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Asai M, Li Y, Newton SM, Robertson BD, Langford PR. Galleria mellonella-intracellular bacteria pathogen infection models: the ins and outs. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2023; 47:fuad011. [PMID: 36906279 PMCID: PMC10045907 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuad011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Galleria mellonella (greater wax moth) larvae are used widely as surrogate infectious disease models, due to ease of use and the presence of an innate immune system functionally similar to that of vertebrates. Here, we review G. mellonella-human intracellular bacteria pathogen infection models from the genera Burkholderia, Coxiella, Francisella, Listeria, and Mycobacterium. For all genera, G. mellonella use has increased understanding of host-bacterial interactive biology, particularly through studies comparing the virulence of closely related species and/or wild-type versus mutant pairs. In many cases, virulence in G. mellonella mirrors that found in mammalian infection models, although it is unclear whether the pathogenic mechanisms are the same. The use of G. mellonella larvae has speeded up in vivo efficacy and toxicity testing of novel antimicrobials to treat infections caused by intracellular bacteria: an area that will expand since the FDA no longer requires animal testing for licensure. Further use of G. mellonella-intracellular bacteria infection models will be driven by advances in G. mellonella genetics, imaging, metabolomics, proteomics, and transcriptomic methodologies, alongside the development and accessibility of reagents to quantify immune markers, all of which will be underpinned by a fully annotated genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Asai
- Section of Paediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary’s campus, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Yanwen Li
- Section of Paediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary’s campus, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Sandra M Newton
- Section of Paediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary’s campus, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
| | - Brian D Robertson
- Centre for Bacterial Resistance Biology, Department of Infectious Disease, South Kensington campus, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Paul R Langford
- Section of Paediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Infectious Disease, St Mary’s campus, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom
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2
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Pena MT, Lahiri R, Ebenezer GJ, Wheat SW, Figarola J, Truman RW, Adams LB. The Armadillo as a Model for Leprosy Nerve Function Impairment: Preventative and Therapeutic Interventions. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:879097. [PMID: 35814754 PMCID: PMC9259846 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.879097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium leprae infection of peripheral nerves and the subsequent nerve function impairment (NFI), especially in response to reactional episodes, are hallmarks of leprosy. Improved treatments for M. leprae-induced nerve injury are needed, as most if not all of the disability and stigma associated with leprosy arises from the direct or indirect effects of NFI. Nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus), like humans, exhibit the full clinical spectrum of leprosy and extensive involvement of the peripheral nerves. In this study, state-of-the-art technology was used to compare nerve function between uninfected and M. leprae-infected armadillos. Motor nerve conduction velocity (MNCV) and compound muscle action potential (cMAP), which measure changes in the rate of impulse conduction velocity and amplitude, revealed a progression of impairment that was directly correlated with the duration of M. leprae infection and enabled development of an objective nerve impairment scoring system. Ultrasonography accompanied by color Doppler imaging detected enlargement of the M. leprae-infected nerves and increased vascularity, possibly due to inflammation. Assessment of epidermal nerve fiber density (ENFD), which shows a length-dependent innervation in armadillos that is similar to humans, identified small fiber degeneration early after M. leprae infection. Staining for neuromuscular junction (NMJ) integrity, which is an indicator of signal transduction efficiency into skeletal muscle, discerned a markedly lower number and structural integrity of NMJ in M. leprae-infected armadillo footpads. These tools for assessing nerve injury were used to monitor the effects of intervention therapy. Two potential neuro-protective drugs, ethoxyquin (EQ) and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), were tested for their ability to ameliorate peripheral nerve injury in M. leprae-infected armadillos. 4-AP treatment improved MNCV, cMAP, and EFND compared to untreated animals, while EQ had less effect. These results support the armadillo as a model for M. leprae-induced peripheral nerve injury that can provide insights toward the understanding of NFI progression and contribute to the preclinical investigation of the safety and efficacy of neuro-preventive and neuro-therapeutic interventions for leprosy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Pena
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen’s Disease Program, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
- *Correspondence: Maria Teresa Pena,
| | - Ramanuj Lahiri
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen’s Disease Program, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Gigi J. Ebenezer
- Department of Neurology, John Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Stephen W. Wheat
- Department of Neurology-Guest Lecturer, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - John Figarola
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen’s Disease Program, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Richard W. Truman
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen’s Disease Program, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Linda B. Adams
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen’s Disease Program, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
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Sholeye AR, Williams AA, Loots DT, Tutu van Furth AM, van der Kuip M, Mason S. Tuberculous Granuloma: Emerging Insights From Proteomics and Metabolomics. Front Neurol 2022; 13:804838. [PMID: 35386409 PMCID: PMC8978302 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.804838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, which claims hundreds of thousands of lives each year, is typically characterized by the formation of tuberculous granulomas — the histopathological hallmark of tuberculosis (TB). Our knowledge of granulomas, which comprise a biologically diverse body of pro- and anti-inflammatory cells from the host immune responses, is based mainly upon examination of lungs, in both human and animal studies, but little on their counterparts from other organs of the TB patient such as the brain. The biological heterogeneity of TB granulomas has led to their diverse, relatively uncoordinated, categorization, which is summarized here. However, there is a pressing need to elucidate more fully the phenotype of the granulomas from infected patients. Newly emerging studies at the protein (proteomics) and metabolite (metabolomics) levels have the potential to achieve this. In this review we summarize the diverse nature of TB granulomas based upon the literature, and amplify these accounts by reporting on the relatively few, emerging proteomics and metabolomics studies on TB granulomas. Metabolites (for example, trimethylamine-oxide) and proteins (such as the peptide PKAp) associated with TB granulomas, and knowledge of their localizations, help us to understand the resultant phenotype. Nevertheless, more multidisciplinary ‘omics studies, especially in human subjects, are required to contribute toward ushering in a new era of understanding of TB granulomas – both at the site of infection, and on a systemic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abisola Regina Sholeye
- Department of Biochemistry, Human Metabolomics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Aurelia A. Williams
- Department of Biochemistry, Human Metabolomics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Du Toit Loots
- Department of Biochemistry, Human Metabolomics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - A. Marceline Tutu van Furth
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Martijn van der Kuip
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Shayne Mason
- Department of Biochemistry, Human Metabolomics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
- *Correspondence: Shayne Mason
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Vazquez JM, Pena MT, Muhammad B, Kraft M, Adams LB, Lynch VJ. Parallel evolution of reduced cancer risk and tumor suppressor duplications in Xenarthra. eLife 2022; 11:82558. [PMID: 36480266 PMCID: PMC9810328 DOI: 10.7554/elife.82558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The risk of developing cancer is correlated with body size and lifespan within species, but there is no correlation between cancer and either body size or lifespan between species indicating that large, long-lived species have evolved enhanced cancer protection mechanisms. Previously we showed that several large bodied Afrotherian lineages evolved reduced intrinsic cancer risk, particularly elephants and their extinct relatives (Proboscideans), coincident with pervasive duplication of tumor suppressor genes (Vazquez and Lynch, 2021). Unexpectedly, we also found that Xenarthrans (sloths, armadillos, and anteaters) evolved very low intrinsic cancer risk. Here, we show that: (1) several Xenarthran lineages independently evolved large bodies, long lifespans, and reduced intrinsic cancer risk; (2) the reduced cancer risk in the stem lineages of Xenarthra and Pilosa coincided with bursts of tumor suppressor gene duplications; (3) cells from sloths proliferate extremely slowly while Xenarthran cells induce apoptosis at very low doses of DNA damaging agents; and (4) the prevalence of cancer is extremely low Xenarthrans, and cancer is nearly absent from armadillos. These data implicate the duplication of tumor suppressor genes in the evolution of remarkably large body sizes and decreased cancer risk in Xenarthrans and suggest they are a remarkably cancer-resistant group of mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Manuel Vazquez
- Department of Integrative Biology, Valley Life Sciences, University of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Maria T Pena
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen's Disease ProgramBaton RougeUnited States
| | - Baaqeyah Muhammad
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, SUNYBuffaloUnited States
| | - Morgan Kraft
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, SUNYBuffaloUnited States
| | - Linda B Adams
- United States Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen's Disease ProgramBaton RougeUnited States
| | - Vincent J Lynch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, SUNYBuffaloUnited States
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5
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Zhou Z, Pena M, van Hooij A, Pierneef L, de Jong D, Stevenson R, Walley R, Corstjens PLAM, Truman R, Adams L, Geluk A. Detection and Monitoring of Mycobacterium leprae Infection in Nine Banded Armadillos ( Dasypus novemcinctus) Using a Quantitative Rapid Test. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:763289. [PMID: 34777319 PMCID: PMC8581735 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.763289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae with tropism for skin and peripheral nerves. Incessant transmission in endemic areas is still impeding elimination of leprosy. Although detection of M. leprae infection remains a challenge in asymptomatic individuals, the presence of antibodies specific for phenolglycolipid-I (PGL-I) correlate with bacterial load. Therefore, serosurveillance utilizing field-friendly tests detecting anti-PGL-I antibodies, can be applied to identify those who may transmit bacteria and to study (reduction of) M. leprae transmission. However, serology based on antibody detection cannot discriminate between past and present M. leprae infection in humans, nor can it detect individuals carrying low bacillary loads. In humans, anti-PGL-I IgM levels are long-lasting and usually detected in more individuals than anti-PGL-I IgG levels. Inherent to the characteristically long incubation time of leprosy, IgM/IgG relations (antibody kinetics) in leprosy patients and infected individuals are not completely clear. To investigate the antibody response directly after infection, we have measured antibody levels by ELISA, in longitudinal samples of experimentally M. leprae infected, susceptible nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus). In addition, we assessed the user- and field-friendly, low-cost lateral flow assay (LFA) utilizing upconverting reporter particles (UCP), developed for quantitative detection of human anti-PGL-I IgM (UCP-LFA), to detect treatment- or vaccination-induced changes in viable bacterial load. Our results show that serum levels of anti-PGL-I IgM, and to a lesser extent IgG, significantly increase soon after experimental M. leprae infection in armadillos. In view of leprosy phenotypes in armadillos, this animal model can provide useful insight into antibody kinetics in early infection in the various spectral forms of human leprosy. The UCP-LFA for quantitative detection of anti-PGL-I IgM allows monitoring the efficacy of vaccination and rifampin-treatment in the armadillo leprosy model, thereby providing a convenient tool to evaluate the effects of drugs and vaccines and new diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijie Zhou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Maria Pena
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen Disease Programme (NHDP), Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Anouk van Hooij
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Louise Pierneef
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Danielle de Jong
- Department Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Roena Stevenson
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen Disease Programme (NHDP), Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Rachel Walley
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen Disease Programme (NHDP), Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Paul L A M Corstjens
- Department Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Richard Truman
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Linda Adams
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Health Systems Bureau, National Hansen Disease Programme (NHDP), Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Annemieke Geluk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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6
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Intramuscular Boosting with hIFN-Alpha 2b Enhances BCGphipps-Induced Protection in a Murine Model of Leprosy. MICROBIOLOGY RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/microbiolres12030051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Host immunity to Mycobacterium leprae encompasses a spectrum of mechanisms that range from cellular immunity-driven protection to damage associated with humoral immunity as in type-2 leprosy reactions. Although type I interferons (IFNs) participate in eliminating intracellular pathogens, their contribution to the production of antibodies and CD3+ FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) in BCG vaccine-mediated protection in leprosy is unknown. BCGphipps (BCGph) priming followed by intramuscular hIFN-α 2b boost significantly reduced lesion size and Mycobacterium lepraemurium growth in the skin. T follicular regulatory cells (TFR), a subset of Tregs induced by immunization or infection, reside in the germinal centers (GCs) and modulate antibody production. We found impaired Treg induction and improved GCs in draining lymph nodes of BCGph primed and hIFN-α 2b boosted mice. Moreover, these mice elicited significant amounts of IL-4 and IL-10 in serum. Thus, our results support the adjuvant properties of hIFN-α 2b in the context of BCGph priming to enhance protective immunity against skin leprosy.
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7
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Adams LB. Susceptibility and resistance in leprosy: Studies in the mouse model. Immunol Rev 2021; 301:157-174. [PMID: 33660297 PMCID: PMC8252540 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Leprosy is a chronic granulomatous infectious disease caused by the pathogen, Mycobacterium leprae, and the more recently discovered, M. lepromatosis. Described in 1873, M. leprae was among the first microorganisms to be proposed as a cause of a human infectious disease. As an obligate intracellular bacterium, it has still not thus far been reproducibly cultivated in axenic medium or cell cultures. Shepard's mouse footpad assay, therefore, was truly a breakthrough in leprosy research. The generation of immunosuppressed and genetically engineered mice, along with advances in molecular and cellular techniques, has since offered more tools for the study of the M. leprae–induced granuloma. While far from perfect, these new mouse models have provided insights into the immunoregulatory mechanisms responsible for the spectrum of this complex disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda B Adams
- Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Healthcare Systems Bureau, National Hansen's Disease Programs Laboratory Research Branch, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
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8
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Niederkorn JY. The biology of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Exp Eye Res 2020; 202:108365. [PMID: 33221372 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) is a rare protozoal infection of the cornea. At least eight species of Acanthamoeba are known to cause this sight-threatening disease of the ocular surface. Acanthamoeba spp. exist in a wide array of niches ranging from thermal springs to under ice and every conceivable habitat in between. Contact lens wear is the leading risk factor for AK and is practiced by over 30 million individuals in the United States, yet the incidence of AK is less than 33 cases per one million contact lens wearers. Serological studies have reported that 90%-100% of individuals with no history of AK possess antibodies specific for Acanthamoeba antigens indicating that exposure to this organism is commonplace, yet disease is remarkably rare. Animal studies have shed light on the pathobiology and immunobiology of AK and indicate that a constellation of factors including the ocular surface microbiome and the microbiome of Acanthamoeba itself contribute to the pathogenesis of AK. Interesting, secretory antibodies produced by the adaptive immune response can prevent the initiation of corneal infection, but once Acanthamoeba trophozoites breach the corneal epithelium the adaptive immune system is helpless in altering the course of AK. It has been almost 50 years since AK was first described, yet many questions remain unanswered about this curious and enigmatic disease of the ocular surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry Y Niederkorn
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA.
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9
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Duthie MS, Frevol A, Day T, Coler RN, Vergara J, Rolf T, Sagawa ZK, Marie Beckmann A, Casper C, Reed SG. A phase 1 antigen dose escalation trial to evaluate safety, tolerability and immunogenicity of the leprosy vaccine candidate LepVax (LEP-F1 + GLA–SE) in healthy adults. Vaccine 2020; 38:1700-1707. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.12.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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10
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Oliveira IVPDM, Deps PD, Antunes JMADP. Armadillos and leprosy: from infection to biological model. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2019; 61:e44. [PMID: 31531622 PMCID: PMC6746198 DOI: 10.1590/s1678-9946201961044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium leprae is the primary causative agent of Hansen’s disease or leprosy. Besides human beings, natural infection has been described in animals such as mangabey monkeys and armadillos. Leprosy is considered a global health problem and its complete pathogenesis is still unknown. As M. leprae does not grow in artificial media, armadillos have become the primary experimental model for leprosy, mimicking human disease including involvement of the peripheral nervous system. Leprosy transmission occurs through continuous and close contact of susceptible people with untreated infected people. However, unknown leprosy contact has been reported in leprosy-affected people, and contact with armadillos is a risk factor for leprosy. In the USA, leprosy is considered a zoonosis and this classification has recently been accepted in Brazil. This review presents information regarding the role of wild armadillos as a source of M. leprae for human infections, as well as the pathogenesis of leprosy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrícia Duarte Deps
- Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Departamento de Medicina Social, Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil
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11
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Vilani-Moreno FR, Barbosa ASAA, Sartori BGC, Diório SM, Silva SMUR, Rosa PS, de Faria Fernandes Belone A, Soares CT, Lauris JRP, Pedrini SCB. Murine experimental leprosy: Evaluation of immune response by analysis of peritoneal lavage cells and footpad histopathology. Int J Exp Pathol 2019; 100:161-174. [PMID: 31124597 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the immune response of nude and BALB/c mice inoculated in the footpads (FP) with Mycobacterium leprae after 3, 5 and 8 months. At each timepoint peritoneal cells, peripheral blood, FP and popliteal lymph nodes (PLN) were collected. Peritoneal cell cultures were performed to measure the H2 O2 , O2 - , NO, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF levels. Serum levels of anti-PGL-I antibodies were also quantified. The results showed that the infection was progressive in nude mice with bacterial multiplication, development of macroscopic lesions in the FP and presence of bacilli in the PLN at 8 months. In BALB/c mice, the infection reached a plateau of bacillary multiplication at 5 months and regressed at 8 months. Histopathological analysis of FP revealed a mononuclear inflammatory infiltrate with a large number of neutrophils at 5 months, with a higher number in nude mice. At 8 months, the number of neutrophils decreased and the infiltrate was predominantly mononuclear in both mouse strains. There was no H2 O2, O2 - , IL-2, IL-4, IL-10 and IFN-γ production in the course of infection in nude mice; however, in BALB/c, O2 - and IL-12 production was higher at 5 months and NO, IFN-γ and TNF production was higher at 8 months when there was a decrease in the number of bacilli. The level of anti-PGL-I antibodies was higher in BALB/c mice. Thus, nude and BALB/c mice can be used as experimental models for the study of various aspects of leprosy.
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12
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Schilling AK, Avanzi C, Ulrich RG, Busso P, Pisanu B, Ferrari N, Romeo C, Mazzamuto MV, McLuckie J, Shuttleworth CM, Del-Pozo J, Lurz PWW, Escalante-Fuentes WG, Ocampo-Candiani J, Vera-Cabrera L, Stevenson K, Chapuis JL, Meredith AL, Cole ST. British Red Squirrels Remain the Only Known Wild Rodent Host for Leprosy Bacilli. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:8. [PMID: 30775369 PMCID: PMC6367869 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in the British Isles are the most recently discovered animal reservoir for the leprosy bacteria Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis. Initial data suggest that prevalence of leprosy infection is variable and often low in different squirrel populations. Nothing is known about the presence of leprosy bacilli in other wild squirrel species despite two others (Siberian chipmunk [Tamias sibiricus], and Thirteen-lined ground squirrel [Ictidomys tridecemlineatus]) having been reported to be susceptible to experimental infection with M. leprae. Rats, a food-source in some countries where human leprosy occurs, have been suggested as potential reservoirs for leprosy bacilli, but no evidence supporting this hypothesis is currently available. We screened 301 squirrel samples covering four species [96 Eurasian red squirrels, 67 Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), 35 Siberian chipmunks, and 103 Pallas's squirrels (Callosciurus erythraeus)] from Europe and 72 Mexican white-throated woodrats (Neotoma albigula) for the presence of M. leprae and M. lepromatosis using validated PCR protocols. No DNA from leprosy bacilli was detected in any of the samples tested. Given our sample-size, the pathogen should have been detected if the prevalence and/or bacillary load in the populations investigated were similar to those found for British red squirrels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Katarina Schilling
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte Avanzi
- Global Health Institute, Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Philippe Busso
- Global Health Institute, Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Benoit Pisanu
- Département Homme et Environment, Centre d'Ecologie et des Sciences de la Conservation, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France.,Agence Française pour la Biodiversité, Centre d'expertise et de Données sur la Nature, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Nicola Ferrari
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Romeo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Vittoria Mazzamuto
- Dipartimento di Scienze Teoriche ed Applicate, Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | | | | | - Jorge Del-Pozo
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Peter W W Lurz
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy G Escalante-Fuentes
- Laboratorio Interdisciplinario de Investigación Dermatológica, Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Mexico
| | - Jorge Ocampo-Candiani
- Laboratorio Interdisciplinario de Investigación Dermatológica, Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Mexico
| | - Lucio Vera-Cabrera
- Laboratorio Interdisciplinario de Investigación Dermatológica, Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Mexico
| | | | - Jean-Louis Chapuis
- Département Homme et Environment, Centre d'Ecologie et des Sciences de la Conservation, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Anna L Meredith
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Stewart T Cole
- Global Health Institute, Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Institut Pasteur de Paris, Paris, France
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13
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Sharma R, Singh P, Pena M, Subramanian R, Chouljenko V, Kim J, Kim N, Caskey J, Baudena MA, Adams LB, Truman RW. Differential growth of Mycobacterium leprae strains (SNP genotypes) in armadillos. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 62:20-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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14
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Evidence of zoonotic leprosy in Pará, Brazilian Amazon, and risks associated with human contact or consumption of armadillos. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006532. [PMID: 29953440 PMCID: PMC6023134 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae) is a human pathogen and the causative agent for leprosy, a chronic disease characterized by lesions of the skin and peripheral nerve damage. Zoonotic transmission of M. leprae to humans by nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) has been shown to occur in the southern United States, mainly in Texas, Louisiana, and Florida. Nine-banded armadillos are also common in South America, and residents living in some areas in Brazil hunt and kill armadillos as a dietary source of protein. This study examines the extent of M. leprae infection in wild armadillos and whether these New World mammals may be a natural reservoir for leprosy transmission in Brazil, similar to the situation in the southern states of the U.S. The presence of the M. leprae-specific repetitive sequence RLEP was detected by PCR amplification in purified DNA extracted from armadillo spleen and liver tissue samples. A positive RLEP signal was confirmed in 62% of the armadillos (10/16), indicating high rates of infection with M. leprae. Immunohistochemistry of sections of infected armadillo spleens revealed mycobacterial DNA and cell wall constituents in situ detected by SYBR Gold and auramine/rhodamine staining techniques, respectively. The M. leprae-specific antigen, phenolic glycolipid I (PGL-I) was detected in spleen sections using a rabbit polyclonal antibody specific for PGL-I. Anti-PGL-I titers were assessed by ELISA in sera from 146 inhabitants of Belterra, a hyperendemic city located in western Pará state in Brazil. A positive anti-PGL-I titer is a known biomarker for M. leprae infection in both humans and armadillos. Individuals who consumed armadillo meat most frequently (more than once per month) showed a significantly higher anti-PGL-I titer than those who did not eat or ate less frequently than once per month. Armadillos infected with M. leprae represent a potential environmental reservoir. Consequently, people who hunt, kill, or process or eat armadillo meat are at a higher risk for infection with M. leprae from these animals.
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15
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Avanzi C, Del-Pozo J, Benjak A, Stevenson K, Simpson VR, Busso P, McLuckie J, Loiseau C, Lawton C, Schoening J, Shaw DJ, Piton J, Vera-Cabrera L, Velarde-Felix JS, McDermott F, Gordon SV, Cole ST, Meredith AL. Red squirrels in the British Isles are infected with leprosy bacilli. Science 2017; 354:744-747. [PMID: 27846605 DOI: 10.1126/science.aah3783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Leprosy, caused by infection with Mycobacterium leprae or the recently discovered Mycobacterium lepromatosis, was once endemic in humans in the British Isles. Red squirrels in Great Britain (Sciurus vulgaris) have increasingly been observed with leprosy-like lesions on the head and limbs. Using genomics, histopathology, and serology, we found M. lepromatosis in squirrels from England, Ireland, and Scotland, and M. leprae in squirrels from Brownsea Island, England. Infection was detected in overtly diseased and seemingly healthy animals. Phylogenetic comparisons of British and Irish M. lepromatosis with two Mexican strains from humans show that they diverged from a common ancestor around 27,000 years ago, whereas the M. leprae strain is closest to one that circulated in Medieval England. Red squirrels are thus a reservoir for leprosy in the British Isles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Avanzi
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jorge Del-Pozo
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Scotland, UK
| | - Andrej Benjak
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Karen Stevenson
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - Victor R Simpson
- Wildlife Veterinary Investigation Centre, Chacewater, Cornwall, UK
| | - Philippe Busso
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Joyce McLuckie
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - Chloé Loiseau
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Colin Lawton
- School of Natural Sciences, Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Janne Schoening
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Darren J Shaw
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Scotland, UK
| | - Jérémie Piton
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lucio Vera-Cabrera
- Laboratorio Interdisciplinario de Investigación Dermatológica, Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico
| | - Jesùs S Velarde-Felix
- Laboratorio Interdisciplinario de Investigación Dermatológica, Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario, Monterrey, N.L., Mexico
| | - Fergal McDermott
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Stephen V Gordon
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.,UCD School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.,UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.,UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Stewart T Cole
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Anna L Meredith
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Scotland, UK.
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16
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Sharma R, Singh P, Loughry WJ, Lockhart JM, Inman WB, Duthie MS, Pena MT, Marcos LA, Scollard DM, Cole ST, Truman RW. Zoonotic Leprosy in the Southeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 21:2127-34. [PMID: 26583204 PMCID: PMC4672434 DOI: 10.3201/eid2112.150501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The geographic range and complexity of this disease are increasing. Nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) are naturally infected
with Mycobacterium leprae and have been implicated in zoonotic
transmission of leprosy. Early studies found this disease mainly in Texas and
Louisiana, but armadillos in the southeastern United States appeared to be free of
infection. We screened 645 armadillos from 8 locations in the southeastern United
States not known to harbor enzootic leprosy for M. leprae DNA and
antibodies. We found M. leprae–infected armadillos at each
location, and 106 (16.4%) animals had serologic/PCR evidence of infection. Using
single-nucleotide polymorphism variable number tandem repeat genotyping/genome
sequencing, we detected M. leprae genotype 3I-2-v1 among 35
armadillos. Seven armadillos harbored a newly identified genotype (3I-2-v15). In
comparison, 52 human patients from the same region were infected with 31 M.
leprae types. However, 42.3% (22/52) of patients were infected with 1 of
the 2 M. leprae genotype strains associated with armadillos. The
geographic range and complexity of zoonotic leprosy is expanding.
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17
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Gaschignard J, Grant AV, Thuc NV, Orlova M, Cobat A, Huong NT, Ba NN, Thai VH, Abel L, Schurr E, Alcaïs A. Pauci- and Multibacillary Leprosy: Two Distinct, Genetically Neglected Diseases. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004345. [PMID: 27219008 PMCID: PMC4878860 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
After sustained exposure to Mycobacterium leprae, only a subset of exposed individuals develops clinical leprosy. Moreover, leprosy patients show a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations that extend from the paucibacillary (PB) to the multibacillary (MB) form of the disease. This "polarization" of leprosy has long been a major focus of investigation for immunologists because of the different immune response in these two forms. But while leprosy per se has been shown to be under tight human genetic control, few epidemiological or genetic studies have focused on leprosy subtypes. Using PubMed, we collected available data in English on the epidemiology of leprosy polarization and the possible role of human genetics in its pathophysiology until September 2015. At the genetic level, we assembled a list of 28 genes from the literature that are associated with leprosy subtypes or implicated in the polarization process. Our bibliographical search revealed that improved study designs are needed to identify genes associated with leprosy polarization. Future investigations should not be restricted to a subanalysis of leprosy per se studies but should instead contrast MB to PB individuals. We show the latter approach to be the most powerful design for the identification of genetic polarization determinants. Finally, we bring to light the important resource represented by the nine-banded armadillo model, a unique animal model for leprosy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Gaschignard
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, INSERM, Paris, France, EU
- Paris Descartes University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France, EU
| | - Audrey Virginia Grant
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, INSERM, Paris, France, EU
- Paris Descartes University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France, EU
- Unité de Génétique fonctionnelle des maladies infectieuses, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France, EU
| | | | - Marianna Orlova
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Aurélie Cobat
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, INSERM, Paris, France, EU
- Paris Descartes University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France, EU
| | | | - Nguyen Ngoc Ba
- Hospital for Dermato-Venerology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Vu Hong Thai
- Hospital for Dermato-Venerology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Laurent Abel
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, INSERM, Paris, France, EU
- Paris Descartes University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France, EU
| | - Erwin Schurr
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- The McGill International TB Centre, Departments of Human Genetics and Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alexandre Alcaïs
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, INSERM, Paris, France, EU
- Paris Descartes University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France, EU
- URC, CIC, Necker and Cochin Hospitals, Paris, France, EU
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18
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Kubanov AA, Karamova AE, Vorontsova AA, Kalinina PA. Experimental models of leprosy. VESTNIK DERMATOLOGII I VENEROLOGII 2015. [DOI: 10.25208/0042-4609-2015-91-6-17-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a chronic granulomatous bacterial disease which mainly affects skin and peripheral nervous system. Leprosy is caused by the obligate intercellular pathogen known as Mycobacterium leprae. Creating experimental models of leprosy is associated with serious problems due to biological characteristics of the pathogen. Numerous attempts to develop experimental models on different types of animals resulted in a few reproducible models on mice and nine-banded armadillos. Strains of knockout mice with genetic defects caused by site-directed mutagenesis are used as a basis for different leprosy models. Experimental models of leprosy are used for screening of anti-leprosy drugs, detection of drug resistance, studies on the pathogenesis of leprosy, production and evaluation of viability of M. leprae, developing of anti-leprosy vaccines.
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19
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Khadge S, Banu S, Bobosha K, van der Ploeg-van Schip JJ, Goulart IM, Thapa P, Kunwar CB, van Meijgaarden KE, van den Eeden SJF, Wilson L, Kabir S, Dey H, Goulart LR, Lobato J, Carvalho W, Bekele Y, Franken KLMC, Aseffa A, Spencer JS, Oskam L, Otttenhoff THM, Hagge DA, Geluk A. Longitudinal immune profiles in type 1 leprosy reactions in Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia and Nepal. BMC Infect Dis 2015; 15:477. [PMID: 26510990 PMCID: PMC4625471 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-015-1128-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute inflammatory reactions are a frequently occurring, tissue destructing phenomenon in infectious- as well as autoimmune diseases, providing clinical challenges for early diagnosis. In leprosy, an infectious disease initiated by Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae), these reactions represent the major cause of permanent neuropathy. However, laboratory tests for early diagnosis of reactional episodes which would significantly contribute to prevention of tissue damage are not yet available. Although classical diagnostics involve a variety of tests, current research utilizes limited approaches for biomarker identification. In this study, we therefore studied leprosy as a model to identify biomarkers specific for inflammatory reactional episodes. Methods To identify host biomarker profiles associated with early onset of type 1 leprosy reactions, prospective cohorts including leprosy patients with and without reactions were recruited in Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia and Nepal. The presence of multiple cyto-/chemokines induced by M. leprae antigen stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells as well as the levels of antibodies directed against M. leprae-specific antigens in sera, were measured longitudinally in patients. Results At all sites, longitudinal analyses showed that IFN-γ-, IP-10-, IL-17- and VEGF-production by M. leprae (antigen)-stimulated PBMC peaked at diagnosis of type 1 reactions, compared to when reactions were absent. In contrast, IL-10 production decreased during type 1 reaction while increasing after treatment. Thus, ratios of these pro-inflammatory cytokines versus IL-10 provide useful tools for early diagnosing type 1 reactions and evaluating treatment. Of further importance for rapid diagnosis, circulating IP-10 in sera were significantly increased during type 1 reactions. On the other hand, humoral immunity, characterized by M. leprae-specific antibody detection, did not identify onset of type 1 reactions, but allowed treatment monitoring instead. Conclusions This study identifies immune-profiles as promising host biomarkers for detecting intra-individual changes during acute inflammation in leprosy, also providing an approach for other chronic (infectious) diseases to help early diagnose these episodes and contribute to timely treatment and prevention of tissue damage. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-015-1128-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saraswoti Khadge
- Mycobacterial Research Laboratories, Anandaban Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal.
| | - Sayera Banu
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Kidist Bobosha
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands. .,Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | | | - Isabela M Goulart
- National Reference Center for Sanitary Dermatology and Leprosy, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Pratibha Thapa
- Mycobacterial Research Laboratories, Anandaban Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal.
| | - Chhatra B Kunwar
- Mycobacterial Research Laboratories, Anandaban Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal.
| | - Krista E van Meijgaarden
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Susan J F van den Eeden
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Louis Wilson
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Senjuti Kabir
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Hymonti Dey
- International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Luiz R Goulart
- National Reference Center for Sanitary Dermatology and Leprosy, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Janaina Lobato
- National Reference Center for Sanitary Dermatology and Leprosy, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Washington Carvalho
- National Reference Center for Sanitary Dermatology and Leprosy, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Yonas Bekele
- Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Kees L M C Franken
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Abraham Aseffa
- Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - John S Spencer
- Dept. of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA.
| | - Linda Oskam
- National Reference Center for Sanitary Dermatology and Leprosy, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Tom H M Otttenhoff
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Deanna A Hagge
- Mycobacterial Research Laboratories, Anandaban Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal.
| | - Annemieke Geluk
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), PO Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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20
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Guerrero GG, Rangel-Moreno J, Islas-Trujillo S, Rojas-Espinosa Ó. Successive Intramuscular Boosting with IFN-Alpha Protects Mycobacterium bovis BCG-Vaccinated Mice against M. lepraemurium Infection. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:414027. [PMID: 26484351 PMCID: PMC4592887 DOI: 10.1155/2015/414027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae primarily affects the skin and peripheral nerves. As a human infectious disease, it is still a significant health and economic burden on developing countries. Although multidrug therapy is reducing the number of active cases to approximately 0.5 million, the number of cases per year is not declining. Therefore, alternative host-directed strategies should be addressed to improve treatment efficacy and outcome. In this work, using murine leprosy as a model, a very similar granulomatous skin lesion to human leprosy, we have found that successive IFN-alpha boosting protects BCG-vaccinated mice against M. lepraemurium infection. No difference in the seric isotype and all IgG subclasses measured, neither in the TH1 nor in the TH2 type cytokine production, was seen. However, an enhanced iNOS/NO production in BCG-vaccinated/i.m. IFN-alpha boosted mice was observed. The data provided in this study suggest a promising use for IFN-alpha boosting as a new prophylactic alternative to be explored in human leprosy by targeting host innate cell response.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. G. Guerrero
- Unidad Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Avenida Preparatoria, S/N, Colonia Agronomicas, 98066 Zacatecas, ZAC, Mexico
| | - J. Rangel-Moreno
- Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - S. Islas-Trujillo
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala, Colonia Santo Tomas, 11340 Mexico City, DF, Mexico
| | - Ó. Rojas-Espinosa
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala, Colonia Santo Tomas, 11340 Mexico City, DF, Mexico
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21
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Balamayooran G, Pena M, Sharma R, Truman RW. The armadillo as an animal model and reservoir host for Mycobacterium leprae. Clin Dermatol 2015; 33:108-15. [PMID: 25432816 DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Apart from humans, armadillos are the only known natural hosts of Mycobacterium leprae. They are well developed as hosts for in vivo propagation of M leprae and are advancing as models for studying the pathogenesis of leprosy and translational research. Armadillos are immunologically intact. They exhibit the full Ridley-Jopling spectrum of histopathologic responses to M leprae and uniquely manifest extensive neurological involvement that closely recapitulates human leprosy. In addition, free-ranging armadillos in some regions are known to harbor a naturally occurring infection with M leprae, and zoonotic transmission between armadillos and humans has been implicated in a large number of new case presentations. We review the role of the armadillo as a model for leprosy and reservoir for human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathriy Balamayooran
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Department of Health Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Hansen's Disease Program, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Maria Pena
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Department of Health Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Hansen's Disease Program, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Rahul Sharma
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Department of Health Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Hansen's Disease Program, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Richard W Truman
- Department of Health Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Hansen's Disease Program, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
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22
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Abstract
Leprosy or Hansen's disease is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. The annual number of new leprosy cases registered worldwide has remained stable over the past years at over 200,000. Early case finding and multidrug therapy have not been able interrupt transmission completely. Elimination requires innovation in control and sustained commitment. Mathematical models can be used to predict the course of leprosy incidence and the effect of intervention strategies. Two compartmental models and one individual-based model have been described in the literature. Both compartmental models investigate the course of leprosy in populations and the long-term impact of control strategies. The individual-based model focusses on transmission within households and the impact of case finding among contacts of new leprosy patients. Major improvement of these models should result from a better understanding of individual differences in exposure to infection and developing leprosy after exposure. Most relevant are contact heterogeneity, heterogeneity in susceptibility and spatial heterogeneity. Furthermore, the existing models have only been applied to a limited number of countries. Parameterization of the models for other areas, in particular those with high incidence, is essential to support current initiatives for the global elimination of leprosy. Many challenges remain in understanding and dealing with leprosy. The support of mathematical models for understanding leprosy epidemiology and supporting policy decision making remains vital.
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23
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Truman RW, Ebenezer GJ, Pena MT, Sharma R, Balamayooran G, Gillingwater TH, Scollard DM, McArthur JC, Rambukkana A. The armadillo as a model for peripheral neuropathy in leprosy. ILAR J 2015; 54:304-14. [PMID: 24615444 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilt050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Leprosy (also known as Hansen's Disease) is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae that primarily targets the peripheral nervous system; skin, muscle, and other tissues are also affected. Other than humans, nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) are the only natural hosts of M. leprae, and they are the only laboratory animals that develop extensive neurological involvement with this bacterium. Infection in the armadillo closely recapitulates many of the structural, physiological, and functional aspects of leprosy seen in humans. Armadillos can be useful models of leprosy for basic scientific investigations into the pathogenesis of leprosy neuropathy and its associated myopathies, as well as for translational research studies in piloting new diagnostic methods or therapeutic interventions. Practical and ethical constraints often limit investigation into human neuropathies, but armadillos are an abundant source of leprotic neurologic fibers. Studies with these animals may provide new insights into the mechanisms involved in leprosy that also might benefit the understanding of other demyelinating neuropathies. Although there is only a limited supply of armadillo-specific reagents, the armadillo whole genomic sequence has been completed, and gene expression studies can be employed. Clinical procedures, such as electrophysiological nerve conduction testing, provide a functional assessment of armadillo nerves. A variety of standard histopathological and immunopathological procedures including Epidermal Nerve Fiber Density (ENFD) analysis, Schwann Cell Density, and analysis for other conserved cellular markers can be used effectively with armadillos and will be briefly reviewed in this text.
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24
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IL-10 and NOS2 modulate antigen-specific reactivity and nerve infiltration by T cells in experimental leprosy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3149. [PMID: 25210773 PMCID: PMC4161319 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although immunopathology dictates clinical outcome in leprosy, the dynamics of early and chronic infection are poorly defined. In the tuberculoid region of the spectrum, Mycobacterium leprae growth is restricted yet a severe granulomatous lesion can occur. The evolution and maintenance of chronic inflammatory processes like those observed in the leprosy granuloma involve an ongoing network of communications via cytokines. IL-10 has immunosuppressive properties and IL-10 genetic variants have been associated with leprosy development and reactions. Methodology/Principal Findings The role of IL-10 in resistance and inflammation in leprosy was investigated using Mycobacterium leprae infection of mice deficient in IL-10 (IL-10−/−), as well as mice deficient in both inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2−/−) and IL-10 (10NOS2−/−). Although a lack of IL-10 did not affect M. leprae multiplication in the footpads (FP), inflammation increased from C57Bl/6 (B6)<IL-10−/−<NOS2−/−<10NOS2−/−. While IL-10−/− mice exhibited modest FP induration compared to B6, NOS2−/− and 10NOS2−/− mice developed markedly enlarged FP marking distinct phases: early (1 month), peak (3–4 months), and chronic (8 months). IFN-γ-producing CD4+CD44+ cells responding to M. leprae cell wall, membrane, and cytosol antigens and ML2028 (Ag85B) were significantly increased in the evolved granuloma in NOS2−/− FP compared to B6 and IL-10−/− during early and peak phases. In 10NOS2−/− FP, CD4+CD44+ and especially CD8+CD44+ responses were augmented even further to these antigens as well as to ML0380 (GroES), ML2038 (bacterioferritin), and ML1877 (EF-Tu). Moreover, fragmented nerves containing CD4+ cells were present in 10NOS2−/− FP. Conclusions/Significance The 10NOS2−/− strain offers insight on the regulation of granuloma formation and maintenance by immune modulators in the resistant forms of leprosy and presents a new model for investigating the pathogenesis of neurological involvement. Despite effective antimicrobial therapy, 30–50% of leprosy patients develop immunological complications called leprosy reactions before, during or even years after being cured. Leprosy reactions are a major risk for neuritis that leads to peripheral nerve damage, disfigurement and disability. Unfortunately, why and how leprosy reactions occur is not well understood. Based on the latest human genetic leprosy susceptibility research and mouse infection models, we generated a double knockout mouse strain (10NOS2−/−) which has deficiencies in two key immune factors, interleukin-10 (IL-10) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2). We investigated the dynamics of the immune response to Mycobacterium leprae infection and chronicled the types of immune cells recruited to the site of infection. 10NOS2−/− mice developed a substantial induration in response to infection, as well as an increased interferon-gamma response to components of the leprosy bacillus. Interestingly, these animals also exhibited CD4+ T cell infiltration into the nerves, a phenomenon which has not been previously reported in leprosy mouse models. This new model provides insight into potential mechanisms whereby immune modulators may regulate leprosy reactions and neuritis and could aid the development of tests for monitoring and treatment of leprosy patients.
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PCR-based techniques for leprosy diagnosis: from the laboratory to the clinic. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2655. [PMID: 24722358 PMCID: PMC3983108 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In leprosy, classic diagnostic tools based on bacillary counts and histopathology have been facing hurdles, especially in distinguishing latent infection from active disease and diagnosing paucibacillary clinical forms. Serological tests and IFN-gamma releasing assays (IGRA) that employ humoral and cellular immune parameters, respectively, are also being used, but recent results indicate that quantitative PCR (qPCR) is a key technique due to its higher sensitivity and specificity. In fact, advances concerning the structure and function of the Mycobacterium leprae genome led to the development of specific PCR-based gene amplification assays for leprosy diagnosis and monitoring of household contacts. Also, based on the validation of point-of-care technologies for M. tuberculosis DNA detection, it is clear that the same advantages of rapid DNA detection could be observed in respect to leprosy. So far, PCR has proven useful in the determination of transmission routes, M. leprae viability, and drug resistance in leprosy. However, PCR has been ascertained to be especially valuable in diagnosing difficult cases like pure neural leprosy (PNL), paucibacillary (PB), and patients with atypical clinical presentation and histopathological features compatible with leprosy. Also, the detection of M. leprae DNA in different samples of the household contacts of leprosy patients is very promising. Although a positive PCR result is not sufficient to establish a causal relationship with disease outcome, quantitation provided by qPCR is clearly capable of indicating increased risk of developing the disease and could alert clinicians to follow these contacts more closely or even define rules for chemoprophylaxis.
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Molecular assays for determining Mycobacterium leprae viability in tissues of experimentally infected mice. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2404. [PMID: 24179562 PMCID: PMC3750008 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The inability of Mycobacterium leprae to grow on axenic media has necessitated specialized techniques in order to determine viability of this organism. The purpose of this study was to develop a simple and sensitive molecular assay for determining M. leprae viability directly from infected tissues. Methodology/Principle Findings Two M. leprae-specific quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) assays based on the expression levels of esxA, encoding the ESAT-6 protein, and hsp18, encoding the heat shock 18 kDa protein, were developed and tested using infected footpad (FP) tissues of both immunocompetent and immunocompromised (athymic nu/nu) mice. In addition, the ability of these assays to detect the effects of anti-leprosy drug treatment on M. leprae viability was determined using rifampin and rifapentine, each at 10 mg/kg for 1, 5, or 20 daily doses, in the athymic nu/nu FP model. Molecular enumeration (RLEP PCR) and viability determinations (qRT-PCR) were performed via Taqman methodology on DNA and RNA, respectively, purified from ethanol-fixed FP tissue and compared with conventional enumeration (microscopic counting of acid fast bacilli) and viability assays (radiorespirometry, viability staining) which utilized bacilli freshly harvested from the contralateral FP. Both molecular and conventional assays demonstrated growth and high viability of M. leprae in nu/nu FPs over a 4 month infection period. In contrast, viability was markedly decreased by 8 weeks in immunocompetent mice. Rifapentine significantly reduced bacterial viability after 5 treatments, whereas rifampin required up to 20 treatments for the same efficacy. Neither drug was effective after a single treatment. In addition, host gene expression was monitored with the same RNA preparations. Conclusions hsp18 and esxA qRT-PCR are sensitive molecular indicators, reliably detecting viability of M. leprae in tissues without the need for bacterial isolation or immediate processing, making these assays applicable for in vivo drug screening and promising for clinical and field applications. M. leprae, the causative agent of leprosy, cannot be grown on laboratory culture media. This characteristic, along with its extremely long generation time of 12–14 days, makes the study of the pathogenicity of this organism and the experimental testing of new drugs for the treatment of leprosy extremely difficult. We developed two M. leprae-specific quantitative reverse transcription PCR assays and tested their utility as biological markers of M. leprae viability in tissue specimens. These assays could detect high viability of bacilli growing in immunosuppressed mice as well as the inhibitory effects of anti-leprosy drug treatment, or of the host immune system in immunocompetent mice. The RNA preparations were also successfully used for detection of host gene expression. The application of these assays to various experimental models would benefit characterization of the infection or novel drug screening. Furthermore, because these assays utilize fixed tissues, their potential application to clinical and field settings could enable monitoring of M. leprae viability in conjunction with the host immune response during treatment.
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Guirado E, Schlesinger LS. Modeling the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Granuloma - the Critical Battlefield in Host Immunity and Disease. Front Immunol 2013; 4:98. [PMID: 23626591 PMCID: PMC3631743 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Granulomas are the hallmark of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) infection and thus sit at the center of tuberculosis (TB) immunopathogenesis. TB can result from either early progression of a primary granuloma during the infection process or reactivation of an established granuloma in a latently infected person. Granulomas are compact, organized aggregates of immune cells consisting of blood-derived infected and uninfected macrophages, foamy macrophages, epithelioid cells (uniquely differentiated macrophages), and multinucleated giant cells (Langerhans cells) surrounded by a ring of lymphocytes. The granuloma's main function is to localize and contain M.tb while concentrating the immune response to a limited area. However, complete eradication does not occur since M.tb has its own strategies to persist within the granuloma and to reactivate and escape under certain conditions. Thus M.tb-containing granulomas represent a unique battlefield for dictating both the host immune and bacterial response. The architecture, composition, function, and maintenance of granulomas are key aspects to study since they are expected to have a profound influence on M.tb physiology in this niche. Granulomas are not only present in mycobacterial infections; they can be found in many other infectious and non-infectious diseases and play a crucial role in immunity and disease. Here we review the models currently available to study the granulomatous response to M.tb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Guirado
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University Columbus, OH, USA
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