Protective and risk factors for toxocariasis in children from two different social classes of Brazil

Risk factors for toxocariasis during incarceration: the One Health intervention approach

Despite potential exposure to soil-transmitted helminths, especially when stray dogs and cats are present, toxocariasis in inmate populations remains to be established. Accordingly, the present study assessed the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of toxocariasis at the Women's State Penitentiary of Parana, Brazil. A total of 234/370 (63.2%; 95% CI 58.2-68.0) women inmates and 28/87 (32.2%; 95% CI 23.3-42.6) correctional officers were seropositive for anti-Toxocara spp. IgG by ELISA, with inmates 2.62-fold more likely positive (p = 0.00000026). The univariate model has identified that non-white (OR = 1.58, p = 0.047) and older than 39 years (OR = 1.28, p = 0.032) inmates were associated with mild but significant odds for seropositivity. Elementary or higher educational level was considered a protective factor for seropositivity. The presence of Toxocara spp. eggs was observed in 10/15 (66.7%) collected soil samples by centrifuge-flotation in Zinc Sulfate, and molecular analysis by PCR identified only Toxocara cati in these eggs. An intervention program was established with regular trap-neuter-release, with gradual removal for adoption (donation campaigns), treatment, and euthanasia when necessary (particularly due to advanced sporotrichosis). In addition, an educational awareness agenda was proposed, aiming to reduce soil contamination and accidental intake by the incarcerated population. A total of 40 feral cats were trapped, 20 males and 20 females, mostly adults. After trapping, 36 cats were neutered, treated, and microchipped in the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) at the Federal University of Paraná. Five trapped feral cats were euthanized, four diagnosed with advanced sporotrichosis, and one already neutered cat (not herein) with complications due to feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). Female inmates presented higher seroprevalence for Toxocara spp. antibodies when compared to correctional officers, significantly associated with age, self-declared ethnicity (non-white), and lack of formal education. Despite the non-natural scenario of a state penitentiary, the One Health approach of Toxocara spp. has highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the study and its relevance in understanding the complex interactions between human, animal, and environmental factors, particularly impacting female inmates. Further studies should establish the rate of inmate infection over time while deprived of liberty.

Seroprevalence of human toxocariasis in Latin America and the Caribbean: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

The current study aimed to quantitatively synthesize available evidence regarding the seroprevalence of human toxocariasis in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Methods

A systematic research involving six electronic databases was conducted using a research strategy that combined MeSH terms with free terms. Article selection and information extraction were performed using a double and independent approach. The Newcastle-Ottawa tool was used to assess the risk of bias in the included articles. The meta-analysis used the random-effects approach, with subgroup analysis and sensitivity analysis for risk of bias also being performed.

Results

We included 101 articles with a total of 31,123 participants. The studies were conducted between 1990 and 2022, with Brazil accounting for the largest number of studies (n = 37). The overall seroprevalence of human toxocariasis was 31.0% (95% CI: 27.0-35.0%, I2 = 99%). The prevalence of the main characteristics observed in seropositive patients were as follows: ocular toxocariasis (30.0%), asymptomatic (26.0%), and presence of dogs at home (68.0%). In addition, the seroprevalence was lower in studies including only adults than in those including children or both. In contrast, no differences in seroprevalences were found between studies conducted in the community and hospital.

Conclusion

The overall seroprevalence of human toxocariasis in Latin America and the Caribbean was high. Notably, our findings showed that the seroprevalence was increased among populations who kept a dog at home but was decreased in populations comprising only adults. Our findings can be used to establish epidemiological surveillance strategies for the prevention and early identification of toxocariasis.

Toxocara canis seropositivity in different exposure groups in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Northwest Pakistan

Human toxocariasis is a highly prevalent zoonosis worldwide but is underreported in most countries. This study was conducted to evaluate Toxocara canis seropositivity in different exposure sub-groups located in the Mardan, Swabi, and Nowshera districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Northwest Pakistan. A total of 400 blood samples were collected from males 15 years of age and older with no animals, with livestock, with dogs and/or cats living in the house, and from butchers and veterinarians or para-veterinarians. Serum was tested using a commercial ELISA kit for detection of IgG antibodies against T. canis. Proportion seropositive was presented for each group and differences between groups were evaluated using the chi-square or Fisher's exact test as appropriate. Possible risk factors obtained through administration of a questionnaire were also evaluated for each sub-population. Overall T. canis seroprevalence was 14.2%, with a significant difference found between the seroprevalence of individuals with no animals (5.0%; 5/100), individuals with dogs and/or cats living in the household (8.0%; 8/100), individuals with livestock (18.0%; 18/100), veterinarians or para-veterinarians (24.0%; 12/50), and butchers (28.0%; 14/50) (p < 0.001). Significant differences in seropositivity by income bracket, education level, and working in the fields were found for some sub-groups. Study findings demonstrate that certain sub-populations, in Northwest Pakistan, may be at greater risk of T. canis infection. Development and implementation of targeted preventive strategies may, therefore, be needed.

The global prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Toxocariasis is a zoonotic parasitic disease caused by Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in humans. Various types of T. canis are important.

PURPOSE

The current study aimed to investigate the prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics in the context of a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

The MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Sciences, Embase, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed studies published between January 2000 and December 2019 that report the prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics. The evaluation of articles based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria was performed by 2 researchers individually.

RESULTS

The results of 31 relevant studies indicated that the prevalence of Toxocara spp. was 3%-79% in 10,676 cases. The pooled estimate of global prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics was 30 (95% confidence interval, 22%-37%; I2=99.11%; P=0.00). The prevalence was higher in Asian populations than in European, American, and African populations.

CONCLUSION

Health policymakers should be more attentive to future research and approaches to Toxocara spp. and other zoonotic diseases to improve culture and identify socioeconomically important factors.

Serosurvey of anti-Toxocara antibodies and risk factors in adolescent and adult pregnant women of southeastern Brazil

Toxocariasis is worldwide endemic parasitic anthropozoonosis with high risk to those in in vulnerable populations and particularly during pregnancy and childhood. Although the prevalence of anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies has been extensively studied, risk factors of pregnant women of different ages remains to be established. This study was designed to i) assess the presence of anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies in pregnant women that presented to the public health system in a city of southeastern Brazil, and ii) determine the risk factors for toxocariasis in adolescent and adult pregnant women. This cross-sectional study included 280 pregnant women (71 aged up to and including 17 years [adolescents] and 209 aged 18 years and older [adults]). Pregnant women voluntarily agreed to complete a socioeconomic questionnaire and provide serum samples. Anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies were screened by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were performed to assess the risks for toxocariasis. Overall, 20.7% of pregnant women were seropositive (33.8% of adolescents and 16.3% of adults). Prevalence in pregnant adolescents was 2.6-fold higher than in adults (Odds ration [OR]: 2.63; 95% CI: 1.42-4.86, p = 0.003). Multivariate analysis revealed that contact with soil (p = 0.01; OR = 4.76) and being in the first trimester of pregnancy (p = 0.03; OR = 0.17) had significantly greater risk of toxocariasis for adolescents, and attainment of elementary through middle school education level (p = 0.05; OR = 8.33) was a risk factor in adult pregnant women. Toxocariasis is likely underreported and neglected in adolescent pregnant women; this age group should always be monitored for toxocariasis and correspondent clinical signs, particularly at late pregnancy.

Human Toxocariasis: 2010 to 2020 Contributions from Brazilian Researchers

This is a review of the published contributions made by Brazilian researchers between 2010 and 2020 on the natural history of human toxocariasis and the effects of human toxocariasis on nonhuman paratenic hosts.

Systematic review and meta-analysis on the risk potential of zoonotic toxocariasis from soil contamination of public places in India

Parasitic zoonoses despite of their potential threats to human health remain neglected especially in developing countries. Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati worms are considered important zoonotic parasites and the ability of their infective ova to sustain longer in suitable edaphic environments poses constant risk of infection to humans. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to highlight the burden and importance of soil borne toxocariasis in India. A total of 14 primary prevalence studies spanned over a period from 1985 to 2017 were included in this study. Due to expected variation between studies, a random-effects model was applied by using MetaXL add-on. The apparent prevalence based on the soil samples tested positive was found in the range of 2.11 to 31.0% while the weighted pooled prevalence was estimated as 11.26 (95% CI 07.59 - 15.54%). A high heterogeneity between studies (I² = 93.39 and Q = 227.024, p = 0.00) confirmed the diversity of the populations under study. This meta-analysis highlights the need of more studies on soil transmission of zoonotic toxocariasis in India.

Frequency of enteroparasitic infections and serum positivity for Toxocara spp. in children from a public day care center in Southern Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Day care centers play an important social role in children's early education and development. The objective of this study was to investigate the frequency of intestinal parasitic infections and infection with Toxocara spp. in children from a day care center in the city of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Methods: The study was conducted using fecal samples from 50 children, ages three to six years, using Ritchie, Faust, Rugai, and Kinyoun's techniques. A closed and structured epidemiological questionnaire was used to collect data from the parents/guardians of the children. Serological studies for detection of antibodies to Toxocara spp. by immunoenzymatic assays using Toxocara excretion and secretion antigen (TES) were conducted on sera collected from 41 children. Results: The frequency of enteroparasites was 18%, with 43.9% of the children testing seropositive for Toxocara spp. Low family income and low literacy levels of parents/guardians were common factors between the families of the parasite-positive children. For the children who tested positive for Toxocara spp., most of the parents/guardians reported using only water for sanitizing raw vegetables and fruits. Conclusions: The high seropositivity rates for Toxocara spp. indicate that children were exposed to this parasite, and it is important to reduce the risk of infection. In addition, the seropositivity for enteroparasites and the interviews with the parents/guardians indicate the need to educate the studied population regarding the modes of intestinal parasite transmission and the prophylactic measures needed to prevent their dissemination.

Seroprevalence Brazil

This chapter presents an overview of the seroprevalence of toxocariasis in Brazil and discusses how this zoonosis is studied, diagnosed, and treated in the Brazilian population. Toxocariasis in humans has a high prevalence in several regions of Brazil; however, this disease is neglected because of lack of knowledge, non-specific clinical signs, and difficult diagnosis. Most studies conducted in Brazil have estimated the prevalence of toxocariasis, i.e., the number of people who presented the disease at any given time. However, a few studies have determined disease incidence (number of new cases in a population at risk) and identified risk factors for Toxocara canis infection. Despite the high seroprevalence, the Brazilian population is not well aware of toxocariasis. Thus, the need of the hour is to raise awareness about this parasitic infection because of its worldwide distribution and potential health risk.

Toxocara prevalence in dogs and cats in Brazil

I herein review published studies reporting the prevalence of Toxocara infection in dogs and cats in Brazil. Based on data gathered from faecal examinations of approximately 38,940 dogs and 5600 cats from different Brazilian studies, the mean prevalence of Toxocara infection is 11.4% (range: 0.7-48.9%) in dogs and 16.7% (0.3-43.1%) in cats. These mean values based on faecal examinations should be interpreted with cautious, considering the obvious differences in terms of sample size, diagnostic tests and animal populations. Accordingly, necropsy investigations reveal higher mean prevalence values (21.9% for Toxocara canis and 27.6% Toxocara cati in dogs and cats, respectively). The contamination with Toxocara eggs in different environments and the significance of these parasites from a public health perspective in Brazil are briefly discussed.

Análise epistemológica dos conhecimentos científicos sobre Toxocara sp. com ênfase na infecção humana

Resumo Este artigo objetivou analisar a evolução do conhecimento sobre Toxocara sp. em seu aspecto zoonótico por meio de dados científicos entre os anos de 1996 a 2015 utilizando a epistemologia como ferramenta. A análise epistemológica da evolução do conhecimento sobre o aspecto zoonótico de Toxocara sp. no Brasil demonstrou que, de uma maneira geral, foram agregadas poucas novas informações as quais tiveram, ao longo do período estudado, absorção lenta, descontínua, e não foram inseridas na realidade social do ponto de vista de Saúde Pública.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara canis in a human rural population of Southern Rio Grande do Sul

Due to the growing population of pets, especially homeless dogs and cats, zoonoses still represent a significant public health problem. Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. are epidemiologically important zoonotic agents as they are etiological factors of human toxoplasmosis and toxocariasis, respectively. These parasites remain neglected even though they are substantially prevalent in rural areas. The aim of this study was to investigate T. gondii and T. canis seroprevalence and risk factors of seropositivity in a rural population in Pelotas municipality, Brazil. The study participants (n=344) were patients of a Basic Healthcare Unit (BHU) located in Cerrito Alegre. Blood samples were collected and tested for T. gondii antibodies by indirect immunofluorescence and T. canis antibodies by an indirect ELISA that targets an excreted-secreted antigen (TES). T. gondii seropositivity was 53.2%, with higher titers (1:256 - 1:1,024) in individuals who habitually eat pork, beef, or chicken, while T. canis seropositivity was 71.8% and concomitant T. gondii and T. canis seropositivity was 38.3%. Among the seropositivity risk factors assessed, only habitual undercooked meat consumption was significant (p = 0.046; OR = 3.7) for T. gondii and none of them were associated with T. canis seropositivity. Both parasites have a high prevalence in rural areas, which reinforces the need to invest in rural community education and health.

Toxocarosis in children: poor hygiene habits and contact with dogs is related to longer treatment

The objective of this study was to investigate the main clinical signs and symptoms of toxocarosis in children and the treatment results. The study group consisted of 66 seropositive children aged 2 to 16 years, evaluated in an outpatient clinic in north-eastern Poland for 24 months. Male gender and living in urban areas predominated in the study population. Children presented with non-specific symptoms, of which the most common was abdominal pain or tenderness, which was reported by 39 (59%) patients. Absolute eosinophil counts were increased in 32 (48%) children. Total IgE concentrations were increased in 31 of 55 (56%) tested children. All evaluated children received albendazole as a first-line treatment. In 19 cases, additional treatment with albendazole and/or diethylcarbamazine was provided. The analysis of possible causes of prolonged treatment revealed that significant risk factors were geophagia [odds ratio (OR), 6.3; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.8–21.8; p < 0.01] and daily contact with a dog [OR, 5.9; 95% CI, 1.3–27.3, p < 0.05]. We hypothesise that poor hygiene habits and daily contact with a dog pose a risk of reinfection and limits treatment efficiency. Because of non-specific signs and frequent lack of eosinophilia, physicians should maintain high levels of suspicion for toxocarosis, particularly in patients who live in regions heavily contaminated with Toxocara eggs.

Severe Toxocariasis in Children-Diagnostic Difficulties

We present the case of an 18-month-old girl, from rural area, admitted to our clinic for fever and cough. The anamnestic data and the clinical and radiological examinations initially suggested the diagnosis of acute interstitial pneumonia. During hospitalization, she repeatedly presented exacerbations with acute respiratory failure, but without fever. Paraclinic examinations revealed anemia, leukocytosis, inflammatory tests with highly increased values, low values of serum iron and serum calcium, hyperproteinemia with hypergammaglobulinemia, the values of IgE and IgG being highly increased. Repeated pulmonary x-rays-peribronchovascular interstitial thickening, at the level of peri-and right infrahilar area. Medullary puncture-increased percentage of eosinophils in several stages of maturity, approximately 20%, normal values for the other medullary series, without atypical cells; the fingertip hemogram showed anemia, leukocytosis, eosinophilia. The diagnosis turned to a possible toxocariasis-atc anti toxocara canis=55.6 NTU. In the third week of hospitalization, the patient presented short crises of nonfebrile seizures. Normal CT and EEG brain. The child was discharged after 5 weeks, the diagnosis being severe toxocariasis with pulmonary and neurological manifestations; she was recommended an antiparasitary treatment and remained in our clinic's records.

A Systematic Review of Toxocariasis: A Neglected But High-Prevalence Disease in Brazil

Toxocariasis is an anthropozoonosis that occurs in all parts of the world. In particular, this disease can often be found in developing countries and in regions, where basic sanitation conditions are poor. However, industrialized countries have reported seroprevalence rates as high as 14.2% in humans. The definitive hosts of the disease are dogs and cats, whereas humans are a paratenic host. To determine the burden of toxocariasis in Brazil, we followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to conduct a systematic review of the literature. Using keywords and applying the established criteria, we identified 160 publications and selected 22 articles for further analysis. The seroprevalence of toxocariasis in various regions of the country ranged from 4.2% to 65.4%. The highest prevalence was found in the northeast region, although the majority of the studies identified were from the southeast region. The findings suggest the importance of raising awareness among health professionals and public authorities about the fact that toxocariasis is a health problem.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxocara infection among children in Shandong and Jilin provinces, China

This cross-sectional study was aimed to investigate the Toxocara serology in children in Shandong and Jilin provinces, China using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The overall Toxocara seroprevalence among the study population (n=1458) was 19.3%, sick children (26.4%) had significantly higher seroprevalence than clinically healthy children (14.4%) (P<0.05), and the highest Toxocara seroprevalence was found in children suffering from chronic cough (40.6%), followed by recurrent abdominal pain (40.0%), recurrent headache (38.1%), slight fever (36.2%), and recurrent vomiting (31.6%). Place of residence, education level, type of school, keeping dogs at home, contact with dogs and cats and exposure with soil were found to be associated with Toxocara infection. Our findings show that children infection with Toxocara is common in Shandong and Jilin provinces, eastern and northeastern China, indicating an immediate need for implementing strategies and measures to prevent and control Toxocara infection in children in China.

[Cardiovascular manifestations of human toxocariasis]

Toxocariasis is a parasitic infection produced by helminths that cannot reach their adult stage in humans. For their etiological species (Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati), man is a paratenic host. Infection by such helminths can produce a variety of clinical manifestations, such as: visceral larvae migrans syndrome, ocular larvae migrans syndrome and covert toxocariasis. In the visceral larvae migrans syndrome, the organs that are mainly involved include liver, lungs, skin, nervous system, muscles, kidneys and the heart. Regarding the latter, the importance of cardiovascular manifestations in toxocariasis, as well as its clinical relevance, has increasingly begun to be recognized. The current article is based on a systematic information search, focused mainly on the clinical and pathological aspects of cardiovascular manifestations in toxocariasis, including its pathophysiology, laboratory findings, diagnosis and therapeutical options, with the objective of highlighting its importance as a zoonosis and its relevance to the fields of cardiovascular medicine in adults and children.

Anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies in an adult healthy population: serosurvey and risk factors in Southeast Brazil

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the frequency of anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies in an adult healthy population.

METHODS

The study was performed by interviewing 253 blood donors, from 19 to 65 years of age, in a hematological centre in Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, southeast Brazil. A survey was applied to blood donors in order to evaluate the possible factors associated to the presence of antibodies, including individual (gender and age), socioeconomic (scholarship, familial income and sanitary facilities) and habit information (contact with soil, geophagy, onycophagy and intake of raw/undercooked meat) as well as the presence of dogs or cats in the household. ELISA test was run for detection of the anti-Toxocara spp. IgG antibodies. Bivariate analysis followed by logistic regression was performed to evaluate the potential risk factors associated to seropositivity.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence observed in this study was 8.7% (22/253). Contact with soil was the unique risk factor associated with the presence of antibodies (P=0.017 8; OR=3.52; 95% CI=1.244-9.995).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study reinforce the necessity in promoting preventive public health measures, even for healthy adult individual, particularly those related to the deworming of pets to avoid the soil contamination, and hygiene education of the population.

Seroprevalence and modifiable risk factors for Toxocara spp. in Brazilian schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Toxocariasis is a worldwide helminthic zoonosis caused by infection with the larvae of the ascarid worms that comprise the Toxocara spp. Children are particularly prone to infection because they are exposed to the eggs in sandboxes and playgrounds contaminated with dog and cat feces. Certain behaviors, such as a geophagy habit, poor personal hygiene, a lack of parental supervision, close contact with young dogs, and ingestion of raw meat, as well as gender, age, and socioeconomic status, affect the prevalence of the disease. However, previous studies of the risk factors for toxocariasis have generally produced inconsistent results. An epidemiological cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the seroprevalence of IgG anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies and associated factors in schoolchildren from a region in the southeast of Brazil.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

A total of 252 schoolchildren aged 1 to 12 years (120 males and 132 females) were assessed. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on Toxocara canis larval excretory-secretory antigens was used to determine outcomes. A questionnaire was used to collect information on children, family, and home characteristics. Clinical and laboratory data completed the dataset investigated in this study. Seroprevalence was 15.5% (95%CI 11.5-19.8). Geophagy (aPR 2.38 [95%CI 1.36-4.18], p-value 0.029) and the habit of hand washing before meals (aPR 0.04 [95%CI 0.01-0.11], p-value ≤ 0.001) were factors associated with increased and decreased seroprevalence, respectively. The income factor and its related variables lost statistical significance after adjustment with a multiple Poisson regression model.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The current study confirms that toxocariasis is a public health problem in the evaluated area; modifiable factors such as soil contact and personal hygiene appear to have a greater influence on the acquisition of infection than sociodemographic attributes, thus representing direct targets for disease prevention and control.

Toxocariasis in children attending a Public Health Service Pneumology Unit in Paraná State, Brazil

The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is the most widely used tool to detect anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies for both serodiagnostic and seroepidemiological surveys on human toxocariasis. In the last eight years a high prevalence of toxocariasis (32.2-56.0%) has been reported in children attending public health units from municipalities in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Therefore, the aim of this work was to compare the frequency found among the general child population with that of children attending a public pneumology service in Maringá, Paraná, Brazil and describe the laboratorial, clinical and epidemiological findings. The research was conducted at the Consórcio Público Intermunicipal de Saúde do Setentrião Paranaense (CISAMUSEP) from July 2009 to July 2010 among children aged between one and 15 years. From a total of 167 children studied, only 4.2% (7/167) tested positive for anti-Toxocara spp. IgG antibodies and presented mild eosinophilia (2/7), increased serum IgE levels (6/7) and a positive allergy test for mites (5/7). The presence of pets (dogs or cats) at home did not correlate with the seroprevalence. In conclusion, cases of toxocariasis involving the respiratory tract are rare in children attending a public health pneumology unit in the northwestern region of Paraná State, despite the high prevalence of this type of toxocariasis among the infantile population attending Basic Health Units in the same geographical area.

An agent-based model of exposure to human toxocariasis: a multi-country validation

Seroprevalence data illustrate that human exposure to Toxocara is frequent. Environmental contamination with Toxocara spp. eggs is assumed to be the best indicator of human exposure, but increased risk of exposure has also been associated with many other factors. Reported associations are inconsistent, however, and there is still ambiguity regarding the factors driving the onset of Toxocara antibody positivity. The objective of this work was to assess the validity of our current conceptual understanding of the key processes driving human exposure to Toxocara. We constructed an agent-based model predicting Toxocara antibody positivity (as a measure of exposure) in children. Exposure was assumed to depend on the joint probability of 3 parameters: (1) environmental contamination with Toxocara spp. eggs, (2) larvation of these eggs and (3) the age-related contact with these eggs. This joint probability was linked to processes of acquired humoral immunity, influencing the rate of antibody seroreversion. The results of the simulation were validated against published data from 5 different geographical settings. Using simple rules and a stochastic approach with parameter estimates derived from the respective contexts, plausible serological patterns emerged from the model in nearly all settings. Our approach leads to novel insights in the transmission dynamics of Toxocara.

Feline intestinal parasites in Finland: prevalence, risk factors and anthelmintic treatment practices

The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of feline intestinal parasites in Finland and to determine the possible risk factors for infection. Altogether 411 feline fecal samples were analyzed with a flotation method to reveal helminth eggs and protozoan oocysts. Of the samples, 402 were also screened for Giardia species antigens with a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. The cat owners completed a questionnaire. Toxocara cati prevalence was 5.4% and Toxascaris leonina 0.2%. Taenia species eggs were found in 1.5% of the samples and Isospora felis in 0.7%, whilst 3.2% of the samples tested positive for Giardia species antigen. Risk factors for Toxocara/Toxascaris species infection included being a non-pedigree cat, having access to the outdoors, living outside of the cities and receiving home-made food. Pedigree cats were at greater risk of contracting Giardia duodenalis. The majority of the cat owners (62.4%) treated their cat with anthelmintics 2-4 times per year.