Culturing human intestinal stem cells for regenerative applications in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Restore Intestinal Barrier Integrity: An Approach for Inflammatory Bowel Disease Therapy

The intestinal barrier maintained by various types of columnar epithelial cells, plays a crucial role in regulating the interactions between the intestinal contents (such as the intestinal microbiota), the immune system, and other components. Dysfunction of the intestinal mucosa is a significant pathophysiological mechanism and clinical manifestation of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, current therapies for IBD primarily focus on suppressing inflammation, and no disease-modifying treatments specifically target the epithelial barrier. Given the side effects associated with chronic immunotherapy, effective alternative therapies that promote mucosal healing are highly attractive. In this review, we examined the function of intestinal epithelial barrier function and the mechanisms of behind its disruption in IBD. We illustrated the complex process of intestinal mucosal healing and proposed therapeutic approaches to promote mucosal healing strategies in IBD. These included the application of stem cell transplantation and organ-like tissue engineering approaches to generate new intestinal tissue. Finally, we discussed potential strategies to restore the function of the intestinal barrier as a treatment for IBD.

Gut microbiota modulating intestinal stem cell differentiation

Proliferation and differentiation of intestinal stem cell (ISC) to replace damaged gut mucosal epithelial cells in inflammatory states is a critical step in ameliorating gut inflammation. However, when this disordered proliferation continues, it induces the ISC to enter a cancerous state. The gut microbiota on the free surface of the gut mucosal barrier is able to interact with ISC on a sustained basis. Microbiota metabolites are able to regulate the proliferation of gut stem and progenitor cells through transcription factors, while in steady state, differentiated colonocytes are able to break down such metabolites, thereby protecting stem cells at the gut crypt. In the future, the gut flora and its metabolites mediating the regulation of ISC differentiation will be a potential treatment for enteropathies.

Organoids as regenerative medicine for inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic disorder with an increasing global prevalence. Managing disease activity relies on various pharmacological options. However, the effectiveness of current therapeutics is limited and not universally applicable to all patients and circumstances. Consequently, developing new management strategies is necessary. Recent advances in endoscopically obtained intestinal biopsy specimens have highlighted the potential of intestinal epithelial organoid transplantation as a novel therapeutic approach. Experimental studies using murine and human organoid transplantations have shown promising outcomes, including tissue regeneration and functional recovery. Human trials with organoid therapy have commenced; thus, this article provides readers with insights into the necessity and potential of intestinal organoid transplantation as a new regenerative therapeutic option in clinical settings and explores its associated challenges.

Organoid models: the future companions of personalized drug development

High failure rates of the current drug development process are driving exemplary changes toward methodologies centered on human diseasein-vitromodeling. Organoids are self-organized tissue sub-units resembling their organ of origin and are widely acknowledged for their unique potential in recapitulating human physio-pathological mechanisms. They are transformative for human health by becoming the platform of choice to probe disease mechanisms and advance new therapies. Furthermore, the compounds' validation as therapeutics represents another point of the drug development pipeline where organoids may provide key understandings and help pharma organizations replace or reduce animal research. In this review, we focus on gastrointestinal organoid models, which are currently the most advanced organoid models in drug development. We focus on experimental validations of their value, and we propose avenues to enhance their use in drug discovery and development, as well as precision medicine and diagnostics.

The Potential Role of Intestinal Stem Cells and Microbiota for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer is a global health concern with high incidence and mortality rates. Conventional treatments like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy have limitations in improving patient survival rates. Recent research highlights the role of gut microbiota and intestinal stem cells in maintaining intestinal health and their potential therapeutic applications in colorectal cancer treatment. The interaction between gut microbiota and stem cells influences epithelial self-renewal and overall intestinal homeostasis. Novel therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy, targeted therapy, regenerative medicine using stem cells, and modulation of gut microbiota, are being explored to improve treatment outcomes. Accordingly, this chapter provides an overview of the potential therapeutic applications of gut microbiota and intestinal stem cells in treating colorectal cancer.

Mice with renal-specific alterations of stem cell-associated signaling develop symptoms of chronic kidney disease but surprisingly no tumors

Previously, we found that Wnt and Notch signaling govern stem cells of clear cell kidney cancer (ccRCC) in patients. To mimic stem cell responses in the normal kidney in vitro in a marker-unbiased fashion, we have established tubular organoids (tubuloids) from total single adult mouse kidney epithelial cells in Matrigel and serum-free conditions. Deep proteomic and phosphoproteomic analyses revealed that tubuloids resembled renewal of adult kidney tubular epithelia, since tubuloid cells displayed activity of Wnt and Notch signaling, long-term proliferation and expression of markers of proximal and distal nephron lineages. In our wish to model stem cell-derived human ccRCC, we have generated two types of genetic double kidney mutants in mice: Wnt-β-catenin-GOF together with Notch-GOF and Wnt-β-catenin-GOF together with a most common alteration in ccRCC, Vhl-LOF. An inducible Pax8-rtTA-LC1-Cre was used to drive recombination specifically in adult kidney epithelial cells. We confirmed mutagenesis of β-catenin, Notch and Vhl alleles on DNA, protein and mRNA target gene levels. Surprisingly, we observed symptoms of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in mutant mice, but no increased proliferation and tumorigenesis. Thus, the responses of kidney stem cells in the tubuloid and genetic systems produced different phenotypes, i.e. enhanced renewal versus CKD.

CD73-Positive Cell Spheroid Transplantation Attenuates Colonic Atrophy

The incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is increasing worldwide. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) have immunomodulatory functions and are a promising source for cell transplantation therapy for IBD. However, owing to their heterogeneous nature, their therapeutic efficacy in colitis is controversial and depends on the delivery route and form of transplanted cells. Cluster of differentiation (CD) 73 is widely expressed in MSCs and used to obtain a homogeneous MSC population. Herein, we determined the optimal method for MSC transplantation using CD73+ cells in a colitis model. mRNA sequencing analysis showed that CD73+ cells exhibited a downregulation of inflammatory gene expression and an upregulation of extracellular matrix-related gene expression. Furthermore, three-dimensional CD73+ cell spheroids showed enhanced engraftment at the injured site through the enteral route, facilitated extracellular matrix remodeling, and downregulated inflammatory gene expression in fibroblasts, leading to the attenuation of colonic atrophy. Therefore, the interaction between intestinal fibroblasts and exogenous MSCs via tissue remodeling is one mechanism that can be exploited for colitis prevention. Our results highlight that the transplantation of homogeneous cell populations with well-characterized properties is beneficial for IBD treatment.

Comprehensive protocols for culturing and molecular biological analysis of IBD patient-derived colon epithelial organoids

There are many unanswered questions regarding responses to proinflammatory signals in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). For example, chemokines secreted by IECs upon external stimuli play multifunctional roles in both homeostasis and during inflammation. Several chemokines are upregulated during active inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which is associated with an increased influx of immune cells into the gut mucosa. Therefore, studies on how chemokines are regulated in the intestinal epithelium may identify putative treatment targets in IBD. More recently, patient-derived ex vivo models such as intestinal organoids have facilitated molecular analysis of epithelial alterations in IBD patients own cells. Here, we describe refined experimental protocols and methods for the generation and maintenance of IBD patient-derived colonic organoids (colonoids) culture. We also give detailed description of medium, and supplements needed for colonoid establishment, growth, and differentiation, including production of Wnt-3A and Rspondin1 enriched media. Further, we present protocols for RNA and protein isolation from human colonoids, and subsequent gene expression analysis and Western blotting for e.g., signal transduction studies. We also describe how to process colonoids for chemokine protein expression analysis such as immunostaining, confocal imaging, and detection of secreted chemokines by e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). As proof of principle, we give examples of how the chemoattractant CCL20 can be regulated and expressed in colonoids derived from IBD-patients and healthy controls upon ligands-driven inflammation.

Effects of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived intestinal organoids on colitis-model mice

Introduction

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory bowel disease characterized by repeated remissions and relapses. Immunosuppressive drugs have facilitated the induction and maintenance of remission in many patients with UC. However, immunosuppressive drugs cannot directly repair impaired intestinal mucosa and are insufficient for preventing relapse. Therefore, new treatment approaches to repair the damaged epithelium in UC have been attempted through the transplantation of intestinal organoids, which can be differentiated into mucosa by embedding in Matrigel, generated from patient-derived intestinal stem cells. The method, however, poses the challenge of yielding sufficient cells for UC therapy, and patient-derived cells might already have acquired pathological changes. In contrast, human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells generated from healthy individuals are infinitely proliferated and can be differentiated into target cells. Recently developed human iPS cell-derived intestinal organoids (HIOs) aim to generate organoids that closely resemble the adult intestine. However, no study till date has reported HIOs injected into in vivo inflammatory models, and it remains unclear whether HIOs with cells that closely resemble the adult intestine or with intestinal stem cells retain the better ability to repair tissue in colitis.

Methods

We generated two types of HIOs via suspension culture with and without small-molecule compounds: HIOs that include predominantly more intestinal stem cells [HIO (A)] and those that include predominantly more intestinal epithelial and secretory cells [HIO (B)]. We examined whether the generated HIOs engrafted in vivo and compared their ability to accelerate recovery of the damaged tissue.

Results

Findings showed that the HIOs expressed intestinal-specific markers such as caudal-type homeobox 2 (CDX2) and villin, and HIOs engrafted under the kidney capsules of mice. We then injected HIOs into colitis-model mice and found that the weight and clinical score of the mice injected with HIO (A) recovered earlier than that of the mice in the sham group. Further, the production of mucus and the expression of cell proliferation markers and tight junction proteins in the colon tissues of the HIO (A) group were restored to levels similar to those observed in healthy mice. However, neither HIO (A) nor HIO (B) could be engrafted into the colon.

Conclusions

Effective cell therapy should directly repair tissue by engraftment at the site of injury. However, the difference in organoid property impacting the rate of tissue repair in transplantation without engraftment observed in the current study should be considered a critical consideration in the development of regenerative medicine using iPS-derived organoids.

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Human iPS cell-derived intestinal organoids were generated via suspension culture.

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The effects of two types of intestinal organoids in vivo were compared.

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Intestinal organoids were engrafted under mouse kidney capsules.

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Intestinal organoids promoted mucosal healing in acute colitis-model mice.

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Organoids with a higher gene expression of intestinal stem cell had higher effects.

Aesculetin exhibited anti-inflammatory activities through inhibiting NF-кB and MAPKs pathway in vitro and in vivo

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Aesculetin (6,7-dihydroxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one) has been reported to exhibit potent anti-inflammatory property both in vitro and in vivo.

AIMS OF THIS STUDY

In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect and investigated underlying molecular mechanisms of aesculetin in LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages and DSS-induced colitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the production of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 were measured to identify the aesculetin with potent anti-inflammatory effect. Then, the underlying anti-inflammatory mechanisms were explored by western blotting in LPS-induced cells. Next, we verify the anti-inflammatory potential of aesculetin in DSS-induced colitis in vivo. The clinical symptoms of colitis, including weight loss, DAI, colon length and MPO activity, and the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 were evaluated. Finally, Western blot analysis was applied to further investigate underlying mechanism in DSS-induced colitis model.

RESULTS

Our studies showed that aesculetin exhibited anti-inflammatory potential by inhibiting NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 production and reducing iNOS and NLRP3 expression in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Mechanically, we found that aesculetin significantly inhibited LPS-induced activation of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways. In DSS-induced mouse model, the colitis-related symptoms were relieved by treatment with aesculetin. Besides, aesculetin also inhibited the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6, and the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways in DSS-induced colitis.

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-inflammatory effect of aesculetin was connected with its inhibition on the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, aesculetin was expected to be developed as an anti-inflammatory drug.

Extending the viability of human precision-cut intestinal slice model for drug metabolism studies

Human Precision-cut intestinal slices (hPCIS) are used to study intestinal physiology, pathophysiology, drug efficacy, toxicology, kinetics, and metabolism. However, the use of this ex vivo model is restricted to approximately a 24 h timeframe because of declining viability of the hPCIS during traditional culture. We hypothesized that we could extend the hPCIS viability by using organoid medium. Therefore, we cultured hPCIS for up to 72 h in organoid media [expansion medium (Emed) and differentiation medium (Dmed)]. After incubation, we assessed culture-induced changes on viability markers, specific cell type markers and we assessed the metabolic activity of enterocytes by measuring midazolam metabolite formation. We show that the adenosine triphosphate (ATP)/protein ratio of Emed-cultured hPCIS and morphology of both Emed- and Dmed-cultured hPCIS was improved compared to WME-cultured hPCIS. Emed-cultured hPCIS showed an increased expression of proliferation and stem cell markers, whereas Dmed-cultured hPCIS showed an increased expression of proliferation and enterocyte markers, along with increased midazolam metabolism. Using the Emed, the viability of hPCIS could be extended for up to 72 h, and proliferating stem cells remained preserved. Using Dmed, hPCS also remained viable for up to 72 h, and specifically rescued the metabolizing enterocytes during culture. In conclusion, by using two different organoid culture media, we could extend the hPCIS viability for up to 72 h of incubation and specifically steer stem cells or enterocytes towards their original function, metabolism, and proliferation, potentially allowing pharmacokinetic and toxicology studies beyond the 24 h timeframe.

Molecular manipulations and intestinal stem cell-derived organoids in inflammatory bowel disease

The pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) involves genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and a broadly dysregulated intestinal immune response to the commensal intestinal microflora. The interface between genetic predisposition and environmental factors is reflected in the epigenetic regulation at the transcriptional level. Treatment targets now involve mucosal and histological healing, but the future might additionally include normalization of intestinal cellular functions also at the molecular level, for example comprising complete restoration of phenotypic, genotypic, and epigenetic states. Recent developments in patient-derived epithelial intestinal stem cell (ISC) organoid technologies have opened exciting new therapeutic opportunities to potentially attain molecular healing by combining stem cell therapy with molecular manipulations using (epi)drugs and/or CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. Here, we are the first to discuss the possibility for phenotypic, genotypic, and epigenetic restoration via molecular manipulations and stem cell therapy in IBD from a clinical perspective.

Organotypic and Microphysiological Human Tissue Models for Drug Discovery and Development-Current State-of-the-Art and Future Perspectives

The number of successful drug development projects has been stagnant for decades despite major breakthroughs in chemistry, molecular biology, and genetics. Unreliable target identification and poor translatability of preclinical models have been identified as major causes of failure. To improve predictions of clinical efficacy and safety, interest has shifted to three-dimensional culture methods in which human cells can retain many physiologically and functionally relevant phenotypes for extended periods of time. Here, we review the state of the art of available organotypic culture techniques and critically review emerging models of human tissues with key importance for pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity. In addition, developments in bioprinting and microfluidic multiorgan cultures to emulate systemic drug disposition are summarized. We close by highlighting important trends regarding the fabrication of organotypic culture platforms and the choice of platform material to limit drug absorption and polymer leaching while supporting the phenotypic maintenance of cultured cells and allowing for scalable device fabrication. We conclude that organotypic and microphysiological human tissue models constitute promising systems to promote drug discovery and development by facilitating drug target identification and improving the preclinical evaluation of drug toxicity and pharmacokinetics. There is, however, a critical need for further validation, benchmarking, and consolidation efforts ideally conducted in intersectoral multicenter settings to accelerate acceptance of these novel models as reliable tools for translational pharmacology and toxicology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Organotypic and microphysiological culture of human cells has emerged as a promising tool for preclinical drug discovery and development that might be able to narrow the translation gap. This review discusses recent technological and methodological advancements and the use of these systems for hit discovery and the evaluation of toxicity, clearance, and absorption of lead compounds.

Intestinal Models for Personalized Medicine: from Conventional Models to Microfluidic Primary Intestine-on-a-chip

Intestinal dysfunction is frequently driven by abnormalities of specific genes, microbiota, or microenvironmental factors, which usually differ across individuals, as do intestinal physiology and pathology. Therefore, it's necessary to develop personalized therapeutic strategies, which are currently limited by the lack of a simulated intestine model. The mature human intestinal mucosa is covered by a single layer of columnar epithelial cells that are derived from intestinal stem cells (ISCs). The complexity of the organ dramatically increases the difficulty of faithfully mimicking in vivo microenvironments. However, a simulated intestine model will serve as an indispensable foundation for personalized drug screening. In this article, we review the advantages and disadvantages of conventional 2-dimensional models, intestinal organoid models, and current microfluidic intestine-on-a-chip (IOAC) models. The main technological strategies are summarized, and an advanced microfluidic primary IOAC model is proposed for personalized intestinal medicine. In this model, primary ISCs and the microbiome are isolated from individuals and co-cultured in a multi-channel microfluidic chip to establish a microengineered intestine device. The device can faithfully simulate in vivo fluidic flow, peristalsis-like motions, host-microbe crosstalk, and multi-cell type interactions. Moreover, the ISCs can be genetically edited before seeding, and monitoring sensors and post-analysis abilities can also be incorporated into the device to achieve high-throughput and rapid pharmaceutical studies. We also discuss the potential future applications and challenges of the microfluidic platform. The development of cell biology, biomaterials, and tissue engineering will drive the advancement of the simulated intestine, making a significant contribution to personalized medicine in the future. Graphical abstract The intestine is a primary organ for digestion, absorption, and metabolism, as well as a major site for the host-commensal microbiota interaction and mucosal immunity. The complexity of the organ dramatically increases the difficulty of faithfully mimicking in vivo microenvironments, though physiological 3-dimensional of the native small intestinal epithelial tissue has been well documented. An intestinal stem cells-based microfluidic intestine-on-a-chip model that faithfully simulate in vivo fluidic flow, peristalsis-like motions, host-microbe crosstalk, and multi-cell type interactions will make a significant contribution.

OUP accepted manuscript

Stem cell therapies, including stem cell transplantation and rejuvenation of stem cells in situ, are promising avenues for tackling a broad range of diseases. Stem cells can both self-renew and differentiate into other cell types, and play a significant role in the regulation of tissue homeostasis and regeneration after cell degeneration or injury. However, stem cell exhaustion or dysfunction increases with age and impedes the normal function of multiple tissues and systems. Thus, stem cell therapies could provide a solution to aging and age-associated diseases. Here, we discuss recent advances in understanding the mechanisms that regulate stem cell regeneration. We also summarize potential strategies for rejuvenating stem cells that leverage intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These approaches may pave the way toward therapeutic interventions aiming at extending both health and life span.

Pineapple Leaf Phenols Attenuate DSS-Induced Colitis in Mice and Inhibit Inflammatory Damage by Targeting the NF-κB Pathway

Colitis is not fully curable, although currently, some treatment options are being adopted. In this study, we investigated the effects of pineapple leaf phenols (PLPs), natural phenol products from pineapple leaves, on DSS-induced colitis in mice. The results showed that PLPs dramatically decreased the inflammatory response by inhibiting NF-κB activation and the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors. Moreover, PLPs provided protection against DSS-induced acute colitis by maintaining epithelial integrity. Caffeic and P-coumaric acids had similar effects and could be the active components responsible for PLPs’ effect on colitis. These results indicate that the oral administration of PLPs might be considered as a therapeutic strategy in the treatment of patients with colitis. However, further research on clinical applications and the exact effect of PLPs on colitis is required.

Human Adipose Mesenchymal Stem Cell-derived Exosomes Protect Mice from DSS-Induced Inflammatory Bowel Disease by Promoting Intestinal-stem-cell and Epithelial Regeneration

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) remains a severe disease for most patients, with its incidence and prevalence increasingly globally. Currently, there is no effective treatments for IBD, and traditional treatments have multiple side effects. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies or alternative drugs are urgently needed. Previous studies have shown that mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes have exhibited promising therapeutic effects on inflammatory disease. Here, we performed intravenous injection of human adipose mesenchymal stem cell (hADSC)-derived exosomes (hADSC-Exo) in a DSS-induced IBD mouse model and found that hADSC-Exo promoted functional recovery, downregulated inflammatory responses, reduced intestine cell apoptosis, increased epithelial regeneration and maintained intestinal barrier integrity. Moreover, we established a colon organoid, hADSC-Exo and TNF-α co-cultured system to explore the protective effect of hADSC-Exo on integrity of intestine mucosa and epithelial regeneration. We showed that hADSC-Exo not only can promote the proliferation and regeneration of Lgr5⁺ ISCs and epithelial cells but also ameliorate the inflammation damage in TNF-α induced inflammatory damaged mice colon organoids. Taken together, our findings indicate that hADSC-Exo protects intestine integrity, activates intestine epithelial cell and ISCs proliferation, suggesting that hADSC-Exo might be a potential effective treatment approach for IBD. We also provide a theoretical basis for new therapeutic strategies for cell-free therapy in inflammatory bowel disease.

Current Trends and Research Topics Regarding Intestinal Organoids: An Overview Based on Bibliometrics

Currently, research on intestinal diseases is mainly based on animal models and cell lines in monolayers. However, these models have drawbacks that limit scientific advances in this field. Three-dimensional (3D) culture systems named organoids are emerging as a reliable research tool for recapitulating the human intestinal epithelium and represent a unique platform for patient-specific drug testing. Intestinal organoids (IOs) are crypt–villus structures that can be derived from adult intestinal stem cells (ISCs), embryonic stem cells (ESCs), or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and have the potential to serve as a platform for individualized medicine and research. However, this emerging field has not been bibliometric summarized to date. Here, we performed a bibliometric analysis of the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database to evaluate 5,379 publications concerning the use of organoids; the studies were divided into four clusters associated with the current situation and future directions for the application of IOs. Based on the results of our bibliometric analysis of IO applications, we systematically summarized the latest advances and analyzed the limitations and prospects.

BMP Antagonists Secreted by Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Improve Colonic Organoid Formation: Application for the Treatment of Radiation-induced Injury

Radiation therapy is crucial in the therapeutic arsenal to cure cancers; however, non-neoplastic tissues around an abdominopelvic tumor can be damaged by ionizing radiation. In particular, the radio-induced death of highly proliferative stem/progenitor cells of the colonic mucosa could induce severe ulcers. The importance of sequelae for patients with gastrointestinal complications after radiotherapy and the absence of satisfactory management has opened the field to the testing of innovative treatments. The aim of this study was to use adult epithelial cells from the colon, to reduce colonic injuries in an animal model reproducing radiation damage observed in patients. We demonstrated that transplanted in vitro-amplified epithelial cells from colonic organoids (ECO) of C57/Bl6 mice expressing green fluorescent protein implant, proliferate, and differentiate in irradiated mucosa and reduce ulcer size. To improve the therapeutic benefit of ECO-based treatment with clinical translatability, we performed co-injection of ECO with mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), cells involved in niche function and widely used in clinical trials. We observed in vivo an improvement of the therapeutic benefit and in vitro analysis highlighted that co-culture of MSCs with ECO increases the number, proliferation, and size of colonic organoids. We also demonstrated, using gene expression analysis and siRNA inhibition, the involvement of bone morphogenetic protein antagonists in MSC-induced organoid formation. This study provides evidence of the potential of ECO to limit late radiation effects on the colon and opens perspectives on combined strategies to improve their amplification abilities and therapeutic effects.

Drug delivery to the inflamed intestinal mucosa - targeting technologies and human cell culture models for better therapies of IBD

Current treatment strategies for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) seek to alleviate the undesirable symptoms of the disorder. Despite the higher specificity of newer generation therapeutics, e.g. monoclonal antibodies, adverse effects still arise from their interference with non-specific systemic immune cascades. To circumvent such undesirable effects, both conventional and newer therapeutic options can benefit from various targeting strategies. Of course, both the development and the assessment of the efficiency of such targeted delivery systems necessitate the use of suitable in vivo and in vitro models representing relevant pathophysiological manifestations of the disorder. Accordingly, the current review seeks to provide a comprehensive discussion of the available preclinical models with emphasis on human in vitro models of IBD, along with their potentials and limitations. This is followed by an elaboration on the advancements in the field of biology- and nanotechnology-based targeted drug delivery systems and the potential rooms for improvement to facilitate their clinical translation.

Current Strategies and Potential Prospects of Nanomedicine-Mediated Therapy in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are highly debilitating. IBDs are associated with the imbalance of inflammatory mediators within the inflamed bowel. Conventional drugs for IBD treatment include anti-inflammatory medications and immune suppressants. However, they suffer from a lack of bioavailability and high dose-induced systemic side effects. Nanoparticle (NP)-derived therapy improves therapeutic efficacy and increases targeting specificity. Recent studies have shown that nanomedicines, based on bowel disease's pathophysiology, are a fast-growing field. NPs can prolong the circulation period and reduce side effects by improving drug encapsulation and targeted delivery. Here, this review summarizes various IBD therapies with a focus on NP-derived applications, whereas their challenges and future perspectives have also been discussed.

Organoids to Dissect Gastrointestinal Virus-Host Interactions: What Have We Learned?

Historically, knowledge of human host-enteric pathogen interactions has been elucidated from studies using cancer cells, animal models, clinical data, and occasionally, controlled human infection models. Although much has been learned from these studies, an understanding of the complex interactions between human viruses and the human intestinal epithelium was initially limited by the lack of nontransformed culture systems, which recapitulate the relevant heterogenous cell types that comprise the intestinal villus epithelium. New investigations using multicellular, physiologically active, organotypic cultures produced from intestinal stem cells isolated from biopsies or surgical specimens provide an exciting new avenue for understanding human specific pathogens and revealing previously unknown host-microbe interactions that affect replication and outcomes of human infections. Here, we summarize recent biologic discoveries using human intestinal organoids and human enteric viral pathogens.

Advances in reconstructing intestinal functionalities in vitro: From two/three dimensional-cell culture platforms to human intestine-on-a-chip

Standard two/three dimensional (2D/3D)-cell culture platforms have facilitated the understanding of the communications between various cell types and their microenvironments. However, they are still limited in recapitulating the complex functionalities in vivo, such as tissue formation, tissue-tissue interface, and mechanical/biochemical microenvironments of tissues and organs. Intestine-on-a-chip platforms offer a new way to mimic intestinal behaviors and functionalities by constructing in vitro intestinal models in microfluidic devices. This review summarizes the advances and limitations of the state-of-the-art 2D/3D-cell culture platforms, animal models, intestine chips, and the combined multi-organ chips related with intestines. Their applications to studying intestinal functions, drug testing, and disease modeling are introduced. Different intestinal cell sources are compared in terms of gene expression abilities and the recapitulated intestinal morphologies. Among these cells, cells isolated form human intestinal tissues and derived from pluripotent stem cells appear to be more suitable for in vitro reconstruction of intestinal organs. Key challenges of current intestine-on-a-chip platforms and future directions are also discussed.

Porcine colonoids and enteroids keep the memory of their origin during regeneration

The development of alternative in vitro culture methods has increased in the last decade as three-dimensional organoids of various tissues, including those of the small and large intestines. Due to their multicellular composition, organoids offer advantages over traditionally used immortalized or primary cell lines. However, organoids must be accurate models of their tissues of origin. This study compared gene expression profiles with respect to markers of specific cell types (stem cells, enterocytes, goblet, and enteroendocrine cells) and barrier maturation (tight junctions) of colonoid and enteroid cultures with their tissues of origin and colonoids with enteroids. Colonoids derived from three healthy pigs formed multilobed structures with a monolayer of cells similar to the crypt structures in colonic tissue. Colonoid and enteroid gene expression signatures were more similar to those found for the tissues of their origin than to each other. However, relative to their derived tissues, organoids had increased gene expression levels of stem cell markers Sox9 and Lgr5 encoding sex-determining region Y-box 9 and leucine-rich repeat-containing G protein-coupled rector 5, respectively. In contrast, expression levels of Occl and Zo1 encoding occludin and zonula occludens 1, respectively, were decreased. Expression levels of the cell lineage markers Atoh1, Cga, and Muc2 encoding atonal homolog 1, chromogranin A, and mucin 2, respectively, were decreased in colonoids, whereas Sglt1 and Apn encoding sodium-glucose transporter 1 and aminopeptidase A, respectively, were decreased in enteroids. These results indicate colonoid and enteroid cultures were predominantly comprised of undifferentiated cell types with decreased barrier maturation relative to their tissues of origin.

Intestinal organoids in farm animals

In livestock species, the monolayer of epithelial cells covering the digestive mucosa plays an essential role for nutrition and gut barrier function. However, research on farm animal intestinal epithelium has been hampered by the lack of appropriate in vitro models. Over the past decade, methods to culture livestock intestinal organoids have been developed in pig, bovine, rabbit, horse, sheep and chicken. Gut organoids from farm animals are obtained by seeding tissue-derived intestinal epithelial stem cells in a 3-dimensional culture environment reproducing in vitro the stem cell niche. These organoids can be generated rapidly within days and are formed by a monolayer of polarized epithelial cells containing the diverse differentiated epithelial progeny, recapitulating the original structure and function of the native epithelium. The phenotype of intestinal organoids is stable in long-term culture and reflects characteristics of the digestive segment of origin. Farm animal intestinal organoids can be amplified in vitro, cryopreserved and used for multiple experiments, allowing an efficient reduction of the use of live animals for experimentation. Most of the studies using livestock intestinal organoids were used to investigate host-microbe interactions at the epithelial surface, mainly focused on enteric infections with viruses, bacteria or parasites. Numerous other applications of farm animal intestinal organoids include studies on nutrient absorption, genome editing and bioactive compounds screening relevant for agricultural, veterinary and biomedical sciences. Further improvements of the methods used to culture intestinal organoids from farm animals are required to replicate more closely the intestinal tissue complexity, including the presence of non-epithelial cell types and of the gut microbiota. Harmonization of the methods used to culture livestock intestinal organoids will also be required to increase the reproducibility of the results obtained in these models. In this review, we summarize the methods used to generate and cryopreserve intestinal organoids in farm animals, present their phenotypes and discuss current and future applications of this innovative culture system of the digestive epithelium.

Multi-omic modelling of inflammatory bowel disease with regularized canonical correlation analysis

BACKGROUND

Personalized medicine requires finding relationships between variables that influence a patient's phenotype and predicting an outcome. Sparse generalized canonical correlation analysis identifies relationships between different groups of variables. This method requires establishing a model of the expected interaction between those variables. Describing these interactions is challenging when the relationship is unknown or when there is no pre-established hypothesis. Thus, our aim was to develop a method to find the relationships between microbiome and host transcriptome data and the relevant clinical variables in a complex disease, such as Crohn's disease.

RESULTS

We present here a method to identify interactions based on canonical correlation analysis. We show that the model is the most important factor to identify relationships between blocks using a dataset of Crohn's disease patients with longitudinal sampling. First the analysis was tested in two previously published datasets: a glioma and a Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis dataset where we describe how to select the optimum parameters. Using such parameters, we analyzed our Crohn's disease data set. We selected the model with the highest inner average variance explained to identify relationships between transcriptome, gut microbiome and clinically relevant variables. Adding the clinically relevant variables improved the average variance explained by the model compared to multiple co-inertia analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The methodology described herein provides a general framework for identifying interactions between sets of omic data and clinically relevant variables. Following this method, we found genes and microorganisms that were related to each other independently of the model, while others were specific to the model used. Thus, model selection proved crucial to finding the existing relationships in multi-omics datasets.

Intestinal Stem Cells and Immune Cell Relationships: Potential Therapeutic Targets for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

The mammalian intestine is the largest immune organ that contains the intestinal stem cells (ISC), differentiated epithelial cells (enterocytes, Paneth cells, goblet cells, tuft cells, etc.), and gut resident-immune cells (T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, innate lymphoid cell, etc.). Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by mucosa damage and inflammation, threatens the integrity of the intestine. The continuous renewal and repair of intestinal mucosal epithelium after injury depend on ISCs. Inflamed mucosa healing could be a new target for the improvement of clinical symptoms, disease recurrence, and resection-free survival in IBD treated patients. The knowledge about the connections between ISC and immune cells is expanding with the development of in vitro intestinal organoid culture and single-cell RNA sequencing technology. Recent findings implicate that immune cells such as T cells, ILCs, dendritic cells, and macrophages and cytokines secreted by these cells are critical in the regeneration of ISCs and intestinal epithelium. Transplantation of ISC to the inflamed mucosa may be a new therapeutic approach to reconstruct the epithelial barrier in IBD. Considering the links between ISC and immune cells, we predict that the integration of biological agents and ISC transplantation will revolutionize the future therapy of IBD patients.

Can the mammalian organoid technology be applied to the insect gut?

Mammalian intestinal organoids are multicellular structures that closely resemble the structure of the intestinal epithelium and can be generated in vitro from intestinal stem cells under appropriate culture conditions. This technology has transformed pharmaceutical research and drug development in human medicine. For the insect gut, no biotechnological platform equivalent to organoid cultures has been described yet. Comparison of the regulation of intestinal homeostasis and growth between insects and mammals has revealed significant similarities but also important differences. In contrast to mammals, the differentiation potential of available insect cell lines is limited and can not be exploited for in vitro permeability assays to measure the uptake of insecticides. The successful development of in vitro models could be a result of the emergence of molecular mechanisms of self-organization and signaling in the intestine that are unique to mammals. It is nevertheless considered that the technology gap is a consequence of vast differences in knowledge, particularly with respect to culture conditions that maintain the differentation potential of insect midgut cells. From the viewpoint of pest control, advanced in vitro models of the insect midgut would be very desirable because of its key barrier function for orally ingested insecticides with hemolymphatic target and its role in insecticide resistance. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Application of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Intestinal Organoids as a Model of Epithelial Damage and Fibrosis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease, which typically manifests as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is caused by the abnormal production of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. These cytokines damage intestinal epithelial cells and trigger fibrosis, respectively, for which the current in vitro models have many limitations. Therefore, we tested whether human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived intestinal organoids (HiOs) can mimic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and whether such a model is suitable for drug screening. HiOs were treated with TNF-α and TGF-β to construct mucosal damage and fibrosis models. TNF-α diminished the mRNA expression of intestinal epithelial cell and goblet cell markers in HiOs. TNF-α also induced epithelial cell damage and degradation of tight junctions but not in the presence of infliximab, an antibody used in the clinic to deplete TNF-α. Furthermore, permeation of the non-absorbable marker FD-4 was observed in HiOs treated with TNF-α or ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA), but not in the presence of infliximab. In contrast, TNF-α and TGF-β induced mRNA expression of mesenchymal and fibrosis markers, as well as epithelial-mesenchymal transition. SB431542, a TGF-β inhibitor, significantly reversed these events. The data indicate that HiOs mimic mucosal damage and fibrosis due to IBD and are thus suitable models for drug screening.

Culture of rabbit caecum organoids by reconstituting the intestinal stem cell niche in vitro with pharmacological inhibitors or L-WRN conditioned medium

Intestinal organoids are self-organized 3-dimensional (3D) structures formed by a single layer of polarized epithelial cells. This innovative in vitro model is highly relevant to study physiology of the intestinal epithelium and its role in nutrition and barrier function. However, this model has never been developed in rabbits, while it would have potential applications for biomedical and veterinary research. Here, we cultured rabbit caecum organoids with either pharmacological inhibitors (2Ki medium) or L-WRN cells conditioned medium (L-WRN CM) to reconstitute the intestinal stem cell niche in vitro. Large spherical organoids were obtained with the 2Ki medium and this morphology was associated with a high level of proliferation and stem cells markers gene expression. In contrast, organoids cultured with L-WRN CM had a smaller diameter; a greater cell height and part of them were not spherical. When the L-WRN CM was used at low concentration (5%) for two days, the gene expression of stem cells and proliferation markers were very low, while absorptive and secretory cells markers and antimicrobial peptides were elevated. Epithelial cells within organoids were polarized in 3D cultures with 2Ki medium or L-WRN CM (apical side towards the lumen). We cultured dissociated organoid cells in 2D monolayers, which allowed accessibility to the apical compartment. Under these conditions, actin stress fibers were observed with the 2Ki medium, while perijonctionnal localization of actin was observed with the L-WRN CM suggesting, in 2D cultures as well, a higher differentiation level in the presence of L-WRN CM. In conclusion, rabbit caecum organoids cultured with the 2Ki medium were more proliferative and less differentiated than organoids cultured with L-WRN CM. We propose that organoids cultured with the 2Ki medium could be used to rapidly generate in vitro a large number of rabbit intestinal epithelial stem cells while organoids cultured with the L-WRN CM used at low concentration represent a suitable model to study differentiated rabbit epithelium.

IL-21 mediates microRNA-423-5p /claudin-5 signal pathway and intestinal barrier function in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic and recurrent nonspecific inflammatory disorders, including Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Due to the persistent inflammation of intestinal mucosa caused by immune disorders, barrier dysfunction may be an essential cause of the pathogenesis of IBD. Therefore, exploring the mechanism is very important to clarify the pathogenesis of IBD. In our research, we provided evidence of IL-21 function in IBD. The junction complex protein claudin-5 may be a downstream gene of the IL-21. Anti-IL-21 administrated prevented DSS-simulative colitis via recovering claudin-5 expression in the human colonic epithelial cells. Meanwhile, we described that miR-423-5p could be involved in IL-21/ claudin-5 pathway by regulating NF-κB/MAPKs/JNK signaling pathway, which may provide a new therapeutic target for IBD.

Survival and cellular heterogeneity of epithelium in cultured mouse and rat precision-cut intestinal slices

Precision-cut intestinal slices (PCIS) are used to study intestinal (patho)physiology, drug efficacy, toxicity, transport and metabolism ex vivo. One of the factors that limit the use of PCIS is a relatively short life-span. Moreover, culture-induced changes in cellular composition of PCIS remain largely uncharacterized. In this study, we demonstrated the epithelial cell heterogeneity in mouse and rat PCIS and its alterations during culture. In addition, we evaluated whether the presence of niche growth factors impacts the survival of PCIS epithelial cells. We showed that freshly prepared PCIS retained the main epithelial cell types, namely absorptive enterocytes, goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, stem cells, transit-amplifying cells and Paneth cells. Once placed in culture, PCIS displayed progressive epithelial damage, and loss of these epithelial cell types. Cells comprising the intestinal stem cell niche were especially sensitive to the damage, and the addition of niche growth factors beneficially affected the survival of stem cells and transit-amplifying cells in PCIS during culture. In conclusion, this study provides new insights into the dynamic changes in cellular composition of epithelium in cultured PCIS, paving the way to future toxicological and pharmacological studies in an informed and reliable ex vivo setting.

A fully defined 3D matrix for ex vivo expansion of human colonic organoids from biopsy tissue

Intestinal organoids have widespread research and biomedical applications, such as disease modeling, drug testing and regenerative medicine. However, the transition towards clinical use has in part been hampered by the dependency on animal tumor-derived basement membrane extracts (BMEs), which are poorly defined and ill-suited for regulatory approval due to their origin and batch-to-batch variability. In order to overcome these limitations, and to enable clinical translation, we tested the use of a fully defined hydrogel matrix, QGel CN99, to establish and expand intestinal organoids directly from human colonic biopsies. We achieved efficient de novo establishment, expansion and organoid maintenance, while also demonstrating sustained genetic stability. Additionally, we were able to preserve stemness and differentiation capacity, with transcriptomic profiles resembling normal colonic epithelium. All data proved comparable to organoids cultured in the BME-benchmark Matrigel. The application of a fully defined hydrogel, completely bypassing the use of BMEs, will drastically improve the reproducibility and scalability of organoid studies, but also advance translational applications in personalized medicine and stem cell-based regenerative therapies.

Lipoic acid rejuvenates aged intestinal stem cells by preventing age-associated endosome reduction

The age‐associated decline of adult stem cell function is closely related to the decline in tissue function and age‐related diseases. However, the underlying mechanisms that ultimately lead to the observed functional decline of stem cells still remain largely unexplored. This study investigated Drosophila midguts and found a continuous downregulation of lipoic acid synthase, which encodes the key enzyme for the endogenous synthesis of alpha‐lipoic acid (ALA), upon aging. Importantly, orally administration of ALA significantly reversed the age‐associated hyperproliferation of intestinal stem cells (ISCs) and the observed decline of intestinal function, thus extending the lifespan of Drosophila. This study reports that ALA reverses age‐associated ISC dysfunction by promoting the activation of the endocytosis–autophagy network, which decreases in aged ISCs. Moreover, this study suggests that ALA may be used as a safe and effective anti‐aging compound for the treatment of ISC‐dysfunction‐related diseases and for the promotion of healthy aging in humans.

Bile acids elevated by high-fat feeding induce endoplasmic reticulum stress in intestinal stem cells and contribute to mucosal barrier damage

Long-term high-fat feeding (HF) induces intestinal mucosal barrier damage. However, the mechanism for this remains unclear. HF can elevate the intestinal and circulating bile acid (BA) levels, especially deoxycholic acid (DCA). We hypothesize that BAs elevated by HF regulate intestinal stem cell (ISC) function, which may contribute to mucosal barrier injury in the ileum of mice. In this study, we showed that 2 weeks of HF resulted in a shortening of intestinal villi and a decrease in the tight junction (TJ) protein occludin in the ileum of mice, accompanied by an increase in circulating BA levels. Importantly, 2 weeks of HF also reduced ileal ISCs and goblet cells and decreased the proliferation function of ISCs and their ability to differentiate into goblet cells. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress was found to be involved in the process of ISC damage. All these alterations were reversed by cofeeding with the bile acid binder cholestyramine. In addition, the in vitro studies also confirmed a cytotoxic effect of DCA at a high concentration on ISCs and goblet cells. In conclusion, these data suggested that high levels of BAs induced by HF could impair ISC function by triggering ER stress, resulting in the disruption of the intestinal mucosal barrier.

Impact of mouse contamination in genomic profiling of patient-derived models and best practice for robust analysis

BACKGROUND

Patient-derived xenograft and cell line models are popular models for clinical cancer research. However, the inevitable inclusion of a mouse genome in a patient-derived model is a remaining concern in the analysis. Although multiple tools and filtering strategies have been developed to account for this, research has yet to demonstrate the exact impact of the mouse genome and the optimal use of these tools and filtering strategies in an analysis pipeline.

RESULTS

We construct a benchmark dataset of 5 liver tissues from 3 mouse strains using human whole-exome sequencing kit. Next-generation sequencing reads from mouse tissues are mappable to 49% of the human genome and 409 cancer genes. In total, 1,207,556 mouse-specific alleles are aligned to the human genome reference, including 467,232 (38.7%) alleles with high sensitivity to contamination, which are pervasive causes of false cancer mutations in public databases and are signatures for predicting global contamination. Next, we assess the performance of 8 filtering methods in terms of mouse read filtration and reduction of mouse-specific alleles. All filtering tools generally perform well, although differences in algorithm strictness and efficiency of mouse allele removal are observed. Therefore, we develop a best practice pipeline that contains the estimation of contamination level, mouse read filtration, and variant filtration.

CONCLUSIONS

The inclusion of mouse cells in patient-derived models hinders genomic analysis and should be addressed carefully. Our suggested guidelines improve the robustness and maximize the utility of genomic analysis of these models.

Effect of poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates) as natural polymers on mesenchymal stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are stromal multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into multiple cell types, including fibroblasts, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes, and myoblasts, thus allowing them to contribute to the regeneration of various tissues, especially bone tissue. MSCs are now considered one of the most promising cell types in the field of tissue engineering. Traditional petri dish-based culture of MSCs generate heterogeneity, which leads to inconsistent efficacy of MSC applications. Biodegradable and biocompatible polymers, poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), are actively used for the manufacture of scaffolds that serve as carriers for MSC growth. The growth and differentiation of MSCs grown on PHA scaffolds depend on the physicochemical properties of the polymers, the 3D and surface microstructure of the scaffolds, and the biological activity of PHAs, which was discovered in a series of investigations. The mechanisms of the biological activity of PHAs in relation to MSCs remain insufficiently studied. We suggest that this effect on MSCs could be associated with the natural properties of bacteria-derived PHAs, especially the most widespread representative poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB). This biopolymer is present in the bacteria of mammalian microbiota, whereas endogenous poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) is found in mammalian tissues. The possible association of PHA effects on MSCs with various biological functions of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) in bacteria and eukaryotes, including in humans, is discussed in this paper.

Intestinal enteroids/organoids: A novel platform for drug discovery in inflammatory bowel diseases

The introduction of biologics such as anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) monoclonal antibodies followed by anti-integrins has dramatically changed the therapeutic paradigm of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Furthermore, a newly developed anti-p40 subunit of interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-23 (ustekinumab) has been recently approved in the United States for patients with moderate to severe Crohn’s disease who have failed treatment with anti-TNFs. However, these immunosuppressive therapeutics which focus on anti-inflammatory mechanisms or immune cells still fail to achieve long-term remission in a significant percentage of patients. This strongly underlines the need to identify novel treatment targets beyond immune suppression to treat IBD. Recent studies have revealed the critical role of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) in the pathogenesis of IBD. Physical, biochemical and immunologic driven barrier dysfunctions of epithelial cells contribute to the development of IBD. In addition, the recent establishment of adult stem cell-derived intestinal enteroid/organoid culture technology has allowed an exciting opportunity to study human IECs comprising all normal epithelial cells. This long-term epithelial culture model can be generated from endoscopic biopsies or surgical resections and recapitulates the tissue of origin, representing a promising platform for novel drug discovery in IBD. This review describes the advantages of intestinal enteroids/organoids as a research tool for intestinal diseases, introduces studies with these models in IBD, and gives a description of the current status of therapeutic approaches in IBD. Finally, we provide an overview of the current endeavors to identify a novel drug target for IBD therapy based on studies with human enteroids/organoids and describe the challenges in using enteroids/organoids as an IBD model.

Unlimited expansion of intestinal stem cells from a wide range of ages

The recent technical advance in cloning and culturing ground-state intestinal stem cells (ISC) provides us an opportunity of accurate assessment of age-related impact on the function of highly proliferative intestinal stem cells. Our ability of indefinitely and robustly expanding single-stem-cell derived pedigrees in vitro allows us to study intestinal stem cells at the clonal level. Interestingly, comparable number of ISC clones was yielded from 1mm endoscopic biopsy of all donors despite the age. They were passaged in vitro as pedigrees and expanded to 1 billion cells in approximately sixty days without changes in stemness demonstrated by clonogenicity and multipotency. Therefore, our study shows that ISCs from a wide range of ages can be cloned and expanded to unlimited number in vitro with similar efficiency and stability. These patient-derived ISCs harbor intrinsic immortality and are ideal for autologous transplantation, supporting the promise of adult-stem-cell based personalized medicine.

Ulcer-associated cell lineage expresses genes involved in regeneration and is hallmarked by high neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) levels

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), also known as Lipocalin 2, is an antimicrobial protein, encoded by the gene LCN2, strongly upregulated in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and a promising biomarker for IBD. Here we demonstrate that NGAL is highly expressed in all parts of pyloric metaplasia, also known as the ulcer-associated cell lineage (UACL), a metaplastic cell lineage suggested to play a role in wound healing in Crohn's disease (CD). We further show NGAL expression in regenerative intestinal crypts and in undifferentiated patient-derived colonoids. This indicates that NGAL is important in the tissue regeneration process. The remarkable overexpression of NGAL in UACL led us to explore the pathobiology of these cells by transcriptome-wide RNA sequencing. This study is, to our knowledge, the first to characterize the UACL at this level. Biopsies with UACL and inflamed non-UACL epithelium from the terminal ileum of CD patients and epithelium from healthy controls were laser capture microdissected for RNA sequencing. Among the 180 genes differentially expressed between UACL and control epithelium, the ten most-upregulated genes specific for UACL were MUC5AC, PGC, MUC6, MUC5B, LCN2, POU2AF1, MUC1, SDC3, IGFBP5, and SLC7A5. PDX1 was among the most upregulated in both UACL and inflamed non-UACL epithelium. Immunohistochemistry and iDisco 3D visualization was used to characterize UACL histo-morphologically, and to validate protein expression of 11 selected differentially expressed genes. Among these genes, LCN2, NOTCH2, PHLDA1, IGFBP5, SDC3, BPIFB1, and RCN1 have previously not been linked to UACL. Gene expression results were analyzed for functional implications using MetaCore, showing that differentially expressed genes are enriched for genes involved in cell migration and motility, and for biomarkers of gastrointestinal neoplasia. These results support a role for UACL as part of the reepithelialization process during and after destructive intestinal inflammation. © 2019 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Enteroids: Promising in Vitro Models for Studies of Intestinal Physiology and Nutrition in Farm Animals

The lack of sophisticated in vitro models limits our current understanding of gastrointestinal functions in farm animals. Conventional 2D cell lines or primary cells fail to recapitulate the physiology of in vivo intestinal epithelium. In contrast stem cell-derived, nontransformed 3D enteroids partially recreate the villus-crypt anatomy of the native intestine and comprise most if not all intestinal cell types including enterocytes, enteroendocrine cells, goblet cells, Paneth cells, and stem cells. This review summarizes the techniques used for generating and culturing enteroids of various farm animal species, focuses on important factors influencing the longevity of enteroids, and provides an overview of their current applications in modeling veterinary pathogens and in developing chemicals and bioactives for treating animal disease and improving production performance. It also mentions current limitations of enteroid models and potential solutions and highlights the opportunities for using these enteroids as a platform in studies regarding veterinary sciences and animal nutrition.

Two to Tango: Dialog between Immunity and Stem Cells in Health and Disease

Stem cells regenerate tissues in homeostasis and under stress. By taking cues from their microenvironment or "niche," they smoothly transition between these states. Immune cells have surfaced as prominent members of stem cell niches across the body. Here, we draw parallels between different stem cell niches to explore the context-specific interactions that stem cells have with tissue-resident and recruited immune cells. We also highlight stem cells' innate ability to sense and respond to stress and the enduring memory that forms from such encounters. This fascinating crosstalk holds great promise for novel therapies in inflammatory diseases and regenerative medicine.

Cellular Interactions in the Intestinal Stem Cell Niche

Epithelial cells are one of the most actively cycling cells in a mammalian organism and therefore are prone to malignant transformation. Already during organogenesis, the connective tissue (mesenchyme) provides instructive signals for the epithelium. In an adult organism, the mesenchyme is believed to provide crucial regulatory signals for the maintenance and regeneration of epithelial cells. Here, we discuss the role of intestinal myofibroblasts, α-smooth muscle actin-positive stromal (mesenchymal) cells, as an important regulatory part of the intestinal stem cell niche. Better understanding of the cross-talk between myofibroblasts and the epithelium in the intestine has implications for advances in regenerative medicine, and improved therapeutic strategies for inflammatory bowel disease, intestinal fibrosis and colorectal cancer.