Pesticide exposure and health conditions of terrestrial pesticide applicators in Córdoba Province, Argentina

Physical function as a marker to assess the effects of occupational long-term pesticide exposure

In this cross-sectional study, we determined the relative impact of long-term occupational exposure to pesticides on physical performance and perception of tiredness. Experimental data was collected in locus from agricultural communities and included surveys to assess the duration of exposure to pesticides, social status, habitual physical activity levels, presence of common mental disorders (CMD), and self-reported tiredness. Plasmatic cholinesterase (PChE), body composition and traditional functional performance tests (Handgrip strength-HGS; Time up and go-TUG; and Sit-to-stand-STS) were obtained. From the 127 individuals tested, cluster analysis yielded 80 individuals divided in Direct Exposed (n = 37) and Indirect Exposed (n = 43); Tired (n = 16), and Not Tired (n = 64). PChE values were within the reference values (5209.64-13943.53 U/L). Pesticide exposure had no influence on PChE levels, CMD or fatigue (p > 0.05), while Self-reported tiredness had (p < 0.05). Principal Component Analyses showed that HGS; STS and TUG (i.e., physical performance variables) are negatively influenced by two independent factors: pesticide exposure and self-reported tiredness. We conclude that chronic pesticide exposure and tiredness can negatively impact physical performance, independently, without clinically significant changes in PChE levels that is a biomarker used to track pesticide intoxication. Functional physical tests can be a useful tool to identify chronic pesticide exposure, and help with the limitations of commonly used parameters (i.e. PChE and CMD). Self-reported tiredness is a confounding variable.

Redox imbalance and inflammation: A link to depression risk in brazilian pesticide-exposed farmers

This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms linking occupational pesticide exposure to depression among rural workers from Maravilha, Brazil. We assessed the mental health, oxidative, and inflammatory profiles of farmers exposed to pesticides (N = 28) and compared them to an urban control group without occupational exposure to pesticides (N = 25). Data on sociodemographic, occupational history, and clinical records were collected. Emotional states were evaluated using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Biochemical, hematological, inflammatory, and redox parameters were examined in blood samples from both groups. Results showed educational disparities between groups and unveiled a concerning underutilization of personal protective equipment (PPEs) among farmers. Glyphosate was the predominant pesticide used by farmers. Farmers exhibited higher BDI scores, including more severe cases of depression. Additionally, elevated levels of creatinine, ALT, AST, and LDH were observed in farmers, suggesting potential renal and hepatic issues due to pesticide exposure. Oxidative stress markers, such as increased lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, along with decreased catalase (CAT) activity and ascorbic acid levels, were noted in the pesticide-exposed group compared to controls. Elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, were also observed in pesticide-exposed group. Our findings suggest that inflammation, oxidative distress and lower educational levels may be associated with depression in pesticide-exposed farmers. This study highlights the impact of occupational pesticide exposure on the mental health of rural workers. The underuse of PPEs and the link between depressive symptoms, inflammation, and oxidative stress underscore the urgent need for improved safety measures in agricultural practices. Addressing these issues will contribute to a deeper understanding of the intricate relationship between environmental exposures and mental health outcomes.

Occupational exposure to pesticides and symptoms of depression in agricultural workers. A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The use of pesticides can result in harm to both the environment and human health. There is a growing concern in the field of occupational health about the impact on the mental health of agricultural workers.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this review was to systematize scientific evidence from the last ten years on the impact of occupational exposure to pesticides on the development of depression symptoms in agricultural workers.

METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive search in the PubMed and Scopus databases from 2011 to September 2022. Our search included studies in English, Spanish, and Portuguese that examined the association between occupational exposure to pesticides and symptoms of depression in agricultural workers, following the guidelines recommended by the PRISMA statement and the PECO strategy (Population, Exposure, Comparison, and Outcomes).

RESULTS

Among the 27 articles reviewed, 78% of them indicated a link between exposure to pesticides and the incidence of depression symptoms. The pesticides most frequently reported in the studies were organophosphates (17 studies), herbicides (12 studies), and pyrethroids (11 studies). The majority of the studies were rated as having intermediate to intermediate-high quality, with the use of standardized measures to assess both exposure and effect.

CONCLUSION

The updated evidence presented in our review indicates a clear association between pesticide exposure and the development of depressive symptoms. However, more high-quality longitudinal studies are necessary to control for sociocultural variables and utilize pesticide-specific biomarkers and biomarkers of depression. Given the increased use of these chemicals and the health risks associated with depression, it is crucial to implement more stringent measures to monitor the mental health of agricultural workers regularly exposed to pesticides and to enhance surveillance of companies that apply these chemicals.

Could pesticide exposure be implicated in the high incidence rates of depression, anxiety and suicide in farmers? A systematic review

Pesticide exposure and poisoning may rise the risk of mental health problems and suicidal tendencies. To explore the potential connection between chronic occupational exposure to pesticides and depression, anxiety, and suicide-related outcomes in farmers, a systematic review was performed. Systematic review protocol is available in PROSPERO registration number CRD42022316285. A total of fifty-seven studies met inclusion criteria: twenty-nine on depression or other mental disorders, twelve on suicide (two of them on both depression and suicide), and fourteen on pesticide poisoning or self-poisoning and death. Among the fifty-seven selected studies, eighteen were conducted in Asia, seventeen in North America, fourteen in South America, seven in European Union, one in Africa, and one in Australia/Oceania. Selected studies demonstrated an increased prevalence of depressive disorders in farmworkers exposed to pesticides as well as an increased self-reported prevalence of depression in this population. Moreover, previous pesticide poisoning increased the risk estimates for depression or other mental disorders as compared with chronic pesticide exposure. Severe pesticide poisoning and multiple poisoning showed increased risks of depressive symptoms compared with milder cases. In addition, financial difficulties and poor health were positively correlated with depression. Among studies on suicide, nine of them found that suicide rates increased in areas devoted to agriculture with intensive pesticide consumption. Moreover, studies demonstrate a higher suicide risk among farmers. The present review suggests more attention to the farmer's mental health and more detailed studies on occupational exposure to the mixture of these compounds.

Atrazine characterization: An update on uses, monitoring, effects, and environmental impact, for the development of regulatory policies in Argentina

Atrazine (ATZ) is the third most widely used herbicide in Argentina (10 000 t year^-1 ) and is approved for sugar cane, flax, corn, sorghum, and tea. An assessment of the ATZ environmental impacts was conducted at the request of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Argentina. A review of 541 national and international technical and scientific reports and a survey among agricultural technicians, applicators, and producers was done. The survey revealed that 94% of ATZ applications are terrestrial and use diversion exists, associated mainly with soybean cultivation. Atrazine was reported at high frequencies (50%-100%) in surface and groundwater, sediments, and soils, sometimes exceeding permitted limits. Several sublethal effects induced by ATZ on invertebrate and vertebrate species were found, sometimes at concentrations lower than those in water quality guidelines (<3 µg L^-1 ) or the environmental concentrations found in Argentina. Available epidemiological or human health studies of local populations are extremely scarce. This assessment also demonstrated that herbicides are ubiquitous in the environment. The investigation highlights the need for further studies assessing the adverse effects of ATZ on local species, ecosystems, and human health. Therefore, the precautionary principle is recommended to promote better application standards and product traceability to reduce volumes entering the environment and to avoid use deviation. In addition, this work concluded that there is a need for reviewing the toxicological classification, establishing buffer zones for ATZ application, introducing specific management guidelines, and expanding local studies of toxicity, ecotoxicity, and human epidemiology for environmental and health risk assessments. This study could also serve as a preliminary risk evaluation for establishing a final regulatory action and for considering ATZ inclusion in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention. Finally, the requirements to consider its inclusion in Annex A (Elimination) or B (Restriction) of the Stockholm Convention were evaluated and discussed, and information on the potential of long-range transport was the only criterion with no information to consider. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:684-697. © 2022 SETAC.

Neurotoxicity of pesticides in the context of CNS chronic diseases

Following the introduction and application of pesticides in human life, they have always been along with health concerns both in acute poisoning and chronic toxicities. Neurotoxicity of pesticides in chronic exposures has been known as one of the most important human health problems, as most of these chemicals act through interacting with some elements of nervous system. Pesticide-induced neurotoxicity can be defined in different categories of neurological disorders including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer, Parkinson, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis), neurodevelopmental (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, developmental delay, and intellectual disability), neurobehavioral and neuropsychiatric (depression/suicide attempt, anxiety/insomnia, and cognitive impairment) disorders some of which are among the most debilitating human health problems. In this review, neurotoxicity of pesticides in the mentioned categories and sub-categories of neurological diseases have been systematically presented in relation to different route of exposures including general, occupational, environmental, prenatal, postnatal, and paternal.

Health Effects of Pesticide Exposure in Latin American and the Caribbean Populations: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Multiple epidemiological studies have shown that exposure to pesticides is associated with adverse health outcomes. However, the literature on pesticide-related health effects in the Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) region, an area of intensive agricultural and residential pesticide use, is sparse. We conducted a scoping review to describe the current state of research on the health effects of pesticide exposure in LAC populations with the goal of identifying knowledge gaps and research capacity building needs.

METHODS

We searched PubMed and SciELO for epidemiological studies on pesticide exposure and human health in LAC populations published between January 2007 and December 2021. We identified 233 publications from 16 countries that met our inclusion criteria and grouped them by health outcome (genotoxicity, neurobehavioral outcomes, placental outcomes and teratogenicity, cancer, thyroid function, reproductive outcomes, birth outcomes and child growth, and others).

RESULTS

Most published studies were conducted in Brazil (37%, n = 88 ) and Mexico (20%, n = 46 ), were cross-sectional in design (72%, n = 167 ), and focused on farmworkers (45%, n = 105 ) or children (21%, n = 48 ). The most frequently studied health effects included genotoxicity (24%, n = 62 ) and neurobehavioral outcomes (21%, n = 54 ), and organophosphate (OP) pesticides were the most frequently examined (26%, n = 81 ). Forty-seven percent (n = 112 ) of the studies relied only on indirect pesticide exposure assessment methods. Exposure to OP pesticides, carbamates, or to multiple pesticide classes was consistently associated with markers of genotoxicity and adverse neurobehavioral outcomes, particularly among children and farmworkers.

DISCUSSION

Our scoping review provides some evidence that exposure to pesticides may adversely impact the health of LAC populations, but methodological limitations and inconsistencies undermine the strength of the conclusions. It is critical to increase capacity building, integrate research initiatives, and conduct more rigorous epidemiological studies in the region to address these limitations, better inform public health surveillance systems, and maximize the impact of research on public policies. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9934.

Salivary biomarkers and neuropsychological outcomes: A non-invasive approach to investigate pollutants-associated neurotoxicity and its effects on cognition in vulnerable populations

The occurrence of neurotoxicity caused by xenobiotics such as pesticides (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, organophosphates, pyrethroids, etc.) or metals (mercury, lead, aluminum, arsenic, etc.) is a growing concern around the world, particularly in vulnerable populations with difficulties on both detection and symptoms treatment, due to low economic status, remote access, poor infrastructure, and low educational level, among others features. Despite the numerous molecular markers and questionnaires/clinical evaluations, studying neurotoxicity and its effects on cognition in these populations faces problems with samples collection and processing, and information accuracy. Assessing cognitive changes caused by neurotoxicity, especially those that are subtle in the initial stages, is fundamentally challenging. Finding accurate, non-invasive, and low-cost strategies to detect the first signals of brain injury has the potential to support an accelerated development of the research with these populations. Saliva emerges as an ideal pool of biomarkers (with interleukins and neural damage-related proteins, among others) and potential alternative diagnostic fluid to molecularly investigate neurotoxicity. As a source of numerous neurological biomarkers, saliva has several advantages compared to blood, such as easier storage, requires less manipulation, and the procedure is cheaper, safer and well accepted by patients compared with drawing blood. Regarding cognitive dysfunction, neuropsychological batteries represent, with their friendly interface, a feasible and accurate method to evaluate the eventual cognitive deficits associated with neurotoxicity in people from diverse cultural and educational backgrounds. The association of these two tools, saliva and neuropsychological batteries, to cover the molecular and cognitive aspects of neurotoxicity in vulnerable populations, could potentially increase the prevalence of early intervention and successful treatment.

Effect of pesticide exposure on total antioxidant capacity and biochemical parameters in Brazilian soybean farmers

Farmers represent a population highly vulnerable to the toxic effects of pesticide exposure. Antioxidant capacity and biochemical parameters have been used as biomarkers of occupational exposure to pesticides. The aim of this study was to evaluate hepatic and renal parameters as well as butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity and ferric-reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) considering high and low exposure periods in soybean farmers in southern Brazil. The exposed group consisted of 50 soybean farmers. Two control groups were used, composed by 35 (Novo Hamburgo control group) and 28 (Sertão control group) subjects not exposed to pesticides. Farmers blood samples were collected during the high and low pesticide exposure periods. BChE, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), urea, and creatinine levels were determined. The FRAP assay was carried out to evaluate the antioxidant potential in the exposed group. Considering the exposed group, significantly lower BChE and increased AST activity were observed during high pesticide exposure period as well as higher FRAP, urea and creatinine levels; however, ALT and GGT did not differ between the two periods. When compared with the control groups, only urea and creatinine were higher in the exposed group. The present results indicate that occupational exposure to mixtures of pesticides might elicit adverse effects at the biochemical level. In addition, the study highlights the importance in considering periods of a same crop season with different degree of pesticide exposure during biologic monitoring of these biochemical parameters.

The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: estimations based on a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Human poisoning by pesticides has long been seen as a severe public health problem. As early as 1990, a task force of the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about one million unintentional pesticide poisonings occur annually, leading to approximately 20,000 deaths. Thirty years on there is no up-to-date picture of global pesticide poisoning despite an increase in global pesticide use. Our aim was to systematically review the prevalence of unintentional, acute pesticide poisoning (UAPP), and to estimate the annual global number of UAPP.

METHODS

We carried out a systematic review of the scientific literature published between 2006 and 2018, supplemented by mortality data from WHO. We extracted data from 157 publications and the WHO cause-of-death database, then performed country-wise synopses, and arrived at annual numbers of national UAPP. World-wide UAPP was estimated based on national figures and population data for regions defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

RESULTS

In total 141 countries were covered, including 58 by the 157 articles and an additional 83 by data from the WHO Mortality Database. Approximately 740,000 annual cases of UAPP were reported by the extracted publications resulting from 7446 fatalities and 733,921 non-fatal cases. On this basis, we estimate that about 385 million cases of UAPP occur annually world-wide including around 11,000 fatalities. Based on a worldwide farming population of approximately 860 million this means that about 44% of farmers are poisoned by pesticides every year. The greatest estimated number of UAPP cases is in southern Asia, followed by south-eastern Asia and east Africa with regards to non-fatal UAPP.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study updates outdated figures on world-wide UAPP. Along with other estimates, robust evidence is presented that acute pesticide poisoning is an ongoing major global public health challenge. There is a need to recognize the high burden of non-fatal UAPP, particularly on farmers and farmworkers, and that the current focus solely on fatalities hampers international efforts in risk assessment and prevention of poisoning. Implementation of the international recommendations to phase out highly hazardous pesticides by the FAO Council could significantly reduce the burden of UAPP.

Assessment of DNA damage and cholinesterase activity in soybean farmers in southern Brazil: High versus low pesticide exposure

The aim of this study was to evaluate the DNA damage in soybean growers during two agricultural periods of a crop season (high and low exposure) and a control group, as well as butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity during these exposure periods in order to estimate the degree of BChE inhibition for the exposed group. DNA damage in peripheral whole blood was evaluated by the comet assay and plasma BChE activity was accessed as a measure of exposure to cholinesterase inhibitors. None of the soybean growers reported using full Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). BChE was lower in high exposure period than in low exposure period and DNA damage index was significantly increased in the high exposure period than in the low exposure period. In addition, DNA damage in both exposure periods was higher than control group. No correlation was found between exposure time and DNA damage and BChE activity. However, negative correlation was observed between DNA damage in high and low exposure periods. The results indicate that soybean growers are exposed to cholinesterase inhibitors and to pesticides mixtures with genotoxic potential.

Evaluation of genetic damage in pesticides applicators from the province of Córdoba, Argentina

The impact evaluation of pesticide exposure is conducted using combined data from biomonitoring and environmental monitoring. Damage to the human genome is, probably, the leading cause of chronic-degenerative disorders, reproductive toxicology, and developmental problems. Although the general population is exposed to pesticides, workers in the agrochemical industry and farmers represent a high-risk group due to the occupational and environmental exposure. The aim of this study is to determine whether occupational exposure to agrochemicals in Córdoba (Argentina) constitute a factor of genotoxic damage. The study was conducted in 30 pesticide applicators from the province of Córdoba. Chromosomal aberrations (CAs), micronuclei (MN), and comet assays (CO) were performed. The current study shows that occupational exposure to pesticides increases values of CAs, MN, and DNA fragmentation biomarkers, all indicators of damage to the genetic material. Evidence suggests that chronic exposure to pesticides is a potential risk to workers health.

Evaluation in situ of genotoxic and cytotoxic response in the diploid/polyploid complex Odontophrynus (Anura: Odontophrynidae) inhabiting agroecosystems

Polyploidization has been documented across a wide range of vertebrates. Gene duplication could promote better adaptation to environmental changes and to chronic injury or stress. We investigated if genotoxic and cytotoxic responses to agricultural impact are affected by ploidy. We evaluate syntopic populations of the cryptic diploid/polyploid complex Odontophrynus cordobae/O. americanus breeding in an agroecosystem from Central Argentina. The blood of 72 adult anurans was analysed. We used erythrometry to distinguish Odontophrynus individuals with different ploidy levels. We calculated micronucleus frequencies (Mn) and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities (ENAs) as genotoxic effects and enucleated, mitotic, pyknotic and immature erythrocytes as cytotoxic endpoints (CYT). Mn, ENAs and CYT frequencies were significantly different between diploid and polyploid organisms. The higher frequencies of Mn and CYT were recorded in polyploid organisms, and the higher frequency of ENAs was recorded in diploids. These results indicate that stress response, as indicated by most genotoxic and cytotoxic endpoints, was higher in polyploids respect to diploids. Polyploidy could provide greater genetic flexibility increasing buffering against exogenous DNA-damaging agents and thus confer an advantage over diploids under certain environmental conditions.

Do Exposure to Arsenic, Occupation and Diet Have Synergistic Effects on Prostate Cancer Risk?

Background:

Diverse environmental exposures, as well as dietary and lifestyle factors, are associated with prostate cancer (PC) etiology; however little is known about joint interactive influences. The aim of this study was to analyse effects of diet combined with arsenic in drinking water and agricultural occupation on PC risk.

Methods:

A case-control study was conducted in Córdoba, Argentina (period 2008-2015) including 147 cases of PC and 300 controls. All subjects were interviewed about food consumption, socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics. A sample of drinking water was taken to determine arsenic concentrations. Adherence scores to the Traditional Dietary Pattern were estimated, based on a principal component factor analysis. A two-level logistic regression model was fitted in order to assess effects of the Traditional Pattern, occupation and arsenic exposure on the occurrence of PC (outcome). Family history of PC was considered as a clustering variable.

Results:

PC risk was greatest in subjects with high adherence to the Traditional Pattern (OR 2.18; 95%IC 1.097–4.344). Subjects exposed to arsenic in drinking water above 0.01mg/l who simultaneously performed agricultural activities showed a markedly elevated PC risk (OR 5.07; 95%IC 2.074-12.404). Variance of the random effect of family history of PC was significant.

conclusion:

Diet, arsenic and occupation in agriculture exert significant effects on PC risk. Further efforts are necessary to analyse risk factors integrally, in order to achieve a better understanding of the complex causal network for PC in this multiple-exposure population.

Pesticide exposure and health conditions among orange growers in Southern Brazil

This study aimed to evaluate the exposure to pesticides through the biomarkers analysis, as well as life habits and use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in a group of farmers who grow citrus in the Vale do Caí region, in Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. The study population consisted of 73 volunteer farmers, 45 males and 28 females, aged between 13 and 69 years old. The control group consisted of 30 individuals who were not exposed to pesticides. Measures of urea, creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), plasma cholinesterase (BChE) activity, and hematological parameters were analyzed. The study population also answered a structured questionnaire on life habits and health. The results showed that BChE activity was significantly lower in the exposed group than in the control group. AST, ALT, and creatinine were increased in the group of women exposed to pesticides when compared to the control group. GGT, urea, and hematological parameters did not show statistical differences for both male and female group. The most prevalent symptom reported by farmers after exposure to pesticides was headache. Furthermore, it was verified that the use of complete PPE is only made by 38% of the studied population.

[Biomonitoring in exposure to pesticides, its contribution to epidemiological surveillance of pesticide applicators in Cordoba, Argentina]

OBJECTIVE

To assess the level of exposure to pesticides and its correlation with perceived health indicators and injury biomarkers (genotoxic alterations and those caused by butyrylcholinesterase enzyme activity) in the population of pesticide applicators in extensive crops (PAEC) in Córdoba, Argentina.

METHODS

Transversal study, in PAEC (n = 47) randomly selected from a sample of 2000, and non-exposed subject controls (n = 52). The sociodemographic variables, exposure conditioning, and perceived health were surveyed by means of a self-administered questionnaire; biological indicators of genotoxicity: micronuclei, chromosomal aberrations and kite assay, and butyrylcholinesterase activity.

RESULTS

40% of PAEC have over 10 years' length of service and almost 50% of them reside less than 500 m from the sprinkled fields; they report low rates of personal protective equipment use while mixing, applying, or repairing the equipment. General, cardio-respiratory, and dermatological symptoms were greater among PAEC (p <0.05) as well as indicators of genotoxic injury (p <0.001). The butyrylcholinesterase activity was negatively associated with levels of exposure to pesticides.

CONCLUSIONS

The PAEC show an important negative impact on health linked to exposure to pesticides. The exposure scales associated to the use of biomarkers were a useful tool for monitoring pesticide applicators' health.