Effects of administered alcohol on intimate partner interactions in a conflict resolution paradigm

The impact of alcohol on affiliative verbal behavior: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Language is a fundamental aspect of human social behavior that is linked to many rewarding social experiences, such as social bonding. Potential effects of alcohol on affiliative language may therefore be an essential feature of alcohol reward and may elucidate pathways through which alcohol is linked to social facilitation. Examinations of alcohol's impact on language content, however, are sparse. Accordingly, this investigation represents the first systematic review and meta-analysis of alcohol's effects on affiliative language. We test the hypothesis that alcohol increases affiliative verbal approach behaviors and discuss future research directions.

METHODS

PsycInfo and Web of Science were systematically searched in March 2023 according to our preregistered plan. Eligible studies included social alcohol administration experiments in which affiliative verbal language was assessed. We present a random-effects meta-analysis that examines the effect of alcohol compared to control on measures of affiliative verbal behavior.

RESULTS

Our search identified 16 distinct investigations (comprising 961 participants) that examined the effect of alcohol on affiliative verbal behavior. Studies varied greatly in methods and measures. Meta-analytic results demonstrated that alcohol is modestly associated with increases in affiliative verbal behavior (Hedges' g = 0.164, 95% CI [0.027, 0.301], p = 0.019). Study quality was rated using an adapted version of the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies and did not significantly moderate alcohol's effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides preliminary evidence that alcohol can increase affiliative verbal behaviors. This effect may be an important feature of alcohol reward. Given heterogeneity in study features, low study quality ratings, and limited reporting of effect size data, results simultaneously highlight the promise of this research area and the need for more work. Advances in language processing methodologies that could allow future work to systematically expand upon this finding are discussed.

A Laboratory Test of Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Aggression: Expectancies Are Not to Blame

Background: The role of alcohol expectancies and evaluations (i.e., perceived outcomes of drinking and whether these outcomes are desirable) in alcohol-related intimate partner aggression (IPA) has been debated, with some researchers arguing that expectancies fully account for the alcohol-IPA relationship and others suggesting they play a minimal if any role in alcohol-related IPA. In the current study, we examine the impact of expectancies and evaluations on alcohol-related IPA observed in the lab, in order to clarify what impact, if any, alcohol expectancies have on alcohol-related IPA. Consistent with findings from laboratory studies examining general aggression, we expected that individuals who were intoxicated would display greater IPA than individuals who were sober, but that alcohol expectancies and evaluations would be unrelated to in vivo IPA. Method: Participants were 69 dating couples (total N = 138), randomly assigned to consume either an alcohol or placebo beverage. IPA was measured with an in vivo aggression task based on the Taylor Aggression Paradigm. Results: As expected, alcohol intoxication predicted in vivo IPA following provocation (p < .03), whereas alcohol expectancies and evaluations were not related to IPA. Conclusions: These findings provide further support that alcohol expectancies and evaluations play little if any role in alcohol-related IPA. Rather, intoxication likely increases risk for IPA through its physiological effects on perception and thought. Further, treatments targeting alcohol use, rather than beliefs about outcomes of drinking, may have a greater impact on alcohol-related IPA.

Alcohol use problems and conflict among couples: A preliminary investigation of the moderating effects of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies

Alcohol use can operate as a chronic relationship stressor with adverse influences on individual and relationship functioning, including negative conflict behaviors; however, it remains unclear what modifiable individual-level factors may moderate this association. The current study examined the effects of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies on the relation between alcohol use problems and negative relationship conflict behaviors. Participants were 30 couples (N=60) wherein at least one partner engaged in recent hazardous drinking or illicit drug use. Participants completed a measure of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies (i.e., catastrophizing, self-blame, blaming others, rumination) and engaged in a 10-minute dyadic conflict task in the laboratory. Couple conflict behaviors were video-recorded and assessed using a validated coding system. Actor partner interdependence models indicated that (1) men with more maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies displayed more negative relationship conflict behaviors and (2) among women who use fewer maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies, those who report alcohol use problems display more negative relationship behaviors than women who report fewer alcohol use problems. These findings suggest that the tendency to engage in fewer maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies buffers the effect of conflict among women without alcohol use problems. Results also suggest that women with alcohol use problems engaged in more negative conflict behaviors regardless of their tendency to use maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies. This research has important implications for integrating emotion regulation skills into alcohol use treatment for women, particularly later in the course of treatment.

A social contextual review of the effects of alcohol on emotion

Drinking and drinking problems are complex phenomena. Understanding the etiology of alcohol use disorder requires consideration of biological, psychological, and social processes. It is our view that the last of these dimensions is just beginning to receive adequate scrutiny. In this selective review, we discuss the concept of a biopsychosocial analysis of the effects of alcohol. After briefly addressing biological and psychological research on alcohol's emotional effects, we bid to make a case for the vital role that social processes play in understanding why people drink. The bulk of the paper describes research illustrating the contributions that a social psychological perspective can make to advance understanding of the rewarding effects of alcohol. Overall, studies incorporating social contexts have revealed reliable evidence that alcohol enhances emotional experience in many social environments and have identified socio-contextual variables that moderate responses to alcohol. Further, these studies have broadened the scope of constructs thought to be socially rewarding, including social bonding, relationship functioning, and humor enjoyment. Our analysis concludes by identifying research areas we believe would profit from additional research.

Online Crowdsourcing as a Quasi-Experimental Method for Collecting Data on the Perpetration of Alcohol-Related Partner Aggression

Cross-sectional survey, prospective, and experimental data have been evaluated to better understand the role of alcohol as a contributing cause of intimate partner aggression. Laboratory-based alcohol administration studies provide controlled data regarding causality, but the use of this methodology lacks ecological validity and has been hampered by rigorous procedural and financial demands. Online crowdsourcing is an emerging pseudoexperimental methodology with low costs, rapid data collection, access to diverse populations, greater ecological validity, and the potential to facilitate prolific research to supplement the chronic scarcity of experimental data. The current rapid review first summarizes prior methodological approaches to investigating the proximal influence of alcohol on partner aggression, then reviews prior crowdsourcing research in the disparate areas of alcohol and partner aggression, then describes aggression paradigms that may be readily adapted to online administration. We conclude by introducing recommendations for future quasi-experimental research investigating alcohol-related partner aggression research using the online crowdsourcing methodology. Initial evidence suggests that online crowdsourcing may yield appropriate samples and that existing paradigms may be adapted to rapidly, efficiently, and ethically supplement experimental alcohol-related partner aggression research.

How Moderate Alcohol Consumption Impacts Married or Cohabiting Couples in Expressing Disagreements: An Automatic Computation Model and Analysis

Alcohol consumption is common in married/cohabiting couples, and many studies have attempted to understand its effects on their behavior patterns. Traditionally, those evaluations have been done through questionnaires and self-reports. While these approaches have unique contributions, they cannot track instantaneous behavioral changes, such as when a person shows disagreement, and are subjective to personal bias. Hence, we developed a computation model to automatically and objectively quantify instantaneous non-verbal disagreement expressed by head shakings and the corresponding following behavior. We conducted a preliminary analysis based on data from a randomized controlled experiment, where married/cohabiting couples discussed conflicts in different alcohol consumption conditions. Results showed that participants demonstrated different behavioral patterns in expressing moderate and strong disagreement. In addition, alcohol influenced males' head-shaking magnitude and females' following behavior more than their partners'. The proposed method is general and can be extended to investigate other behavioral cues.

Cognitive and Affective Mediators of Alcohol-Facilitated Intimate Partner Aggression

This multisite study examined whether aggressive cognitions and facial displays of negative affect and anger experienced during provocation mediated the association between alcohol intoxication and intimate partner aggression (IPA). Participants were 249 heavy drinkers (148 men, 101 women) with a recent history of IPA perpetration. Participants were randomly assigned to an Alcohol or No-Alcohol Control beverage condition and completed a shock-based aggression task involving apparent provocation by their intimate partner. During provocation, a hidden camera recorded participants' facial expressions and verbal articulations, which were later coded using the Facial Action Coding System and the Articulated Thoughts in Simulated Situations paradigm. Results indicated that the positive association between alcohol intoxication and partner-directed physical aggression was mediated by participants' aggressive cognitions, but not by negative affect or anger facial expressions. These findings implicate aggressogenic cognitions as a mediating mechanism underlying the association between the acute effects of alcohol and IPA perpetration.

BRIEF MOTIVATIONAL INTERVENTION FOR SUBSTANCE USE MAY DECREASE VIOLENCE AMONG HEAVY ALCOHOL USERS IN A JAIL DIVERSION PROGRAM

Rates of harmful alcohol use are high among justice-involved individuals and may contribute to violent recidivism. Robust treatments for alcohol-related violence in criminal justice systems are thus a public health priority. In this analysis of existing randomized controlled trial data (N = 105), we examined the impact of a brief motivational intervention (BMI) for harmful substance use on violent recidivism among individuals in a pretrial jail diversion program. Results indicated that, after controlling for violence history, the intervention's impact on violent recidivism was moderated by baseline harmful alcohol use. Specifically, among people with severe alcohol problems at baseline, the BMI + standard care group had less violent recidivism at a 1-year follow-up than participants randomized to standard care alone. This finding was unchanged when we accounted for psychopathic traits. Our study provides preliminary evidence that a BMI may be useful for decreasing violent recidivism among heavy drinkers in criminal justice systems.

Does Drinking Together Promote Relationship Intimacy? Temporal Effects of Daily Drinking Events

OBJECTIVE

Although research has documented harms associated with drinking within intimate relationships, there is evidence that some drinking patterns-characterized by congruent or shared partner drinking-may be associated with positive relationship functioning. The present dyadic daily diary study allowed us to consider whether congruent drinking events and drinking with partner increase the likelihood of experiencing intimacy with one's partner within the next few hours.

METHOD

Within a sample of 119 community couples in which both partners drank regularly, we studied the temporal relationship between drinking events and intimacy experiences using 56 days of daily reports. To ensure that the pattern of results was robust, we tested the effects of congruent versus noncongruent drinking events using different characterizations.

RESULTS

Drinking episodes involving simultaneous drinking by both partners (but not solo drinking) increased the likelihood of intimacy in the next few hours. Similarly, drinking episodes in which partner was present (but not episodes when partner was absent) and drinking episodes that took place at home (but not away from home) increased the likelihood of intimacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Results provide the first evidence that some types of drinking events contribute to the occurrence of couple intimacy experiences within the next few hours and help to explain previously observed long-term effects of congruent drinking patterns on couple functioning.

Design of a randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of oxytocin to enhance alcohol behavioral couple therapy

Combining pharmacological interventions with evidence-based behavioral interventions may help optimize treatment outcomes for alcohol use disorder (AUD). While several effective behavioral interventions for AUD have been developed, the vast majority target individual patients, despite evidence that behavioral interventions for couples have the ability to outperform individual treatments for AUD. Alcohol Behavioral Couples Therapy (ABCT) is an evidence-based behavioral intervention for couples that has been shown to significantly reduce AUD severity as well as improve relationship functioning. Accumulating evidence suggests that the neuropeptide oxytocin has the ability to reduce alcohol craving and consumption, symptoms of tolerance and withdrawal, and ameliorate neurobiological deficits associated with AUD. Furthermore, oxytocin has demonstrated the ability to increase prosocial behavior and cognition, and restore sensitivity to natural rewards such as interpersonal relationships. No study to date has examined the ability of oxytocin to enhance ABCT. Thus, the primary objective of this Phase II study is to examine the effects of oxytocin versus placebo in combination with ABCT in reducing AUD severity and improving relationship functioning. We also will utilize neuroimaging techniques before and after treatment to investigate the underlying pathophysiology of AUD among couples and identify prognostic indicators of treatment outcome. The findings from this study might provide critical new information to help inform clinical practice and accelerate research on the pharmacological treatment of AUD.

Provocation and target gender as moderators of the relationship between acute alcohol use and female perpetrated aggression

Acute alcohol use appears to exert a small but significant effect on female perpetrated aggression in the laboratory but there has been no effort to evaluate comprehensively the situational moderators of this relationship. This preliminary review was intended to explore the moderating effects of provocation and target gender on alcohol-related aggression among females in this understudied area of research. Moderator analyses were conducted on 14 studies. Despite limitations imposed by the sparsity of laboratory based research on alcohol-related aggression among females, initial results suggest that alcohol may exert stronger effects over female aggression following high (d = 0.25, k = 8, p < .01, 95% CI = 0.10-0.40) rather than low (d = -0.07, k = 6, p = .52, 95% CI = -0.29-0.15) provocation and when targets of aggression are female (d = 0.19, k = 9, p = .01, 95% CI = 0.04-0.34) rather than male (d = -0.06, k = 4, p = .61, 95% CI = -0.30-0.18). Results offer initial insight into situational risk factors pertinent to research and treatment of alcohol-related aggression among females while serving as an impetus for future research in this critical, neglected area of study.

Alcohol, conflict, and aggression in intimate relationships: A dyadic approach

Intimate partner aggression (IPA) is a critical public health problem that requires clear and testable etiological models that may translate into effective interventions. While alcohol intoxication and a pattern of heavy alcohol consumption are robust correlates of IPA perpetration, there has been limited research that examines this association from a dyadic perspective. In the present review, we discuss compelling reasons for understanding dyadic factors that assist our understanding of alcohol-facilitated IPA, review the relatively small number of studies that have investigated such factors, and provide a theoretical and methodological framework for researchers to conceptualize how to model alcohol-facilitated IPA from a dyadic framework.

Preliminary development of a neuroimaging paradigm to examine neural correlates of relationship conflict

Social stress in the form of conflict between romantic partners is a salient correlate of substance use disorders (SUD), and also plays an integral role in SUD treatment outcomes. Neuroimaging has advanced the study of social stress on SUD etiology, course, and treatment. However, no neuroimaging paradigms have yet been developed to examine neural responses to conflict among romantic couples. In order to fill this gap in the literature, the goal of this exploratory study was to examine the preliminary feasibility of a novel relationship conflict fMRI paradigm. We compared the effects of an auditory relationship conflict versus a neutral cue on functional connectivity in corticolimbic brain regions, and the associations between neural activities and self-report ratings of relationship adjustment, substance use problems, and intimate partner violence. We also explored sex differences in neural correlates of relationship conflict versus neutral cues. Participants demonstrated increased functional connectivity between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex during the relationship conflict cue compared to the neutral cue. Intimate partner violence was associated with functional connectivity. Sex differences emerged in neural responses to the relationship conflict cue compared to the neutral cue. Collectively, the findings demonstrate preliminary validity of this novel neuroimaging paradigm for couples.

Childhood family adversity and adult cortisol response: The role of observed marital conflict behavior

Childhood family adversity predicts adult interpersonal behavior and physiological responses to interpersonal stress. Additionally, negative marital behaviors (e.g., hostility and distress maintaining attributions) predict maladaptive stress responses and mental health problems, whereas positive marital behaviors (e.g., acceptance and relationship enhancing attributions) predict adaptive physiological and psychological outcomes. The present study examined potential marital behavior mediators and moderators of the link between childhood adversity and cortisol responses to conflict. In a sample of 218 different-sex newlywed couples, we examined (a) actors' marital conflict behaviors as candidate mediators of the link between childhood adversity and cortisol responses to marital conflict discussions, and (b) partners' marital conflict behaviors as candidate moderators of the relation between childhood adversity and cortisol responses to marital discussions. Path analysis using actor-partner interdependence modeling did not confirm mediation. Instead, wives' childhood family adversity directly predicted husbands' attenuated cortisol responses, and wives' negative behavior predicted wives' attenuated cortisol responses. As hypothesized, wives' negative behaviors moderated the association between husbands' childhood family adversity and husbands' cortisol in response to conflict; husbands showed higher cortisol if they had experienced greater family adversity and if their wives displayed more negative behavior. Results suggest that childhood family adversity may carry forward to shape adult cortisol responses to conflict and highlights the importance of wives' negative behavior for both husbands and wives. These findings add to the family psychology literature by further clarifying how the interaction of stressful childhood experiences and conflict behaviors in marriage are associated with adult physiological responses to conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record

Effects of oxytocin on cortisol reactivity and conflict resolution behaviors among couples with substance misuse

Social stress, particularly in the form of dyadic conflict, is a well-established correlate of substance use disorders (SUD). The neuropeptide oxytocin can enhance prosocial behavior and mitigate addictive behaviors. These effects may be, in part, a result of oxytocin's ability to attenuate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation. However, only one study to date has examined the effects of oxytocin on neuroendocrine reactivity or conflict resolution behavior among couples. Participants (N = 33 couples or 66 total participants) were heterosexual couples in which one or both partners endorsed substance misuse. Using a double-blind, placebo-controlled, repeated-measures design and an evidence-based behavioral coding system, we compared the impact of oxytocin (40 IU) vs. placebo on cortisol reactivity and conflict resolution behaviors. Among women, oxytocin attenuated cortisol response following the task. Oxytocin was also associated with increased Distress Maintaining Attributions and decreased Relationship Enhancing Attributions. Among men, oxytocin was associated with decreased Distress Maintaining Attributions, and both oxytocin and placebo yielded declines in Relationship Enhancing Attributions. The findings support emerging hypotheses that oxytocin may have differential effects in men and women, and indicate the need for future efforts to translate oxytocin's positive neurobiological effects into therapeutic behavioral changes.

Temporal Effects of Perpetrating or Receiving Intimate Partner Aggression on Alcohol Consumption: A Daily Diary Study of Community Couples

OBJECTIVE

Survey studies provide evidence that experiencing intimate partner aggression (IPA) contributes to subsequent alcohol use. However, it is unknown whether the increase in alcohol use over time reflects a temporal effect of IPA. We examined verbal and physical IPA as predictors of alcohol use and heavy drinking within the next few hours. We also investigated whether both victims and perpetrators drank following IPA, and if it mattered which partner reported the aggression.

METHOD

The data reported here were derived from a 56-day diary study examining the association between alcohol use and partner aggression in 118 heterosexual couples. We examined whether alcohol use in a given hour could be predicted by IPA in the previous 3 hours, taking into account victim/perpetrator status, source of the report (self, other), and gender.

RESULTS

Victims were twice as likely to use alcohol in a given hour when they reported having received verbal IPA in the previous 3 hours, independent of the perpetrator's report. Similarly, perpetrators were more than twice as likely to use alcohol in a given hour when they reported having perpetrated verbal IPA in the previous 3 hours, independent of the victim's report. Results were similar when reports of mutual IPA were considered. Verbal IPA increased the likelihood of drinking but not the likelihood of heavy drinking. Results for physical IPA were not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Verbal IPA is a proximal predictor of alcohol use for both victims and perpetrators. However, effects emerge only when individuals report aggression, and not when their partner provides the sole report, emphasizing the importance of the individual's perception of IPA.

The proximal effects of acute alcohol use on female aggression: A meta-analytic review of the experimental literature

Experimental research on alcohol-related aggression has focused largely upon male participants, providing only a limited understanding of the proximal effects of acute alcohol use on aggression among females extrapolated from the male literature. The current meta-analysis was undertaken to summarize the effects of alcohol, compared to placebo or no alcohol, on female aggression as observed across experimental investigations. A review of the literature yielded 11 articles and 12 effect sizes for further analysis. The overall effect size of alcohol on female aggression was small and reached statistical significance (d = .17, p = .02, 95% confidence interval [.03, .30]). Meta-analytic examination of the experimental literature indicated that alcohol is a significant factor in female aggression. The overall alcohol-aggression effect was smaller than has been observed among male samples. Additional research is required to evaluate the influence of other factors on alcohol-related aggressive responding among female participants. (PsycINFO Database Record

The effects of alcohol on emotion in social drinkers

Understanding why people drink alcohol and in some cases develop drinking problems has long puzzled researchers, clinicians, and patients alike. In the mid-1940s and early 1950s, experimental research began to systematically investigate alcohol's hedonic properties. Presumably, alcohol consumption would prove reinforcing as a consequence of its capacity either to relieve stress or to brighten positive emotional experiences. This article reviews experimental research through the years examining the impact of alcohol on both the relief of negative affect and the enhancement of positive affect. It covers initial accounts that emphasized direct pharmacological effects of ethanol on the central nervous system. These early studies offered surprisingly tepid support for the premise that alcohol improved emotional states. Next, studies conducted in the 1970s are considered. Informed by social learning theory and employing advances derived from experimental psychology, this research sought to better understand the complex effects of alcohol on emotion. Coverage of this work is followed by discussion of current formulations, which integrate biological and behavioral approaches with the study of cognitive, affective, and social processes. These current perspectives provide insight into the particular conditions under which alcohol can boost emotional experiences. Finally, future research directions and clinical implications are considered.

The Proximal Effects of Acute Alcohol Consumption on Male-to-Female Aggression: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Experimental Literature

The current meta-analytic review examined the experimental literature to quantify the causal effect of acute alcohol consumption on self-reported and observed indicators of male-to-female general, sexual, and intimate partner aggression. Database and reference list searches yielded 22 studies conducted between 1981 and 2014 that met all criteria for inclusion and that were subjected to full text coding for analysis. Results detected a significant overall effect (d = .36), indicating that male participants who consumed alcohol evidenced greater aggressive behavior toward females while completing a subsequent laboratory aggression paradigm than male participants who received no alcohol. We found homogeneity across all categories of potential moderator variables. Results further indicated that alcohol resulted in comparable increases of male-to-female sexual (d = .32) and intimate partner (d = .45) aggression. Further research is required to draw meaningful conclusions about individual and situational factors that may interact with acute alcohol consumption to produce the highest levels of risk.

Relationship Quality and Alcohol-Related Social Reinforcement during Couples Interaction

Individuals who are unhappy in their intimate partnerships are at risk for developing alcohol problems. But little is known about the mechanisms underlying this link. One possibility is that couples with poor relationship quality gain more reinforcement from alcohol in certain contexts-a possibility that has never previously been empirically examined. In the current study, 304 individuals (152 couples) were assigned to receive alcohol (target BAC .08%) or a non-alcoholic beverage. They then engaged in a conflict-resolution interaction with their partners. Videotaped interactions were coded by trained observers. Results revealed a significant interaction between alcohol and relationship quality across multiple measures. Alcohol decreased negative behaviors, decreased negative reciprocity, and enhanced self-reported experience to a greater extent during interactions involving individuals reporting low relationship quality and had comparatively little effect among those reporting high relationship quality. Findings point to a potential mechanism underlying problem drinking among couples with poor relationship quality.

The couple that smokes together: Dyadic marijuana use and relationship functioning during conflict

Self-reported marijuana use has been associated with poor relationship functioning and decreased stability over time. The present study examined the behavioral interactions of couples with concordant and discordant patterns of marijuana use during conflict, using individual self-reports and observation by independent coders. Heavy drinking community couples (N = 149) participated in a conflict resolution paradigm. Interactions were recorded and coded by naïve coders. Approximately 30% of the sample reported past year marijuana use. Actor-Partner Interdependence Models and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to evaluate the individual and interactive effects of dyadic marijuana use on maladaptive relationship functioning. A Robust Actor × Partner Marijuana Use interaction was detected for a range of behavioral outcomes, assessed by both self-report and direct observation, including relationship satisfaction, anger experience, patterns of demand and withdrawal during conflict, constructive behaviors, and overall relationship quality. Specifically, couples in which both partners used or abstained from marijuana displayed more adaptive relationship functioning across indicators relative to couples in which only 1 partner identified as a marijuana user. This pattern was particularly strong for couples in which the female partner used marijuana and the male partner did not. Couples with discordant, rather than concordant, marijuana use displayed distinct conflict resolution behaviors that were consistent with the long-term negative relationship outcomes that have been observed in previous studies. (PsycINFO Database Record

Regulation strategies mediate associations between heavy drinking and relationship outcomes in married couples

Heavy drinking patterns during marriage can be problematic for both spouses and the relationship. Moreover, spouses use different strategies in an attempt to change their partner's drinking behavior, which can impact the relationship in different ways. The current research examined whether associations between heavy drinking and marital adjustment are mediated by partner regulation strategies (i.e., punishment and reward). Married couples (N=123 dyads) with at least one spouse who consumed alcohol regularly and at least one undergraduate spouse completed web-based assessments at baseline and three and six months later. Mediation hypotheses were tested using a repeated-measures version of the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. As predicted, a significant partner effect emerged suggesting that heavy drinking was associated with greater use of punishment strategies, which were in turn associated with diminished satisfaction. Another significant partner effect revealed that heavy drinking also predicted greater use of reward strategies, which were positively associated with satisfaction. However, the magnitude of the indirect effects via punishment was more than twice as large as the mediated effect via reward. Results underscore the importance of an interdependent, dyadic perspective in understanding associations between heavy drinking and marital outcomes as well as differences between punishing and rewarding regulation strategies in these associations.

Daily reports of intimate partner verbal aggression by self and partner: Short-term consequences and implications for measurement

OBJECTIVE

Agreement within couples regarding the occurrence of aggression is surprisingly low. Survey research often collapses across partners' reports to create a pooled estimate of aggression in the relationship. This method ignores possible differences in partners' perceptions of the event, potentially weakening researchers' ability to detect consequences of aggression. The current study examines both partners' reports of verbal aggression to determine whether aggression reported by only one partner influences both partners' short-term outcomes.

METHODS

We used a 56-day daily diary to examine the effect of verbal aggression on short-term negative outcomes. We examined whether aggression reported by either partner is sufficient to predict consequences for both partners, or if an individual must report aggression to experience consequences.

RESULTS

Victims' reports of receiving verbal aggression were a better predictor of next day victim consequences than perpetrators' reports. Perpetrators' reports of perpetrating verbal aggression were a better predictor of next day perpetrator consequences than victims' reports. Days when partners agreed that aggression had occurred generally predicted the worst outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

People's own reports of verbal aggression are the best predictor of short-term consequences. Pooling partner reports of aggression may make it more difficult to understand the consequences of intimate partner aggression.