sera of IS patients versus unaffected individuals has endowed these transcripts the aptitude to distinguish at risk patients. Despite conduction of comprehensive assays for evaluation of the influence of lncRNAs/miRNAs in the pathogenesis of IS, therapeutic impacts of these transcripts in IS have not been clarified. In the present paper, we review the impact of lncRNAs/miRNAs in the pathobiology of IS through assessment of evidence provided by human and animal studies.

Artesunate attenuates inflammatory injury and inhibits the NF-κB pathway in a mouse model of cerebral ischemia

OBJECTIVE

Inflammation is an important factor in the pathological process of cerebral ischemia. Artesunate exhibits a broad range of anti-inflammatory properties in many diseases. We investigated the potential protective effect of artesunate against cerebral ischemia and the related mechanisms.

METHODS

Mice were divided into distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO), sham, low dose, and high dose groups and subjected to dMCAO, except for the sham group. The low and high dose groups were administered artesunate (15 and 30 mg/kg), and the neuroprotective effects were analyzed by evaluating infarct volumes and neurological deficits. Microglial activation and neutrophil infiltration were evaluated by immunofluorescence, immunohistochemical staining, and western blotting. Inflammatory mediators were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Nuclear factor (NF)-κB nuclear translocation was detected by immunofluorescence and western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with the dMCAO group, artesunate significantly improved neurological deficit scores and infarct volumes and ameliorated inflammation by reducing neutrophil infiltration, suppressing microglial activation, and downregulating tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β expression. Furthermore, artesunate inhibited nuclear translocation of NF-κB and inhibitor protein α proteolysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Artesunate protected against inflammatory injury by reducing neutrophil infiltration and microglial activation, suppressing inflammatory cytokines, and inhibiting the NF-κB pathway. Therefore, artesunate is a potential ischemic stroke treatment.

Herpes simplex virus 1 evades cellular antiviral response by inducing microRNA-24, which attenuates STING synthesis

STING is a nodal point for cellular innate immune response to microbial infections, autoimmunity and cancer; it triggers the synthesis of the antiviral proteins, type I interferons. Many DNA viruses, including Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV1), trigger STING signaling causing inhibition of virus replication. Here, we report that HSV1 evades this antiviral immune response by inducing a cellular microRNA, miR-24, which binds to the 3’ untranslated region of STING mRNA and inhibits its translation. Expression of the gene encoding miR-24 is induced by the transcription factor AP1 and activated by MAP kinases in HSV1-infected cells. Introduction of exogenous miR-24 or prior activation of MAPKs, causes further enhancement of HSV1 replication in STING-expressing cells. Conversely, transfection of antimiR-24 inhibits virus replication in those cells. HSV1 infection of mice causes neuropathy and death; using two routes of infection, we demonstrated that intracranial injection of antimiR-24 alleviates both morbidity and mortality of the infected mice. Our studies reveal a new immune evasion strategy adopted by HSV1 through the regulation of STING and demonstrates that it can be exploited to enhance STING’s antiviral action.

The type I interferon system is the first line of cellular antiviral innate immune response. Virus infection is recognized by various pattern recognition receptors in the infected cell and it activates the interferon system to inhibit virus replication. However, viruses have evolved various mechanisms to evade the cellular immune response and enhance viral replication. Our study uncovers an immune evasion strategy used by the Herpes Simplex virus to circumvent the cGAS/STING signaling pathway which is the pivotal innate immune response to combat DNA virus replication. miR-24 induction by HSV1 targets STING and hence, dampens Type I Immune response against the virus. The induction of miR-24 is regulated by virus induced MAPK activation, which are also required during early lytic cycles of HSV1 replication and is indispensable for HSV1 reactivation from latency in neurons; depicting a new direct co-relation between MAPK activation and HSV1 replication orchestrated through cellular miR-24. Silencing of miR-24 in mice brain curtails viral replication and disease severity. Overall, these results indicate possible therapeutic use of stable antimiR-24 against HSV1 and other diseases that are alleviated by STING.

Involvement of noncoding RNA in blood-brain barrier integrity in central nervous system disease

Given the important role of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the central nervous system (CNS), increasing studies have been carried out to determine how the structural and functional integrity of the BBB impacts the pathogenesis of CNS diseases such as stroke, traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), and gliomas. Emerging studies have revealed that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) help to maintain the integrity and permeability of the BBB, thereby mediating CNS homeostasis. This review summarizes recent studies that focus on the effects of ncRNAs on the BBB in CNS diseases, including regulating the biological processes of inflammation, necrosis, and apoptosis of cells, affecting the translational dysfunction of proteins and regulating tight junctions (TJs). A comprehensive and detailed understanding of the interaction between ncRNAs and the BBB will lay a solid foundation for the development of early diagnostic methods and effective treatments for CNS diseases.

Effective silencing of miR-126 after ischemic stroke by means of intravenous α-tocopherol-conjugated heteroduplex oligonucleotide in mice

Brain endothelial cells (BECs) are involved in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. Recently, several microRNAs (miRNAs) in BECs were reported to regulate the endothelial function in ischemic brain. Therefore, modulation of miRNAs in BECs by a therapeutic oligonucleotide to inhibit miRNA (antimiR) could be a useful strategy for treating ischemic stroke. However, few attempts have been made to achieve this strategy via systemic route due to lack of efficient delivery-method toward BECs. Here, we have developed a new technology for delivering an antimiR into BECs and silencing miRNAs in BECs, using a mouse ischemic stroke model. We designed a heteroduplex oligonucleotide, comprising an antimiR against miRNA-126 (miR-126) known as the endothelial-specific miRNA and its complementary RNA, conjugated to α-tocopherol as a delivery ligand (Toc-HDO targeting miR-126). Intravenous administration of Toc-HDO targeting miR-126 remarkably suppressed miR-126 expression in ischemic brain of the model mice. In addition, we showed that Toc-HDO targeting miR-126 was delivered into BECs more efficiently than the parent antimiR in ischemic brain, and that it was delivered more effectively in ischemic brain than non-ischemic brain of this model mice. Our study highlights the potential of this technology as a new clinical therapeutic option for ischemic stroke.

Ischemic stroke-induced polyaxonal innervation at the neuromuscular junction is attenuated by robot-assisted mechanical therapy

Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of disability world-wide. Mounting evidence supports neuromuscular pathology following stroke, yet mechanisms of dysfunction and therapeutic action remain undefined. The objectives of our study were to investigate neuromuscular pathophysiology following ischemic stroke and to evaluate the therapeutic effect of Robot-Assisted Mechanical massage Therapy (RAMT) on neuromuscular junction (NMJ) morphology. Using an ischemic stroke model in male rats, we demonstrated longitudinal losses of muscle contractility and electrophysiological estimates of motor unit number in paretic hindlimb muscles within 21 days of stroke. Histological characterization demonstrated striking pre- and postsynaptic alterations at the NMJ. Stroke prompted enlargement of motor axon terminals, acetylcholine receptor (AChR) area, and motor endplate size. Paretic muscle AChRs were also more homogenously distributed across motor endplates, exhibiting fewer clusters and less fragmentation. Most interestingly, NMJs in paretic muscle exhibited increased frequency of polyaxonal innervation. This finding of increased polyaxonal innervation in stroke-affected skeletal muscle suggests that reduction of motor unit number following stroke may be a spurious artifact due to overlapping of motor units rather than losses. Furthermore, we tested the effects of RAMT - which we recently showed to improve motor function and protect against subacute myokine disturbance - and found significant attenuation of stroke-induced NMJ alterations. RAMT not only normalized the post-stroke presentation of polyaxonal innervation but also mitigated postsynaptic expansion. These findings confirm complex neuromuscular pathophysiology after stroke, provide mechanistic direction for ongoing research, and inform development of future therapeutic strategies. SIGNIFICANCE: Ischemic stroke is a leading contributor to chronic disability, and there is growing evidence that neuromuscular pathology may contribute to the impact of stroke on physical function. Following ischemic stroke in a rat model, there are progressive declines of motor unit number estimates and muscle contractility. These changes are paralleled by striking pre- and postsynaptic maladaptive changes at the neuromuscular junction, including polyaxonal innervation. When administered to paretic hindlimb muscle, Robot-Assisted Mechanical massage Therapy - previously shown to improve motor function and protect against subacute myokine disturbance - prevents stroke-induced neuromuscular junction alterations. These novel observations provide insight into the neuromuscular response to cerebral ischemia, identify peripheral mechanisms of functional disability, and present a therapeutic rehabilitation strategy with clinical relevance.

miR-155 as an Important Regulator of Multiple Sclerosis Pathogenesis. A Review

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, immune-mediated disease and the leading cause of disability among young adults. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. Of them, miR-155 is a crucial regulator of inflammation and plays a role in modulating the autoimmune response in MS. miR-155 is involved in blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption via down-regulation of key junctional proteins under inflammatory conditions. It drives demyelination processes by contributing to, e.g., microglial activation, polarization of astrocytes, and down-regulation of CD47 protein and affecting crucial transcription factors. miR-155 has a huge impact on the development of neuropathic pain and indirectly influences a regulatory T (Treg) cell differentiation involved in the alleviation of pain hypersensitivity. This review also focused on neuropsychiatric symptoms appearing as a result of disease-associated stressors, brain atrophy, and pro-inflammatory factors. Recent studies revealed the role of miR-155 in regulating anxiety, stress, inflammation in the hippocampus, and treatment-resistant depression. Inhibition of miR-155 expression was demonstrated to be effective in preventing processes involved in the pathophysiology of MS. This review aimed to support the better understanding the great role of miR-155 dysregulation in various aspects of MS pathophysiology and highlight future perspectives for this molecule.

Inhibition of miR-103-3p Preserves Neurovascular Integrity Through Caveolin-1 in Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Caveolin-1 (Cav-1) is a constitutive structural protein of caveolae in the plasma membrane. It plays an important role in maintaining blood brain barrier (BBB) integrity. In this study, we identified that miR-103-3p, a hypoxia-responsive miRNA, could interact with Cav-1. In endothelial cells, miR-103-3p mimic diminished the expression of Cav-1 and tight junction proteins, which were rescued by the inhibition of miR-103-3p. We found a substantial increase of miR-103-3p and decease of Cav-1 in the rat subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) model. Pre-SAH intracerebroventricularly injection of miR-103-3p antagomir relieved Cav-1 loss, sequentially reduced BBB permeability and improved neurological function. Finally, we demonstrated that the salutary effects of miR-103-3p antagomir were abolished in Cav-1 knock-out mice, suggesting that Cav-1 was required for the miR-103-3p inhibition-induced neurovascular protection. Taken together, our findings suggest that the inhibition of miR-103-3p could exert neuroprotective effects through preservation of Cav-1 and BBB integrity, making miR-103-3p a novel therapeutic target for SAH.

MicroRNA-30a regulates acute cerebral ischemia-induced blood-brain barrier damage through ZnT4/zinc pathway

The mechanism of early blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption after stroke has been intensively studied but still not fully understood. Here, we report that microRNA-30a (miR-30a) could mediate BBB damage using both cellular and animal models of ischemic stroke. In the experiments in vitro, inhibition of miR-30a decreased BBB permeability, prevented the degradation of tight junction proteins, and reduced intracellular free zinc in endothelial cells. We found that the zinc transporter ZnT4 was a direct target of negative regulation by miR-30a, and ZnT4/zinc signaling pathway contributed significantly to miR-30a-mediated BBB damage. Consistent with these in vitro findings, treatment with miR-30a inhibitor reduced zinc accumulation, increased the expression of ZnT4, and prevented the loss of tight junction proteins in microvessels of ischemic animals. Furthermore, inhibition of miR-30a, even at 90 min post onset of middle cerebral artery occlusion, prevented BBB damage, reduced infarct volume, and ameliorated neurological deficits. Together, our findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms of cerebral ischemia-induced BBB disruption and indicate miR-30a as a regulator of BBB function that can be an effective therapeutic target for ischemic stroke.

Inflammation as a risk factor for stroke in atrial fibrillation: data from a microarray data analysis

Objective

Stroke is a severe complication of atrial fibrillation (AF). We aimed to discover key genes and microRNAs related to stroke risk in patients with AF using bioinformatics analysis.

Methods

GSE66724 microarray data, including peripheral blood samples from eight patients with AF and stroke and eight patients with AF without stroke, were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between AF patients with and without stroke were identified using the GEO2R online tool. Functional enrichment analysis was performed using the DAVID database. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was obtained using the STRING database. MicroRNAs (miRs) targeting these DEGs were obtained from the miRNet database. A miR–DEG network was constructed using Cytoscape software.

Results

We identified 165 DEGs (141 upregulated and 24 downregulated). Enrichment analysis showed enrichment of certain inflammatory processes. The miR–DEG network revealed key genes, including MEF2A, CAND1, PELI1, and PDCD4, and microRNAs, including miR-1, miR-1-3p, miR-21, miR-21-5p, miR-192, miR-192-5p, miR-155, and miR-155-5p.

Conclusion

Dysregulation of certain genes and microRNAs involved in inflammation may be associated with a higher risk of stroke in patients with AF. Evaluating these biomarkers could improve prediction, prevention, and treatment of stroke in patients with AF.

Mir-155 knockout protects against ischemia/reperfusion-induced brain injury and hemorrhagic transformation

MiR-155 negatively regulates translation of mRNA targets to proteins involved in processes that modulate ischemic brain injury including neuroinflammation, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and apoptosis. However, reports of the effect of cerebral miR-155 expression changes after ischemic brain injury are equivocal and miR-155 modulates molecular pathways with opposing effects on these processes. The role of miR-155 in postischemic cerebral hemorrhagic transformation remains unknown. To understand the net effect of complete inactivation of miR-155, miR-155 knockout mice were studied in a cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) model of infarction and hemorrhagic transformation as compared with those of wild type mice. Wild type and miR-155 knockout mice underwent one hour of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) followed by up to 71 hours of reperfusion. The effects of miR-155 knockout on cerebral infarct size, incidence and extent of hemorrhagic transformation, and neurological outcome were determined. We found that miR-155 was significantly upregulated after cerebral I/R in wild type mice, and miR-155 knockout mice had comparably smaller cerebral infarct size and improved neurological deficits. Similarly, wild type mice had significant hemorrhagic burden after cerebral I/R, the incidence and volume of which was reduced in miR-155 knockout mice. Although miR-155 can have opposite effects on cerebral I/R-injury-related processes, the net effect of miR-155 knockout is neuroprotective. Thus, the increase in miR-155 expression observed after cerebral I/R may be considered deleterious and inhibition of this expression and its effects a potential therapeutic target.

FPS-ZM1 Alleviates Neuroinflammation in Focal Cerebral Ischemia Rats via Blocking Ligand/RAGE/DIAPH1 Pathway

Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGEs), a multiligand receptor belonging to the cell-surface immunoglobulin superfamily, has been reported to play a crucial role in neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we tested our hypothesis that the RAGE-specific antagonist FPS-ZM1 is neuroprotective against ischemic brain injury. Distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) or sham operation was performed on anesthetized Sprague-Dawley male rats (n = 60), which were then treated with FPS-ZM1 or vehicle (four groups in total = Vehicle + MCAO, FPS-ZM1 + MCAO, Vehicle + sham, and FPS-ZM1 + sham). After 1 week, neurological function was evaluated, and then, brain tissues were collected for 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining, Nissl staining, TUNEL staining, Western blotting, and immunohistochemical analyses. FPS-ZM1 treatment after MCAO markedly attenuated neurological deficits and reduced the infarct area. More interestingly, FPS-ZM1 inhibited ischemia-induced astrocytic activation and microgliosis and decreased the elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, FPS-ZM1 blocked the increase in the level of RAGE and, notably, of DIAPH1, the key cytoplasmic hub for RAGE-ligand-mediated activation of cellular signaling. Accordingly, FPS-ZM1 also reversed the MCAO-induced increase in phosphorylation of NF-κB targets that are potentially downstream from RAGE/DIAPH1. Our findings reveal that FPS-ZM1 treatment reduces neuroinflammation in rats with focal cerebral ischemia and further suggest that the ligand/RAGE/DIAPH1 pathway contributes to this FPS-ZM1-mediated alleviation of neuroinflammation.