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Bolívar S, Sanz E, Ovelleiro D, Zochodne DW, Udina E. Neuron-specific RNA-sequencing reveals different responses in peripheral neurons after nerve injury. eLife 2024; 12:RP91316. [PMID: 38742628 PMCID: PMC11093584 DOI: 10.7554/elife.91316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Peripheral neurons are heterogeneous and functionally diverse, but all share the capability to switch to a pro-regenerative state after nerve injury. Despite the assumption that the injury response is similar among neuronal subtypes, functional recovery may differ. Understanding the distinct intrinsic regenerative properties between neurons may help to improve the quality of regeneration, prioritizing the growth of axon subpopulations to their targets. Here, we present a comparative analysis of regeneration across four key peripheral neuron populations: motoneurons, proprioceptors, cutaneous mechanoreceptors, and nociceptors. Using Cre/Ai9 mice that allow fluorescent labeling of neuronal subtypes, we found that nociceptors showed the greater regeneration after a sciatic crush, followed by motoneurons, mechanoreceptors, and, finally, proprioceptors. By breeding these Cre mice with Ribotag mice, we isolated specific translatomes and defined the regenerative response of these neuronal subtypes after axotomy. Only 20% of the regulated genes were common, revealing a diverse response to injury among neurons, which was also supported by the differential influence of neurotrophins among neuron subtypes. Among differentially regulated genes, we proposed MED12 as a specific regulator of the regeneration of proprioceptors. Altogether, we demonstrate that the intrinsic regenerative capacity differs between peripheral neuron subtypes, opening the door to selectively modulate these responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bolívar
- Institute of Neurosciences, and Department Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBellaterraSpain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
| | - Elisenda Sanz
- Institute of Neurosciences, and Department Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBellaterraSpain
| | - David Ovelleiro
- Peripheral Nervous System, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Vall d'Hebron Barcelona Hospital CampusBarcelonaSpain
| | - Douglas W Zochodne
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of AlbertaEdmontonCanada
| | - Esther Udina
- Institute of Neurosciences, and Department Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de BarcelonaBellaterraSpain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIMadridSpain
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2
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Asiedu K. Role of ocular surface neurobiology in neuronal-mediated inflammation in dry eye disease. Neuropeptides 2022; 95:102266. [PMID: 35728484 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2022.102266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation is the consequence of dry eye disease regardless of its etiology. Several injurious or harmless processes to the ocular surface neurons promote ocular surface neurogenic inflammation, leading to the vicious cycle of dry eye disease. These processes include the regular release of neuromediators during the conduction of ocular surface sensations, hyperosmolarity-induced ocular surface neuronal damage, neuro-regenerative activities, and neuronal-mediated dendritic cell activities. Neurogenic inflammation appears to be the main culprit, instigating the self-perpetuating inflammation observed in patients with dry eye disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kofi Asiedu
- School of Optometry & Vision Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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3
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Events Occurring in the Axotomized Facial Nucleus. Cells 2022; 11:cells11132068. [PMID: 35805151 PMCID: PMC9266054 DOI: 10.3390/cells11132068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Transection of the rat facial nerve leads to a variety of alterations not only in motoneurons, but also in glial cells and inhibitory neurons in the ipsilateral facial nucleus. In injured motoneurons, the levels of energy metabolism-related molecules are elevated, while those of neurofunction-related molecules are decreased. In tandem with these motoneuron changes, microglia are activated and start to proliferate around injured motoneurons, and astrocytes become activated for a long period without mitosis. Inhibitory GABAergic neurons reduce the levels of neurofunction-related molecules. These facts indicate that injured motoneurons somehow closely interact with glial cells and inhibitory neurons. At the same time, these events allow us to predict the occurrence of tissue remodeling in the axotomized facial nucleus. This review summarizes the events occurring in the axotomized facial nucleus and the cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with each event.
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Olaseinde OF, Owoyele BV. Chondroitin and glucosamine sulphate reduced proinflammatory molecules in the DRG and improved axonal function of injured sciatic nerve of rats. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3196. [PMID: 35210446 PMCID: PMC8873476 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-06554-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain (NP) is an abnormality resulting from lesion or damage to parts of the somatosensory nervous system. It is linked to defective quality of life and often poorly managed. Due to the limited number of approved drugs, limited efficacy and side effects associated with the approved drugs, drugs or drug combinations with great efficacy and very minimal or no side effects will be of great advantage in managing NP. This study aimed at investigating the synergistic antinociceptive effects of the combination of glucosamine sulphate (GS) (240 mg/kg) and chondroitin sulphate (CS) (900 mg/kg) in chronic constriction injury (CCI)-induced neuropathy in rats. Forty-two Wistar rats were randomly distributed into seven groups (n = 6). Sciatic nerve was ligated with four loose ligatures to induce NP. Effects of drugs were examined on stimulus and non-stimulus evoked potentials, expression of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) pain modulators and structural architecture of DRG. Oral administration of GS and CS for 21 days reduced hyperalgesia, allodynia, sciatic nerve functional aberration and DRG pain modulators. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry revealed restoration of structural integrity of DRG. Our result showed that the combination of GS and CS produced antinociceptive effects by attenuating hyperalgesia, allodynia and downregulation of NP mediators. GS and CS additionally produced synergistic analgesic effect over its individual components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olutayo Folajimi Olaseinde
- Neuroscience and Inflammation Unit, Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria.
| | - Bamidele Victor Owoyele
- Neuroscience and Inflammation Unit, Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria.
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5
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Bakhtiary Z, Shahrooz R, Hobbenaghi R, Azizi S, Soltanalinejad F, Baradar Khoshfetrat A. Histomorphometrical evaluation of extensor digitorum longus muscle in sciatic nerve regeneration using tissue engineering in rats. VETERINARY RESEARCH FORUM : AN INTERNATIONAL QUARTERLY JOURNAL 2021; 12:451-457. [PMID: 35529819 PMCID: PMC9010829 DOI: 10.30466/vrf.2019.109276.2593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle atrophy induced by denervation is one of the common disorders in traumatic nerve injuries. The aim of this study was the evaluation of histomorphometrical changes of extensor digitorum longus muscle after denervation and its regeneration by tissue engineering. Ninety adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six main groups (n = 15) in three time periods (2, 4 and 8 weeks; n = 5). Control group was treated without surgery, in transection (Tr) group left sciatic nerve was transected, in scaffold (S) group only collagen gel scaffold was used, in mast cell (MC) group mast cells were used, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) group was treated with mesenchymal stem cells and in MC+MSC group, mast cells along with mesenchymal stem cells were used. In the cellular groups, the scaffold and cells were mixed and placed in the transected nerve gap. The average diameter of muscle fibers, ratio of the muscle fibers nuclei to the fibrocytes nuclei (mn/fn), ratio of the muscle fibers nuclei number to the muscle fibers number (mn/mf), the average ratio of blood vessels to muscle fibers number (v/mf) and muscles weight in Tr group were the lowest compared to the other groups; but, in cellular and S groups, amelioration was observed according to the time period. However, in MC+MSC group, there were the highest ameliorative results. This study revealed that simultaneous use of MCs and MSCs mixed with collagen gel scaffold can be considered as a suitable approach to improve denervated skeletal muscle atrophy associated with sciatic nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Bakhtiary
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
| | - Rasoul Shahrooz
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran; ,Correspondence Rasoul Shahrooz. DVM, DVSc, Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran. E-mail:
| | - Rahim Hobbenaghi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
| | - Saeed Azizi
- Department of Surgery and Diagnostic Imaging, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
| | - Farhad Soltanalinejad
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
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Chacon MA, Echternacht SR, Leckenby JI. Outcome measures of facial nerve regeneration: A review of murine model systems. Ann Anat 2020; 227:151410. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2019.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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7
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Mittal A, Sagi V, Gupta M, Gupta K. Mast Cell Neural Interactions in Health and Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:110. [PMID: 30949032 PMCID: PMC6435484 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) are located in the periphery as well as the central nervous system (CNS). Known for sterile inflammation, MCs play a critical role in neuroinflammation, which is facilitated by their close proximity to nerve fibers in the periphery and meninges of the spinal cord and the brain. Multifaceted activation of MCs releasing neuropeptides, cytokines and other mediators has direct effects on the neural system as well as neurovascular interactions. Emerging studies have identified the release of extracellular traps, a phenomenon traditionally meant to ensnare invading pathogens, as a cause of MC-induced neural injury. In this review article, we will discuss mechanisms of MC interaction with the nervous system through degranulation, de novo synthesis, extracellular vesicles (EVs), tunneling nanotubes, and extracellular traps with implications across a variety of pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Mittal
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Varun Sagi
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Mihir Gupta
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Kalpna Gupta
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
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8
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Bilateral activation of STAT3 by phosphorylation at the tyrosine-705 (Y705) and serine-727 (S727) positions and its nuclear translocation in primary sensory neurons following unilateral sciatic nerve injury. Histochem Cell Biol 2018; 150:37-47. [PMID: 29488000 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-018-1656-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Unilateral sciatic nerve compression (SNC) or complete sciatic nerve transection (CSNT), both varying degrees of nerve injury, induced activation of STAT3 bilaterally in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons of lumbar (L4-L5) as well as cervical (C6-C8) spinal cord segments. STAT3 activation was by phosphorylation at the tyrosine-705 (Y705) and serine-727 (S727) positions and was followed by their nuclear translocation. This is the first evidence of STAT3(S727) activation together with the well-known activation of STAT3(Y705) in primary sensory neurons upon peripheral nerve injury. Bilateral activation of STAT3 in DRG neurons of spinal segments anatomically both associated as well as non-associated with the injured nerve indicates diffusion of STAT3 activation inducers along the spinal cord. Increased levels of IL-6 protein in the CSF following nerve injury as well as activation and nuclear translocation of STAT3 in DRG after intrathecal injection of IL-6 shows that this cytokine, released into the subarachnoid space can penetrate the DRG to activate STAT3. Previous results on increased bilateral IL-6 synthesis and the present manifestation of STAT3 activation in remote DRG following unilateral sciatic nerve injury may reflect a systemic reaction of the DRG neurons to nerve injury.
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9
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Tyzack GE, Hall CE, Sibley CR, Cymes T, Forostyak S, Carlino G, Meyer IF, Schiavo G, Zhang SC, Gibbons GM, Newcombe J, Patani R, Lakatos A. A neuroprotective astrocyte state is induced by neuronal signal EphB1 but fails in ALS models. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1164. [PMID: 29079839 PMCID: PMC5660125 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01283-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocyte responses to neuronal injury may be beneficial or detrimental to neuronal recovery, but the mechanisms that determine these different responses are poorly understood. Here we show that ephrin type-B receptor 1 (EphB1) is upregulated in injured motor neurons, which in turn can activate astrocytes through ephrin-B1-mediated stimulation of signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3). Transcriptional analysis shows that EphB1 induces a protective and anti-inflammatory signature in astrocytes, partially linked to the STAT3 network. This is distinct from the response evoked by interleukin (IL)-6 that is known to induce both pro inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes. Finally, we demonstrate that the EphB1-ephrin-B1 pathway is disrupted in human stem cell derived astrocyte and mouse models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Our work identifies an early neuronal help-me signal that activates a neuroprotective astrocytic response, which fails in ALS, and therefore represents an attractive therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia E Tyzack
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, E.D. Adrian Building, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Claire E Hall
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Christopher R Sibley
- Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Burlington Danes Building Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Tomasz Cymes
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, E.D. Adrian Building, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
| | - Serhiy Forostyak
- Institute of Experimental Medicine ASCR and Charles University in Prague, Department of Neuroscience, Videnská 1083, Prague 4, 142 20, Czech Republic
| | - Giulia Carlino
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Ione F Meyer
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Giampietro Schiavo
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Su-Chun Zhang
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - George M Gibbons
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, E.D. Adrian Building, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
| | - Jia Newcombe
- Department of Neuroinflammation, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 1PJ, UK
| | - Rickie Patani
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 3BG, UK.
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK.
| | - András Lakatos
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, E.D. Adrian Building, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK.
- Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK.
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10
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Majkutewicz I, Kurowska E, Podlacha M, Myślińska D, Grembecka B, Ruciński J, Plucińska K, Jerzemowska G, Wrona D. Dimethyl fumarate attenuates intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced spatial memory impairment and hippocampal neurodegeneration in rats. Behav Brain Res 2016; 308:24-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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11
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DeFrancesco-Lisowitz A, Lindborg JA, Niemi JP, Zigmond RE. The neuroimmunology of degeneration and regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. Neuroscience 2015; 302:174-203. [PMID: 25242643 PMCID: PMC4366367 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral nerves regenerate following injury due to the effective activation of the intrinsic growth capacity of the neurons and the formation of a permissive pathway for outgrowth due to Wallerian degeneration (WD). WD and subsequent regeneration are significantly influenced by various immune cells and the cytokines they secrete. Although macrophages have long been known to play a vital role in the degenerative process, recent work has pointed to their importance in influencing the regenerative capacity of peripheral neurons. In this review, we focus on the various immune cells, cytokines, and chemokines that make regeneration possible in the peripheral nervous system, with specific attention placed on the role macrophages play in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - J A Lindborg
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - J P Niemi
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - R E Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
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12
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Xia W, Peng GY, Sheng JT, Zhu FF, Guo JF, Chen WQ. Neuroprotective effect of interleukin-6 regulation of voltage-gated Na(+) channels of cortical neurons is time- and dose-dependent. Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:610-7. [PMID: 26170823 PMCID: PMC4424755 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.155436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-6 has been shown to be involved in nerve injury and nerve regeneration, but the effects of long-term administration of high concentrations of interleukin-6 on neurons in the central nervous system is poorly understood. This study investigated the effects of 24 hour exposure of interleukin-6 on cortical neurons at various concentrations (0.1, 1, 5 and 10 ng/mL) and the effects of 10 ng/mL interleukin-6 exposure to cortical neurons for various durations (2, 4, 8, 24 and 48 hours) by studying voltage-gated Na(+) channels using a patch-clamp technique. Voltage-clamp recording results demonstrated that interleukin-6 suppressed Na(+) currents through its receptor in a time- and dose-dependent manner, but did not alter voltage-dependent activation and inactivation. Current-clamp recording results were consistent with voltage-clamp recording results. Interleukin-6 reduced the action potential amplitude of cortical neurons, but did not change the action potential threshold. The regulation of voltage-gated Na(+) channels in rat cortical neurons by interleukin-6 is time- and dose-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xia
- Department of Interventional Radiology, First Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Guo-yi Peng
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jiang-tao Sheng
- Department of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Fang-fang Zhu
- Department of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jing-fang Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Wei-qiang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong Province, China
- Correspondence to: Wei-qiang Chen,
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13
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Sensing nerve injury at the axonal ER: activated Luman/CREB3 serves as a novel axonally synthesized retrograde regeneration signal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:16142-7. [PMID: 25349404 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1407462111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Luman/cAMP response element binding protein 3 is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) transmembrane basic leucine zipper transcription factor whose mRNA and protein localize to adult sensory axons, the latter with axonal ER components along the axon length. Here we show that axon-derived Luman plays an important role in relaying information about axonal injury to the neuronal cell body. Axotomy induces axonal Luman synthesis and also release from the axonal ER of Luman's transcriptionally active amino terminus, which is transported to the cell body in an importin-mediated manner. Visualization of the activation and retrograde translocation of Luman into the nucleus in real time both in vivo and in vitro was accomplished using a specially created N- and C-terminal-tagged Luman adenoviral vector. Small interfering RNA used to reduce Luman expression either neuronally or just axonally significantly impaired the ability of 24-h injury-conditioned sensory neurons to extend the regeneration-associated elongating form of axon growth but had no impact on axon outgrowth in naïve neurons. Collectively, these findings link injury-associated axonal ER responses proximal to the site of injury to the intrinsic regenerative growth capacity of adult sensory neurons.
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14
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Almolda B, Villacampa N, Manders P, Hidalgo J, Campbell IL, González B, Castellano B. Effects of astrocyte-targeted production of interleukin-6 in the mouse on the host response to nerve injury. Glia 2014; 62:1142-61. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Almolda
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Nàdia Villacampa
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Peter Manders
- School of Molecular Bioscience; University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Juan Hidalgo
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Iain L. Campbell
- School of Molecular Bioscience; University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Berta González
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Bernardo Castellano
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
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15
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Tronel C, Page G, Bodard S, Chalon S, Antier D. The specific PKR inhibitor C16 prevents apoptosis and IL-1β production in an acute excitotoxic rat model with a neuroinflammatory component. Neurochem Int 2013; 64:73-83. [PMID: 24211709 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Revised: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR), an apoptotic inducer, regulates much pro-inflammatory cytokine production. The purpose of this study was to evaluate in vivo the effects of the specific PKR inhibitor C16 in the striatum in an acute excitotoxic rat model with an important neuroinflammatory component. Inflammation was induced by unilateral striatal injection of quinolinic acid (QA) in 10-week-old normotensive rats. Animals were separated into groups receiving either vehicle or C16 for both sham and QA rats. The effects were assessed in ipsi- and contralateral striata by immunoblotting for PKR activation, by Luminex assay for cytokine levels and by immunofluorescent staining for cleaved caspase-3 to detect neuronal apoptosis. The highest dose of C16 (600μg/kg; C16-2) in QA rats reduced expression of the active catalytic domain of the PKR vs. that in vehicle-injected QA rats. A robust increase of IL-1β levels on the contralateral side of QA rats was prevented by C16-2 (97% inhibition). Macroscopic and microscopic observation of cerebral tissue (Hematoxylin & Eosin staining) revealed that tissue integrity was more preserved with C16-2 treatment than its vehicle in QA rats. Furthermore, C16-2 treatment decreased by 47% the neuronal loss and by 37% the number of positive cleaved caspase-3 neurons induced by QA injection. In conclusion, C16 prevented not only the PKR-induced neuronal loss but also the inflammatory response in this acute excitotoxic in vivo model, highlighting its promising neuroprotective properties to rescue acute brain lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tronel
- INSERM U930, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais de Tours, UMR U930, Tours, France.
| | - G Page
- EA 3808, University of Poitiers, "Molecular Targets and Therapeutics of Alzheimer's Disease (CiMoTheMA)", 6 rue de la Milétrie, BP 199, 86034 Poitiers, France
| | - S Bodard
- INSERM U930, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais de Tours, UMR U930, Tours, France
| | - S Chalon
- INSERM U930, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais de Tours, UMR U930, Tours, France
| | - D Antier
- INSERM U930, Tours, France; Université François Rabelais de Tours, UMR U930, Tours, France
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A focus on mast cells and pain. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 264:1-7. [PMID: 24125568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) are immunocytes with secretory functions that act locally in peripheral tissues to modulate local hemodynamics, nociceptor activation and pain. They are also able to infiltrate the central nervous system (CNS), especially the spinal cord and the thalamus, but their cerebral function remains an enigma. A role in regulating the opening of the blood-brain barrier has been proposed. Paracrine-like action of MCs on synaptic transmission might also signal a modulation of the nervous system by the immune system. In this review, we examine the link between MCs and nociceptive process, at the periphery as well as in the CNS.
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Dubový P, Brázda V, Klusáková I, Hradilová-Svíženská I. Bilateral elevation of interleukin-6 protein and mRNA in both lumbar and cervical dorsal root ganglia following unilateral chronic compression injury of the sciatic nerve. J Neuroinflammation 2013; 10:55. [PMID: 23634725 PMCID: PMC3657546 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-10-55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Current research implicates interleukin (IL)-6 as a key component of the nervous-system response to injury with various effects. Methods We used unilateral chronic constriction injury (CCI) of rat sciatic nerve as a model for neuropathic pain. Immunofluorescence, ELISA, western blotting and in situ hybridization were used to investigate bilateral changes in IL-6 protein and mRNA in both lumbar (L4-L5) and cervical (C7-C8) dorsal root ganglia (DRG) following CCI. The operated (CCI) and sham-operated (sham) rats were assessed after 1, 3, 7, and 14 days. Withdrawal thresholds for mechanical hyperalgesia and latencies for thermal hyperalgesia were measured in both ipsilateral and contralateral hind and fore paws. Results The ipsilateral hind paws of all CCI rats displayed a decreased threshold of mechanical hyperalgesia and withdrawal latency of thermal hyperalgesia, while the contralateral hind and fore paws of both sides exhibited no significant changes in mechanical or thermal sensitivity. No significant behavioral changes were found in the hind and fore paws on either side of the sham rats, except for thermal hypersensitivity, which was present bilaterally at 3 days. Unilateral CCI of the sciatic nerve induced a bilateral increase in IL-6 immunostaining in the neuronal bodies and satellite glial cells (SGC) surrounding neurons of both lumbar and cervical DRG, compared with those of naive control rats. This bilateral increase in IL-6 protein levels was confirmed by ELISA and western blotting. More intense staining for IL-6 mRNA was detected in lumbar and cervical DRG from both sides of rats following CCI. The DRG removed from sham rats displayed a similar pattern of staining for IL-6 protein and mRNA as found in naive DRG, but there was a higher staining intensity in SGC. Conclusions Bilateral elevation of IL-6 protein and mRNA is not limited to DRG homonymous to the injured nerve, but also extended to DRG that are heteronymous to the injured nerve. The results for IL-6 suggest that the neuroinflammatory reaction of DRG to nerve injury is propagated alongside the neuroaxis from the lumbar to the remote cervical segments. This is probably related to conditioning of cervical DRG neurons to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Dubový
- Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, Brno, 62500, Czech Republic.
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Iwatsuki K, Arai T, Ota H, Kato S, Natsume T, Kurimoto S, Yamamoto M, Hirata H. Targeting anti-inflammatory treatment can ameliorate injury-induced neuropathic pain. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57721. [PMID: 23469058 PMCID: PMC3585184 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-α plays important roles in immune system development, immune response regulation, and T-cell-mediated tissue injury. The present study assessed the net value of anti-tumor necrosis factor-α treatment in terms of functional recovery and inhibition of hypersensitivity after peripheral nerve crush injury. We created a right sciatic nerve crush injury model using a Sugita aneurysm clip. Animals were separated into 3 groups: the first group received only a skin incision; the second group received nerve crush injury and intraperitoneal vehicle injection; and the third group received nerve crush injury and intraperitoneal etanercept (6 mg/kg). Etanercept treatment improved recovery of motor nerve conduction velocity, muscle weight loss, and sciatic functional index. Plantar thermal and von Frey mechanical withdrawal thresholds recovered faster in the etanercept group than in the control group. On day 7 after crush injury, the numbers of ED-1-positive cells in crushed nerves of the control and etanercept groups were increased compared to that in the sham-treated group. After 21 days, ED-1-positive cells had nearly disappeared from the etanercept group. Etanercept reduced expression of interleukin-6 and monocyte chemotactic and activating factor-1 at the crushed sciatic nerve. These findings demonstrate the utility of etanercept, in terms of both enhancing functional recovery and suppressing hypersensitivity after nerve crush. Etanercept does not impede the onset or progression of Wallerian degeneration, but optimizes the involvement of macrophages and the secretion of inflammatory mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuyuki Iwatsuki
- Department of Hand Surgery, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Japan.
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Wei XH, Na XD, Liao GJ, Chen QY, Cui Y, Chen FY, Li YY, Zang Y, Liu XG. The up-regulation of IL-6 in DRG and spinal dorsal horn contributes to neuropathic pain following L5 ventral root transection. Exp Neurol 2012; 241:159-68. [PMID: 23261764 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Our previous works have shown that pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) plays an important role in neuropathic pain produced by lumber 5 ventral root transection (L5-VRT). In the present work we evaluate the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6), another key inflammatory cytokine, in the L5-VRT model. We found that IL-6 was up-regulated in the ipsilateral L4 and L5 dorsal root ganglian (DRG) neurons and in bilateral lumbar spinal cord following L5-VRT. Double immunofluorescence stainings revealed that in DRGs the increased immunoreactivity (IR) of IL-6 was almost restricted in neuronal cells, while in the spinal dorsal horn IL-6-IR up-regulated in both glial cells (astrocyte and microglia) and neurons. Intrathecal administration of IL-6 neutralizing antibody significantly delayed the induction of mechanical allodynia in bilateral hindpaws after L5-VRT. Furthermore, inhibition of TNF-α synthesis by intraperitoneal thalidomide prevented both mechanical allodynia and the up-regulation of IL-6 in DRGs following L5-VRT. These data suggested that the increased IL-6 in afferent neurons and spinal cord contribute to the development of neuropathic pain following motor fiber injury, and that TNF-α is responsible for the up-regulation of IL-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu-Hong Wei
- Pain Research Center and Department of Physiology, Zhongshan Medical School of Sun Yat-Sen University, PR China
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20
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Chidlow G, Wood JPM, Ebneter A, Casson RJ. Interleukin-6 is an efficacious marker of axonal transport disruption during experimental glaucoma and stimulates neuritogenesis in cultured retinal ganglion cells. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 48:568-81. [PMID: 22884876 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly recognised that chronically activated glia contribute to the pathology of various neurodegenerative diseases, including glaucoma. One means by which this can occur is through the release of neurotoxic, proinflammatory factors. In the current study, we therefore investigated the spatio-temporal patterns of expression of three such cytokines, IL-1β, TNFα and IL-6, in a validated rat model of experimental glaucoma. First, only weak evidence was found for increased expression of IL-1β and TNFα following induction of ocular hypertension. Second, and much more striking, was that robust evidence was uncovered showing IL-6 to be synthesised by injured retinal ganglion cells following elevation of intraocular pressure and transported in an orthograde fashion along the nerve, accumulating at sites of axonal disruption in the optic nerve head. Verification that IL-6 represents a novel marker of disrupted axonal transport in this model was obtained by performing double labelling immunofluorescence with recognised markers of fast axonal transport. The stimulus for IL-6 synthesis and axonal transport during experimental glaucoma arose from axonal injury rather than ocular hypertension, as the response was identical after optic nerve crush and bilateral occlusion of the carotid arteries, each of which is independent of elevated intraocular pressure. Moreover, the response of IL-6 was not a generalised feature of the gp130 family of cytokines, as it was not mimicked by another family member, ciliary neurotrophic factor. Finally, further study suggested that IL-6 may be an early part of the endogenous regenerative response as the cytokine colocalised with growth-associated membrane phosphoprotein-43 in some putative regenerating axons, and potently stimulated neuritogenesis in retinal ganglion cells in culture, an effect that was additive to that of ciliary neurotrophic factor. These data comprise clear evidence that IL-6 is actively involved in the attempt of injured retinal ganglion cells to regenerate their axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glyn Chidlow
- Ophthalmic Research Laboratories, South Australian Institute of Ophthalmology, Hanson Institute Centre for Neurological Diseases, Frome Rd, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
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Rubio-Perez JM, Morillas-Ruiz JM. A review: inflammatory process in Alzheimer's disease, role of cytokines. ScientificWorldJournal 2012; 2012:756357. [PMID: 22566778 PMCID: PMC3330269 DOI: 10.1100/2012/756357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 531] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 12/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder to date. Neuropathological hallmarks are β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, but the inflammatory process has a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of AD. Inflammatory components related to AD neuroinflammation include brain cells such as microglia and astrocytes, the complement system, as well as cytokines and chemokines. Cytokines play a key role in inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes in AD. An important factor in the onset of inflammatory process is the overexpression of interleukin (IL)-1, which produces many reactions in a vicious circle that cause dysfunction and neuronal death. Other important cytokines in neuroinflammation are IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. By contrast, other cytokines such as IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), IL-4, IL-10, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β can suppress both proinflammatory cytokine production and their action, subsequently protecting the brain. It has been observed in epidemiological studies that treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) decreases the risk for developing AD. Unfortunately, clinical trials of NSAIDs in AD patients have not been very fruitful. Proinflammatory responses may be countered through polyphenols. Supplementation of these natural compounds may provide a new therapeutic line of approach to this brain disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Miguel Rubio-Perez
- Department of Food and Nutrition Technology, St. Anthony Catholic University, Campus de Los Jerónimos, s/n Guadalupe, 30107 Murcia, Spain
| | - Juana Maria Morillas-Ruiz
- Department of Food and Nutrition Technology, St. Anthony Catholic University, Campus de Los Jerónimos, s/n Guadalupe, 30107 Murcia, Spain
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St-Jacques B, Ma W. Role of prostaglandin E2 in the synthesis of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 in primary sensory neurons: an in vivo and in vitro study. J Neurochem 2011; 118:841-54. [PMID: 21371033 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07230.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Following various types of nerve injury, cyclooxygenase 2 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) are universally and chronically up-regulated in injured nerves and contribute to the genesis of neuropathic pain. Persistent high levels of PGE2 likely exert chronic effects on nociceptive dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that injured nerve-derived PGE2 contributes to the up-regulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) in DRG neurons following partial sciatic nerve ligation. In naive adult rats, IL-6 was expressed in only a few small size DRG neurons which all co-expressed EP4 receptors. Partial sciatic nerve ligation increased and shifted IL-6 expression from small to medium and large size damaged DRG neurons. Perineural injection of a selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor or a selective EP4 receptor antagonist significantly suppressed the up-regulation of IL-6 in DRG, suggesting that injured nerve derived PGE2 contributes to the de novo synthesis of IL-6 in DRG neurons through EP4 receptors. In cultured sensory ganglion explants, a stabilized PGE2 analog increased IL-6 mRNA and protein levels through the activation of EP4, protein kinase A, protein kinase C, extracellular regulated protein kinase/MAPK, cAMP response element binding protein and NFκB signalling pathways. Taken together, these data indicate that facilitating the de novo synthesis of pain-related cytokines in injured medium and large size DRG neurons is a novel mechanism underlying the role of injured nerve derived PGE2 in the genesis of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno St-Jacques
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Yamashita S, Kato R, Kobayashi K, Hisasue S, Arai Y, Tsukamoto T. Inhibition of Interleukin‐6 Attenuates Erectile Dysfunction in a Rat Model of Nerve-Sparing Radical Prostatectomy. J Sex Med 2011; 8:1957-64. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02283.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Couturier J, Paccalin M, Morel M, Terro F, Milin S, Pontcharraud R, Fauconneau B, Page G. Prevention of the β-amyloid peptide-induced inflammatory process by inhibition of double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase in primary murine mixed co-cultures. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:72. [PMID: 21699726 PMCID: PMC3131234 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Inflammation may be involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). There has been little success with anti-inflammatory drugs in AD, while the promise of anti-inflammatory treatment is more evident in experimental models. A new anti-inflammatory strategy requires a better understanding of molecular mechanisms. Among the plethora of signaling pathways activated by β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides, the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway could be an interesting target. In virus-infected cells, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) controls the NF-κB signaling pathway. It is well-known that PKR is activated in AD. This led us to study the effect of a specific inhibitor of PKR on the Aβ42-induced inflammatory response in primary mixed murine co-cultures, allowing interactions between neurons, astrocytes and microglia. Methods Primary mixed murine co-cultures were prepared in three steps: a primary culture of astrocytes and microglia for 14 days, then a primary culture of neurons and astrocytes which were cultured with microglia purified from the first culture. Before exposure to Aβ neurotoxicity (72 h), co-cultures were treated with compound C16, a specific inhibitor of PKR. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 were assessed by ELISA. Levels of PT451-PKR and activation of IκB, NF-κB and caspase-3 were assessed by western blotting. Apoptosis was also followed using annexin V-FITC immunostaining kit. Subcellular distribution of PT451-PKR was assessed by confocal immunofluorescence and morphological structure of cells by scanning electron microscopy. Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA followed by a Newman-Keuls' post hoc test Results In these co-cultures, PKR inhibition prevented Aβ42-induced activation of IκB and NF-κB, strongly decreased production and release of tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) and interleukin (IL)-1β, and limited apoptosis. Conclusion In spite of the complexity of the innate immune response, PKR inhibition could be an interesting anti-inflammatory strategy in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Couturier
- Research Group on Brain Aging, GReViC EA 3808, 6 rue de la Milétrie BP 199, 86034 Poitiers Cedex, France
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25
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Gushchina SV, Magoulas CB, Yousaf N, Richardson PM, Volkova OV. Posttraumatic activity of signal pathways of nuclear factor κB in mature sensory neurons. Bull Exp Biol Med 2011; 149:474-8. [PMID: 21234447 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-010-0974-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to clear out whether injury to the peripheral nerve leads to activation of nuclear factor κB in mature spinal ganglia. Analysis of matrix RNA of nuclear factor κB-dependent genes (monocyte chemoattractant protein MCP-1 and inhibitor of nuclear factor κB IκBα) showed different levels of expression of these genes in the spinal ganglia in vivo after axotomy and in vitro after TNF-α stimulation. On the other hand, DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor κB increased in the spinal ganglia 6 h after axotomy and after 10-min incubation of sensory neuron culture with TNF-α. These data attest to possible involvement of nuclear factor κB in the posttraumatic regulation of gene transcription in spinal ganglion cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S V Gushchina
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Pediatric Faculty, Russian State Medical University, Moscow.
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26
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Kraft AD, Kaltenbach LS, Lo DC, Harry GJ. Activated microglia proliferate at neurites of mutant huntingtin-expressing neurons. Neurobiol Aging 2011; 33:621.e17-33. [PMID: 21482444 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
In Huntington's disease (HD), mutated huntingtin (mhtt) causes striatal neurodegeneration which is paralleled by elevated microglia cell numbers. In vitro corticostriatal slice and primary neuronal culture models, in which neuronal expression of mhtt fragments drives HD-like neurotoxicity, were employed to examine wild type microglia during both the initiation and progression of neuronal pathology. As neuronal pathology progressed, microglia initially localized in the vicinity of neurons expressing mhtt fragments increased in number, demonstrated morphological evidence of activation, and expressed the proliferation marker, Ki67. These microglia were positioned along irregular neurites, but did not localize with mhtt inclusions nor exacerbate mhtt fragment-induced neurotoxicity. Prior to neuronal pathology, microglia upregulated ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), signaling a functional shift. With neurodegeneration, interleukin-6 and complement component 1q were increased. The results suggest a stimulatory, proliferative signal for microglia present at the onset of mhtt fragment-induced neurodegeneration. Thus, microglia effect a localized inflammatory response to neuronal mhtt expression that may serve to direct microglial removal of dysfunctional neurites or aberrant synapses, as is required for reparative actions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Kraft
- Neurotoxicology Group, Laboratory of Toxicology and Pharmacology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Spooren A, Kolmus K, Laureys G, Clinckers R, De Keyser J, Haegeman G, Gerlo S. Interleukin-6, a mental cytokine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 67:157-83. [PMID: 21238488 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2011.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Almost a quarter of a century ago, interleukin-6 (IL-6) was discovered as an inflammatory cytokine involved in B cell differentiation. Today, IL-6 is recognized to be a highly versatile cytokine, with pleiotropic actions not only in immune cells, but also in other cell types, such as cells of the central nervous system (CNS). The first evidence implicating IL-6 in brain-related processes originated from its dysregulated expression in several neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. In addition, IL-6 was shown to be involved in multiple physiological CNS processes such as neuron homeostasis, astrogliogenesis and neuronal differentiation. The molecular mechanisms underlying IL-6 functions in the brain have only recently started to emerge. In this review, an overview of the latest discoveries concerning the actions of IL-6 in the nervous system is provided. The central position of IL-6 in the neuroinflammatory reaction pattern, and more specifically, the role of IL-6 in specific neurodegenerative processes, which accompany Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis and excitotoxicity, are discussed. It is evident that IL-6 has a dichotomic action in the CNS, displaying neurotrophic properties on the one hand, and detrimental actions on the other. This is in agreement with its central role in neuroinflammation, which evolved as a beneficial process, aimed at maintaining tissue homeostasis, but which can become malignant when exaggerated. In this perspective, it is not surprising that 'well-meant' actions of IL-6 are often causing harm instead of leading to recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneleen Spooren
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Signal Transduction and Gene Expression, University of Ghent, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
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Wu X, Lu Y, Dong Y, Zhang G, Zhang Y, Xu Z, Culley DJ, Crosby G, Marcantonio ER, Tanzi RE, Xie Z. The inhalation anesthetic isoflurane increases levels of proinflammatory TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 33:1364-78. [PMID: 21190757 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Revised: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Anesthetics have been reported to promote Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathogenesis by inducing β-amyloid protein accumulation and apoptosis. Neuroinflammation is associated with the emergence of AD. We therefore set out to determine the effects of the common anesthetic isoflurane on the levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β, the proinflammatory cytokines, in vitro and in vivo, employing Western blot, immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Here, we show that a clinically relevant isoflurane anesthesia increased the protein and messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in the brain tissues of mice. The isoflurane anesthesia increased the amounts of TNF-α immunostaining positive cells in the brain tissues of mice, the majority of which were neurons. Furthermore, isoflurane increased TNF-α levels in primary neurons, but not microglia cells, of mice. Finally, isoflurane induced a greater degree of TNF-α increase in the AD transgenic mice than in the wild-type mice. These results suggest that isoflurane may increase the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, which may cause neuroinflammation, leading to promotion of AD neuropathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Wu
- Geriatric Anesthesia Research Unit, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129-2060, USA
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Heneka MT, O'Banion MK, Terwel D, Kummer MP. Neuroinflammatory processes in Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2010; 117:919-47. [PMID: 20632195 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-010-0438-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Generation of neurotoxic amyloid beta peptides and their deposition along with neurofibrillary tangle formation represent key pathological hallmarks in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recent evidence suggests that inflammation may be a third important component which, once initiated in response to neurodegeneration or dysfunction, may actively contribute to disease progression and chronicity. Various neuroinflammatory mediators including complement activators and inhibitors, chemokines, cytokines, radical oxygen species and inflammatory enzyme systems are expressed and released by microglia, astrocytes and neurons in the AD brain. Degeneration of aminergic brain stem nuclei including the locus ceruleus and the nucleus basalis of Meynert may facilitate the occurrence of inflammation in their projection areas given the antiinflammatory and neuroprotective action of their key transmitters norepinephrine and acetylcholine. While inflammation has been thought to arise secondary to degeneration, recent experiments demonstrated that inflammatory mediators may stimulate amyloid precursor protein processing by various means and therefore can establish a vicious cycle. Despite the fact that some aspects of inflammation may even be protective for bystander neurons, antiinflammatory treatment strategies should therefore be considered. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have been shown to reduce the risk and delay the onset to develop AD. While, the precise molecular mechanism underlying this effect is still unknown, a number of possible mechanisms including cyclooxygenase 2 or gamma-secretase inhibition and activation of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma may alone or, more likely, in concert account for the epidemiologically observed protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Heneka
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Neurosciences, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany.
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Rosales-Corral S, Reiter RJ, Tan DX, Ortiz GG, Lopez-Armas G. Functional aspects of redox control during neuroinflammation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 13:193-247. [PMID: 19951033 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2009.2629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a CNS reaction to injury in which some severe pathologies, regardless of their origin, converge. The phenomenon emphasizes crosstalk between neurons and glia and reveals a complex interaction with oxidizing agents through redox sensors localized in enzymes, receptors, and transcription factors. When oxidizing pressures cause reversible molecular changes, such as minimal or transitory proinflammatory cytokine overproduction, redox couples provide a means of translating the presence of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species into useful signals in the cell. Additionally, thiol-based redox sensors convey information about localized changes in redox potential induced by physiologic or pathologic situations. They are susceptible to oxidative changes and become key events during neuroinflammation, altering the course of a signaling response or the behavior of specific transcription factors. When oxidative stress augments the pressure on the intracellular environment, the effective reduction potential of redox pairs diminishes, and cell signaling shifts toward proinflammatory and proapoptotic signals, creating a vicious cycle between oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. In addition, electrophilic compounds derived from the oxidative cascade react with key protein thiols and interfere with redox signaling. This article reviews the relevant functional aspects of redox control during the neuroinflammatory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Rosales-Corral
- Lab. Desarrollo-Envejecimiento, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Occidente (CIBO) del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) , Guadalajara, Jalisco. Mexico.
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Satellite glial cells express IL-6 and corresponding signal-transducing receptors in the dorsal root ganglia of rat neuropathic pain model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 6:73-83. [DOI: 10.1017/s1740925x10000074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence that cytokines contribute to both induction and maintenance of neuropathic pain derived from changes in dorsal root ganglia (DRG), including the activity of the primary sensory neurons and their satellite glial cells (SGC). We used immunofluorescence andin situhybridization methods to provide evidence that chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve induces synthesis of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in SGC, elevation of IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) and activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signalling. Unilateral CCI of the rat sciatic nerve induced mechanoallodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in ipsilateral hind paws, but contralateral paws exhibited only temporal changes of sensitivity. We demonstrated that IL-6 mRNA and protein, which were expressed at very low levels in naïve DRG, were bilaterally increased not only in L4-L5 DRG neurons but also in SGC activated by unilateral CCI. Besides IL-6, substantial increase of IL-6R and pSTAT3 expression occurred in SGC following CCI, however, IL-6R associated protein, gp130 levels did not change. The results may suggest that unilateral CCI of the sciatic nerve induces bilateral activation of SGC in L4-L5 DRG to transduce IL-6 signalling during neuroinflammation.
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Vallejo R, Tilley DM, Vogel L, Benyamin R. The Role of Glia and the Immune System in the Development and Maintenance of Neuropathic Pain. Pain Pract 2010; 10:167-84. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-2500.2010.00367.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Bach-Rojecky L, Lacković Z. Central origin of the antinociceptive action of botulinum toxin type A. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 94:234-8. [PMID: 19732788 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Revised: 08/14/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Here we provide behavioural evidence for an axonal transport and the central origin of the antinociceptive effect of botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A). In rats we investigated the effectiveness of BTX-A on "mirror pain" induced by unilateral repeated intramuscular acidic saline injections (pH 4.0). Since experimental evidence suggest that bilateral pain induced by acidic saline is of central origin, peripheral application of BTX-A should have no effect on this type of pain. However, here we demonstrated that the unilateral subcutaneous BTX-A (5U/kg) application diminished pain on the ipsilateral, and on the contralateral side too. When injected into the proximal part of a distally cut sciatic nerve, BTX-A still reduced pain on the contralateral side. Colchicine, an axonal transport blocker, when injected into the ipsilateral sciatic nerve, prevented the effect of the peripheral BTX-A injection on both sides. Additionally, when BTX-A (1U/kg) was applied intrathecally in the lumbar cerebrospinal fluid, the bilateral hyperalgesia was also reduced. The results demonstrate the necessity of retrograde axonal transport and involvement of the central nervous system for the antinociceptive activity of BTX-A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidija Bach-Rojecky
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Zagreb School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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Ramesh G, Borda JT, Gill A, Ribka EP, Morici LA, Mottram P, Martin DS, Jacobs MB, Didier PJ, Philipp MT. Possible role of glial cells in the onset and progression of Lyme neuroborreliosis. J Neuroinflammation 2009; 6:23. [PMID: 19706181 PMCID: PMC2748066 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-6-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB) may present as meningitis, cranial neuropathy, acute radiculoneuropathy or, rarely, as encephalomyelitis. We hypothesized that glia, upon exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease agent, produce inflammatory mediators that promote the acute cellular infiltration of early LNB. This inflammatory context could potentiate glial and neuronal apoptosis. METHODS We inoculated live B. burgdorferi into the cisterna magna of rhesus macaques and examined the inflammatory changes induced in the central nervous system (CNS), and dorsal root nerves and ganglia (DRG). RESULTS ELISA of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) showed elevated IL-6, IL-8, CCL2, and CXCL13 as early as one week post-inoculation, accompanied by primarily lymphocytic and monocytic pleocytosis. In contrast, onset of the acquired immune response, evidenced by anti-B. burgdorferi C6 serum antibodies, was first detectable after 3 weeks post-inoculation. CSF cell pellets and CNS tissues were culture-positive for B. burgdorferi. Histopathology revealed signs of acute LNB: severe multifocal leptomeningitis, radiculitis, and DRG inflammatory lesions. Immunofluorescence staining and confocal microscopy detected B. burgdorferi antigen in the CNS and DRG. IL-6 was observed in astrocytes and neurons in the spinal cord, and in neurons in the DRG of infected animals. CCL2 and CXCL13 were found in microglia as well as in endothelial cells, macrophages and T cells. Importantly, the DRG of infected animals showed significant satellite cell and neuronal apoptosis. CONCLUSION Our results support the notion that innate responses of glia to B. burgdorferi initiate/mediate the inflammation seen in acute LNB, and show that neuronal apoptosis occurs in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geeta Ramesh
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Juan T Borda
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Amy Gill
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Erin P Ribka
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Lisa A Morici
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University Medical School, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Peter Mottram
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Dale S Martin
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Mary B Jacobs
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Peter J Didier
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Mario T Philipp
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University Medical School, New Orleans, LA, USA
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Geremia NM, Pettersson LME, Hasmatali JC, Hryciw T, Danielsen N, Schreyer DJ, Verge VMK. Endogenous BDNF regulates induction of intrinsic neuronal growth programs in injured sensory neurons. Exp Neurol 2009; 223:128-42. [PMID: 19646438 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2009] [Revised: 07/11/2009] [Accepted: 07/15/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Identification of the molecule(s) that globally induce a robust regenerative state in sensory neurons following peripheral nerve injury remains elusive. A potential candidate is brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the sole neurotrophin upregulated in sensory neurons after peripheral nerve injury. Here we tested the hypothesis that BDNF plays a critical role in the regenerative response of mature rat sensory neurons following peripheral nerve lesion. Neutralization of endogenous BDNF was performed by infusing BDNF antibodies intrathecally via a mini-osmotic pump for 3 days at the level of the fifth lumbar dorsal root ganglion, immediately following unilateral spinal nerve injury. This resulted in decreased expression of the injury/regeneration-associated genes growth-associated protein-43 and Talpha1 tubulin in the injured sensory neurons as compared to injury plus control IgG infused or injury alone animals. Similar results were observed following inhibition of BDNF expression by intrathecal delivery of small interfering RNAs (siRNA) targeting BDNF starting 3 days prior to injury. The reduced injury/regeneration-associated gene expression correlated with a significantly reduced intrinsic capacity of these neurons to extend neurites when assayed in vitro. In contrast, delayed infusion of BDNF antibody for 3 days beginning 1 week post-lesion had no discernible influence on the elevated expression of these regeneration-associated markers. These results support an important role for endogenous BDNF in induction of the cell body response in injured sensory neurons and their intrinsic ability to extend neurites, but BDNF does not appear to be necessary for maintaining the response once it is induced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Geremia
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cameco MS Neuroscience Research Center University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E5
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Girolami EI, Bouhy D, Haber M, Johnson H, David S. Differential expression and potential role of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in Wallerian degeneration in injured peripheral nerve. Exp Neurol 2009; 223:173-82. [PMID: 19576891 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2009] [Revised: 06/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines play an important role in Wallerian degeneration (WD) after peripheral nerve injury. These pro-inflammatory signals are "turned-off" in a timely manner to ensure that the inflammatory response in the injured nerve is limited. The factors that regulate the turning-off of the pro-inflammatory state are not fully understood. The suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are potential candidates that could limit the inflammatory response by acting to regulate cytokine signaling at the intracellular level. In this work we show that the expression SOCS1 and SOCS3 proteins differ from each other during WD in the mouse sciatic nerve after cut/ligation and crush injuries. SOCS1 is mainly expressed by macrophages and its expression is inversely correlated with phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3 signaling proteins and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and TNFalpha. In addition, treatment of cut/ligated nerves, which express lower levels of SOCS1 as compared to crush injury, with a SOCS1 mimetic peptide leads to a decrease in macrophage numbers at 14 days post-injury and reduces IL-1beta mRNA expression 1 day post-injury. In contrast, SOCS3 expression is restricted mainly to Schwann cells and is negatively correlated with the expression of IL-6 and LIF. These data suggest that SOCS1 and SOCS3 may play different roles in WD and provide a better understanding of some of the potential regulatory mechanisms that may control inflammation and regeneration in the injured peripheral nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth I Girolami
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Livingston Hall, Room L7-210, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1A4
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Suzuki S, Tanaka K, Suzuki N. Ambivalent aspects of interleukin-6 in cerebral ischemia: inflammatory versus neurotrophic aspects. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2009; 29:464-79. [PMID: 19018268 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is pleiotropic cytokine involved in many central nervous system disorders including stroke, and elevated serum IL-6 has been found in acute stroke patients. IL-6 is implicated in the inflammation, which contributes to both injury and repair process after cerebral ischemia. However, IL-6 is one of the neurotrophic cytokines sharing a common receptor subunit, gp130, with other neurotrophic cytokines, such as leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and ciliary neurotrophic factor. The expression of IL-6 is most prominently identified in neurons in the peri-ischemic regions, and LIF expression shows a similar pattern. The direct injection of these cytokines into the brain after ischemia can reduce ischemic brain injury. The cytokine receptors are localized on the neuron surface, suggesting that neurons are the cytokine target. The major IL-6 downstream signaling pathway is JAK-STAT, and Stat3 activation occurs mainly in neurons during postischemic reperfusion. Further investigation is necessary to clarify the exact role of Stat3 signaling in neuroprotection. Taken together, the information suggests that IL-6 plays a double role in cerebral ischemia, as an inflammatory mediator during the acute phase and as a neurotrophic mediator between the subacute and prolonged phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeaki Suzuki
- Department of Neurology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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38
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Campbell WW. Evaluation and management of peripheral nerve injury. Clin Neurophysiol 2008; 119:1951-65. [PMID: 18482862 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2008.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 437] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2006] [Revised: 01/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/07/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Common etiologies of acute traumatic peripheral nerve injury (TPNI) include penetrating injury, crush, stretch, and ischemia. Management of TPNI requires familiarity with the relevant anatomy, pathology, pathophysiology, and the surgical principles, approaches and concerns. Surgical repair of TPNI is done at varying time intervals after the injury, and there are a number of considerations in deciding whether and when to operate. In neurapraxia, the compound muscle and nerve action potentials on stimulating distal to the lesion are maintained indefinitely; stimulation above the lesion reveals partial or complete conduction block. The picture in axonotmesis and neurotmesis depends on the time since injury. The optimal timing for an electrodiagnostic study depends upon the clinical question being asked. Although conventional teaching usually holds that an electrodiagnostic study should not be done until about 3 weeks after the injury, in fact a great deal of important information can be obtained by studies done in the first week. Proximal nerve injuries are problematic because the long distance makes it difficult to reinnervate distal muscles before irreversible changes occur. Decision making regarding exploration must occur more quickly, and exploration using intraoperative nerve action potential recording to guide the choice of surgical procedure is often useful.
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Affiliation(s)
- William W Campbell
- Department of Neurology, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Room A 1036, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
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Watkins LR, Hutchinson MR, Milligan ED, Maier SF. "Listening" and "talking" to neurons: implications of immune activation for pain control and increasing the efficacy of opioids. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 2007; 56:148-69. [PMID: 17706291 PMCID: PMC2245863 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2007] [Revised: 06/21/2007] [Accepted: 06/26/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
It is recently become clear that activated immune cells and immune-like glial cells can dramatically alter neuronal function. By increasing neuronal excitability, these non-neuronal cells are now implicated in the creation and maintenance of pathological pain, such as occurs in response to peripheral nerve injury. Such effects are exerted at multiple sites along the pain pathway, including at peripheral nerves, dorsal root ganglia, and spinal cord. In addition, activated glial cells are now recognized as disrupting the pain suppressive effects of opioid drugs and contributing to opioid tolerance and opioid dependence/withdrawal. While this review focuses on regulation of pain and opioid actions, such immune-neuronal interactions are broad in their implications. Such changes in neuronal function would be expected to occur wherever immune-derived substances come in close contact with neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda R Watkins
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0345, USA.
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Wu D, Zhang Y, Bo X, Huang W, Xiao F, Zhang X, Miao T, Magoulas C, Subang MC, Richardson PM. Actions of neuropoietic cytokines and cyclic AMP in regenerative conditioning of rat primary sensory neurons. Exp Neurol 2006; 204:66-76. [PMID: 17112514 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2006] [Revised: 09/26/2006] [Accepted: 09/29/2006] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A conditioning lesion to peripheral axons of primary sensory neurons accelerates regeneration of their central axons in vivo or neurite outgrowth if the neurons are grown in vitro. Previous evidence has implicated neuropoietic cytokines and also cyclic AMP in regenerative conditioning. In experiments reported here, delivery through a lentivirus vector of ciliary neurotrophic factor to the appropriate dorsal root ganglion in rats was sufficient to mimic the conditioning effect of peripheral nerve injury on the regeneration of dorsal spinal nerve root axons. Regeneration in this experimental preparation was also stimulated by intraganglionic injection of dibutyryl cyclic AMP but the effects of ciliary neurotrophic factor and dibutyryl cyclic AMP were not additive. Dibutyryl cyclic AMP injection into the dorsal root ganglion induced mRNAs for two other neuropoietic cytokines, interleukin-6 and leukemia inhibitory factor and increased the accumulation of phosphorylated STAT3 in neuronal nuclei. The in vitro conditioning action of dibutyryl cyclic AMP was partially blocked by a pharmacological inhibitor of Janus kinase 2, a neuropoietic cytokine signaling molecule. We suggest that the beneficial actions of increased cyclic AMP activity on axonal regeneration of primary sensory neurons are mediated, at least in part, through the induction of neuropoietic cytokine synthesis within the dorsal root ganglion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongsheng Wu
- Center for Neuroscience, Institute of Cell and Molecular Sciences, Barts and The London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine, University of London, 4 Newark Street, London E1 2AT, UK
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Abstract
Inhibition by several inhibitory molecules on oligodendrocytes, and by chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans and semaphorins in the glial scar discourages regeneration of axons in the injured spinal cord. This inhibition is compounded by the poor regenerative ability of most central nervous system (CNS) axons. Treatments that block some of these inhibitory mechanisms promote regeneration in animal models of cord injury. Plasticity is also reduced by some of the inhibitory molecules, and some of the treatments that promote regeneration also promote plasticity. This is probably a more achievable therapeutic target than axon regeneration, and an effective treatment would be of assistance to the majority of patients with partial cord injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Fawcett
- Cambridge University Centre for Brain Repair, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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Johnson RR, Prentice TW, Bridegam P, Young CR, Steelman AJ, Welsh TH, Welsh CJR, Meagher MW. Social stress alters the severity and onset of the chronic phase of Theiler's virus infection. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 175:39-51. [PMID: 16631261 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2006.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2005] [Revised: 02/03/2006] [Accepted: 02/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Social stress alters the acute phase of Theiler's virus infection (TMEV), a model of multiple sclerosis. Stress applied prior to infection had deleterious disease outcomes, while stress applied concurrent with infection was protective. The current study examined multiple behavioral (motor impairment, open field activity) and immunological measures (IL-6, antibodies to virus and myelin proteins) in both the acute and chronic phases of TMEV. It was found that stress applied prior to infection exacerbated disease outcomes, while concurrent application was protective in both disease phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin R Johnson
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, 77843-4235, USA.
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Conley L, Geurs TL, Levin LA. Transcriptional regulation of ceruloplasmin by an IL-6 response element pathway. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 139:235-41. [PMID: 15979198 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbrainres.2005.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2004] [Revised: 05/10/2005] [Accepted: 05/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Cp is an acute phase reactant protein that also acts as a ferroxidase, and thus indirectly decreases the production of the reactive oxygen species hydroxyl radical. Ceruloplasmin (Cp) expression is induced by a variety of central nervous system injuries, but the mechanism by which this occurs is unclear. Based on the fact that peripheral nerve injury induces interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression and that there are three IL-6 response elements in the upstream region of the Cp gene, we studied their role in transcriptional regulation of Cp in astrocytic C6 glioma cells, using transfection of a rat Cp-luciferase construct, followed by sequential and simultaneous mutation of the IL-6 response elements. We found that 0.8 kb of sequence upstream to the rat ceruloplasmin start site was sufficient to drive luciferase expression in C6 glioma cells. Cells transfected with Cp-luc and treated with 100 ng/ml rat IL-6 induced 216.8% +/- 4.6% of control activity. Mutagenesis of the IL-6 response elements decreased luciferase activity, with the maximal decline (9.7 +/- 0.7% of wild-type) after mutation of the second site. Mutagenesis of multiple sites decreased activity beyond mutagenesis of single sites with mutation of all three sites decreasing activity to 5.3 +/- 0.4% of wild-type. Gel shift and supershift assays indicated that activation of Cp in these cells was not via STAT-3. These results are consistent with a signaling process via IL-6 response elements for Cp upregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie Conley
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin Medical School, 600 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53792, USA
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Osamura N, Ikeda K, Ito T, Higashida H, Tomita K, Yokoyama S. Induction of interleukin-6 in dorsal root ganglion neurons after gradual elongation of rat sciatic nerve. Exp Neurol 2005; 195:61-70. [PMID: 15913608 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2005] [Revised: 03/25/2005] [Accepted: 03/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the reconstruction of a segmental defect in injured peripheral nerves, gradual nerve elongation has become an important alternative to nerve grafting. To clarify biochemical responses in peripheral sensory neurons after nerve elongation, we examined the expression of cytokines and neurotrophins related to nerve regeneration. We first established rat elongation models by lengthening left femurs up to 20.0 mm at the rate of 1.0, 2.0, or 20.0 mm/day. In toluidine blue staining, the acutely elongated, 20-mm/day group showed nuclear eccentricity in the nerve cell body in L5 dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and axonal degeneration in the sciatic nerves; in contrast, the gradually elongated, 1- and 2-mm/day groups remained intact, indicating adaptation. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that interleukin-6 (IL-6) mRNA was induced in ipsilateral L4-6 DRG in an elongation rate-dependent manner. In contrast, none of the elongated groups exhibited a significant change in mRNA levels for interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotropnin-3, and neurotrophin-4/5. Levels of IL-6 mRNA in all the elongated groups reached the maximum level at day 4 after 20-mm lengthening, while the axotomized group showed a decrease from the maximum level at day 1. Induction of IL-6 mRNA was also detected in the contralateral L4-6 DRG of all the elongated groups, but not detected in the axotomized group. In histochemical analysis, IL-6-immunoreactivity was predominant in neurofilament-positive, medium to large DRG neurons. Application of IL-6 to cultured Schwann cells increased mRNA for peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22), a major myelin component. These results suggest that IL-6 plays a key role in biochemical responses in peripheral sensory neurons after gradual nerve elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Osamura
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, 13-1 Takaramachi, Kanazawa 920-8641, Japan.
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von Banchet GS, Kiehl M, Schaible HG. Acute and long-term effects of IL-6 on cultured dorsal root ganglion neurones from adult rat. J Neurochem 2005; 94:238-48. [PMID: 15953366 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03185.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
IL-6 contributes to pain and hyperalgesia in inflamed tissue. We have investigated short- and long-term effects of IL-6 on dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurones. Glycoprotein 130-like immunoreactivity (the signal transduction receptor subunit) was found in almost all neurones in DRG sections and in cultured DRG neurones from adult rat. In calcium-imaging studies bath application of IL-6 caused an increase of intracellular calcium in about one-third of the DRG neurones suggesting functional IL-6 receptors in a proportion of neurones. Long-term but not short-term exposure of DRG neurones to IL-6 in vitro significantly enhanced the proportion of DRG neurones expressing neurokinin 1 receptor-like immunoreactivity from 10% to up to 40%. This up-regulation was dependent on the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) in the neurones, suggesting that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is important for this effects of IL-6. Calcium-imaging studies demonstrated that previous exposure of DRG neurones to IL-6 enhanced the proportion of neurones that exhibit a substance P-induced rise in intracellular calcium. These data show that IL-6 has short- and long-term effects on a proportion of DRG neurones. These effects are likely to contribute to pro-nociceptive effects of IL-6.
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Kleij HPVD, Bienenstock J. Significance of Conversation between Mast Cells and Nerves. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 2005; 1:65-80. [PMID: 20529227 PMCID: PMC2877069 DOI: 10.1186/1710-1492-1-2-65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
More and more studies are demonstrating interactions between the nervous system and the immune system. However, the functional relevance of this interaction still remains to be elucidated. Such associations have been found in the intestine between nerves and mast cells as well as between eosinophils and plasma cells. Similar morphologic associations have been demonstrated in the liver, mesentery, urinary bladder, and skin. Unmyelinated axons especially were found to associate with mast cells as well as Langerhans' cells in primate as well as murine skin. Although there are several pathways by which immune cells interact with the nervous system, the focus in this review will be on the interaction between mast cells and nerves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanneke Pm van der Kleij
- Brain-Body Institute and Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, St, Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, and McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
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48
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Ma W, Quirion R. Up‐regulation of interleukin‐6 induced by prostaglandin E
2
from invading macrophages following nerve injury: an
in vivo
and
in vitro
study. J Neurochem 2005; 93:664-73. [PMID: 15836625 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03050.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying neuropathic pain caused by nerve injury are not well understood. Inflammatory responses in injured nerves are likely to be key contributing factors in the generation and maintenance of neuropathic pain. The pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) is up-regulated in invading macrophages and has been implicated in the development of neuropathic pain. We previously demonstrated that invading macrophages up-regulate cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) receptors EP1 and EP4, suggesting that PGE2 may affect macrophage function via autocrine or paracrine mechanisms. This study was undertaken to determine whether PGE2 is involved in the up-regulation of IL-6 in invading macrophages. Two weeks following partial sciatic nerve ligation, numerous IL-6 immunoreactive (IR) cell profiles were present in injured nerves. Colocalization of IL-6 with the invading macrophage marker ED1 or with COX2 was frequently observed. IL-6-IR, COX2-IR and ED1-IR cells were present only in cultures derived from injured nerve segments. PGE2 and IL-6 release from cultured cells derived from injured nerves was increased significantly compared with uninjured nerves. Non-selective and selective COX2 inhibitors suppressed PGE2 and IL-6 release. Treatment with PGE2 further enhanced IL-6 release in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. A selective EP4 receptor antagonist L-161982 was able to suppress IL-6 release, whereas an EP1 receptor antagonist, SC19220, was ineffective. Moreover, a protein kinase C inhibitor, calphostin C, dramatically suppressed IL-6 release, whereas a protein kinase A inhibitor H-89 and a Ca2+ chelator EGTA failed. Taken together, our data suggest that PGE2 is involved in mediating the up-regulation of IL-6 occurring in invading macrophages. This action is mediated through an EP4 receptor and the protein kinase C signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiya Ma
- Douglas Hospital Research Center, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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49
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Flatters SJL, Fox AJ, Dickenson AH. Nerve injury alters the effects of interleukin-6 on nociceptive transmission in peripheral afferents. Eur J Pharmacol 2004; 484:183-91. [PMID: 14744602 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2003.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is markedly upregulated in the peripheral and central nervous systems following nerve injury; however, the functional effects of this are unclear. This study investigates the effect of peripheral interleukin-6 on nociceptive transmission in naive and neuropathic states. Using an in vitro rat skin-nerve preparation, 50 ng interleukin-6 inhibited responses of single nociceptive fibers to noxious heat. A 20-ng sample of interleukin-6 only inhibited heat responses in the presence of soluble interleukin-6 receptors. To examine in vivo effects of peripheral interleukin-6, extracellular recordings from dorsal horn neurons were made in anaesthetised naive, sham-operated and neuropathic (spinal nerve ligated) rats. Peripheral interleukin-6 (40-100 ng) markedly inhibited all naturally evoked neuronal responses in naive rats, yet only neuronal responses to heat in neuropathic rats. Behaviourally, intraplantar administration of interleukin-6 (0.01-1 microg) elicited ipsilateral thermal hypoalgesia in naive rats. Thus, interleukin-6 inhibits normal peripheral nociceptive transmission, yet such anti-nociceptive effects are attenuated following nerve injury in a modality-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J L Flatters
- Department of Pharmacology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
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50
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Abstract
Increasing knowledge of the molecular consequences of nerve injury and the availability of genome databases has greatly increased the range of potential targets for the pharmacological management of neuropathic pain. Controlling neuronal sensitization and the associated alterations in gene expression, protein modification, and neuronal excitability is the key to managing neuropathic pain. Control of neuronal sensitization can occur through inhibition of nerve injury-associated production of cytokines, activation of glial cells, modulation of potassium channel subtypes, mitogen-activated protein kinases, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, or the protection and amplification of spinal cord dorsal horn inhibitory systems. These new and already established targets promise unparalleled opportunities for the prevention, management, and resolution of persistent pain states following nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald C Manning
- Clinical Research and Development, Celgene Corporation, Seven Powder Horn Drive, Warren, NJ 07059, USA.
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