Efeito do exercício no sistema imune: resposta, adaptação e sinalização celular

Impact of Lifestyle Interventions on Multiple Sclerosis: Focus on Adipose Tissue

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder characterized by demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS), affecting individuals globally. The pathological mechanisms underlying MS remain unclear, but current evidence suggests that inflammation and immune dysfunction play a critical role in the pathogenesis of MS disease. Adipose tissue (AT) is a dynamic multifunctional organ involved in various immune diseases, including MS, due to its endocrine function and the secretion of adipokines, which can influence inflammation and immune responses. Physical activity represents an efficacious non-pharmacological strategy for the management of a spectrum of conditions that not only improves inflammatory and immune functions but also directly affects the status and function of AT. Additionally, the exploration of nutritional supplementation represents an important field of MS research aimed at enhancing clinical symptoms and is closely tied to the regulation of metabolic responses, including adipokine secretion. This review, therefore, aims to elucidate the intricate relationship between lifestyle and MS by providing an overview of the latest published data about the involvement of AT and the main adipokines, such as adiponectin, leptin, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) in the pathogenesis of MS. Furthermore, we explore whether physical activity and dietary management could serve as useful strategies to improve the quality of life of MS patients.

Exercise and COVID-19: exercise intensity reassures immunological benefits of post-COVID-19 condition

Any form of physical activity, including exercise, has various benefits at the physiological (improving cardiac and respiratory functions, increasing skeletal muscle mass, and maintaining homeostasis) and psychological levels (improving cognitive function, reducing anxiety and depression) which help to combat any type of infection. In contrast, the infectivity ratio could reduce the physical activity of an individual, such as performing a habitual exercise. Adaptation to different exercise strategies including intensity and duration may better increase physical performance and improve the symptoms. For example, low to moderate intensity perhaps fails to induce this adaptive process, while high-intensity of exercise compromises immune health. This can aggravate the infection rate (Open window theory). However, high intensity with a shorter time produces various morphological alterations in the primary organs including the lungs and heart, which facilitate life support in COVID-19 patients. However, less information about exercise protocols failed to assure the benefits of exercise to COVID-19 patients, particularly post-COVID-19 conditions. Therefore, this review will answer how exercise intensity is crucial to reassure the exercise benefits for promoting safe participation before infection and post-COVID-19 conditions.

Physical Exercise Induces Significant Changes in Immunoglobulin G N-Glycan Composition in a Previously Inactive, Overweight Population

Regular exercise improves health, modulating the immune system and impacting inflammatory status. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) N-glycosylation reflects changes in inflammatory status; thus, we investigated the impact of regular exercise on overall inflammatory status by monitoring IgG N-glycosylation in a previously inactive, middle-aged, overweight and obese population (50.30 ± 9.23 years, BMI 30.57 ± 4.81). Study participants (N = 397) underwent one of three different exercise programs lasting three months with blood samples collected at baseline and at the end of intervention. After chromatographically profiling IgG N-glycans, linear mixed models with age and sex adjustment were used to investigate exercise effects on IgG glycosylation. Exercise intervention induced significant changes in IgG N-glycome composition. We observed an increase in agalactosylated, monogalctosylated, asialylated and core-fucosylated N-glycans (padj = 1.00 × 10^-4, 2.41 × 10^-25, 1.51 × 10^-21 and 3.38 × 10^-30, respectively) and a decrease in digalactosylated, mono- and di-sialylated N-glycans (padj = 4.93 × 10^-12, 7.61 × 10^-9 and 1.09 × 10^-28, respectively). We also observed a significant increase in GP9 (glycan structure FA2[3]G1, β = 0.126, padj = 2.05 × 10^-16), previously reported to have a protective cardiovascular role in women, highlighting the importance of regular exercise for cardiovascular health. Other alterations in IgG N-glycosylation reflect an increased pro-inflammatory IgG potential, expected in a previously inactive and overweight population, where metabolic remodeling is in the early stages due to exercise introduction.

The impact of supervised physical exercise on chemokines and cytokines in recovered COVID-19 patients

COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which induces a high release of pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines, leading to severe systemic disorders. Further, evidence has shown that recovered COVID-19 patients still have some symptoms and disorders from COVID-19. Physical exercise can have many health benefits. It is known to be a potent regulator of the immune system, which includes frequency, intensity, duration, and supervised by a professional. Given the confinement and social isolation or hospitalization of COVID-19 patients, the population became sedentary or opted for physical exercise at home, assuming the guarantee of the beneficial effects of physical exercise and reducing exposure to SARS-CoV-2. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a supervised exercise protocol and a home-based unsupervised exercise protocol on chemokine and cytokine serum levels in recovered COVID-19 patients. This study was a prospective, parallel, two-arm clinical trial. Twenty-four patients who had moderate to severe COVID-19 concluded the intervention protocols of this study. Participants were submitted to either supervised exercise protocol at the Clinical Hospital of the Federal University of Pernambuco or home-based unsupervised exercise for 12 weeks. We analyzed serum levels of chemokines (CXCL8/IL-8, CCL5/RANTES, CXCL9/MIG, CCL2/MCP-1, and CXCL10/IP-10) and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, TNF-α, and IFN-γ). Before the interventions, no significant differences were observed in the serum levels of chemokines and cytokines between the supervised and home-based unsupervised exercise groups. The CXCL8/IL-8 (p = 0.04), CCL2/MCP-1 (p = 0.03), and IFN-γ (p = 0.004) levels decreased after 12 weeks of supervised exercise. In parallel, an increase in IL-2 (p = 0.02), IL-6 (p = 0.03), IL-4 (p = 0.006), and IL-10 (p = 0.04) was observed after the supervised protocol compared to pre-intervention levels. No significant differences in all the chemokines and cytokines were found after 12 weeks of the home-based unsupervised exercise protocol. Given the results, the present study observed that supervised exercise was able to modulate the immune response in individuals with post-COVID-19, suggesting that supervised exercise can mitigate the inflammatory process associated with COVID-19 and its disorders.

Clinical trial registration

https://ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-7z3kxjk, identifier U1111-1272-4730.

Leisure-time regular exercise and prevention of the side effects of immune system activity in middle-aged healthy subjects

Regular exercise is recommended to improve immune system function and antioxidant activity, while conversely, it may cause inflammation by increasing neutrophil-derived main enzyme, myeloperoxidase, which produces reactive oxygen species. The present study aimed to investigate changes in myeloperoxidase level, its influence on total oxidant status, and the capacity of the antioxidant defence system to counteract oxidative stress in middle-aged men participating in leisure-time regular exercise compared to untrained peer subjects. Twenty trained (age 53.58±2.94 years, body mass index (BMI) 25.47±1.6) and 17 untrained (age 54.17±2.83 years, BMI 27.83±1.12) healthy middle-aged men participated in this study [Rasht, Gilan, Iran]. Participants performed a modified Bruce treadmill test as a model of progressive exercise training. Blood samples were taken before, immediately after, and one hour after the end of the test. A mixed ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc test was used for the analysis of variables. A significant difference was observed in myeloperoxidase levels between groups, while the trained group showed a significantly lower concentration than the untrained group (P<0.018). This result was also consistent with the lower total oxidant status in this group (P<0.001). Total antioxidant capacity changed significantly in both groups with higher concentration in the trained group (P<0.001). The leisure-time regular exercise can reduce myeloperoxidase concentration and total oxidant status in healthy middle-aged men while increasing the total antioxidant capacity, which may potentially protect them from the side effects of immune system activity induced by exercise training.

Splenic morphologic changes induced by a strenuous and exhaustive training program in Wistar rats

BACKGROUND

Excessively intense physical training can compromise the functionality of the immune system and contribute to the appearance of symptoms associated with overtraining syndrome (OTS). The aim of this study was to analyze the splenic morphological changes in Wistar rats submitted to demanding training.

METHODS

The animals were randomly assigned to 2 groups; control group (CG) and exercise group (EG), animals in the EG group were sacrificed after 1 (EG1) and 3 weeks (EG3) of training. The animals were stimulated to run on the treadmill (-20 °; from 25 m/min, with a progressive increase of 1.25 m/minute at each session; 1 hour/day) 6 days/week. Body weight, food intake, appearance of hair, behavior and ability of animals to perform the imposed work were assessed during the protocol. The spleen was collected for histological analysis and immunohistochemical identification of CD4+ T lymphocytes and CD8+ T cells and NF-kB transcription factor.

RESULTS

The protocol did not induce OTS, however, decreases were observed in areas of white pulp in EG3 in relation to the other groups. The training induced a decrease in splenic CD4+ T cells with an increase in CD8+ T cells. The training increased the expression of NF-κB P65 compared to sedentary animals.

CONCLUSIONS

Even without manifestation of OTS, strenuous physical training, alter the histological and immunological structures of the spleen, suggesting in part a compromise in the functionality of the immune system.

Immune Functions Alterations Due to Racing Stress in Thoroughbred Horses

Simple Summary

Racehorses are under constant stress when training and during competitions. It is known that high levels of cortisol, the hormone responsible for stress regulation, can impact the immune system. Hence, the importance of assessing the immune cells, blood components and cortisol during different times of athlete horses’ routines, including races. This research verified the impact of training and racing on the immune function of Thoroughbreds’ trough phagocytosis and oxidative neutrophil burst assays, serum cortisol determination, erythrocytes apoptosis, lymphoproliferation, and blood count analyses.

Abstract

Racehorses are constantly exposed to stress. Aiming to verify the state of blood components and cortisol alterations during their routine and after races, phagocytosis and oxidative neutrophil burst assays, serum cortisol determination, erythrocytes apoptosis evaluation, lymphoproliferation assays, and blood count tests were performed in thirty Thoroughbred racehorses, which were divided in two groups. The samples were taken right after races (moment 0 d), during rest periods (−11 d, +1 d, +3 d), and after training (−8, +2, +5). In both groups, the phagocytosis showed a decrease in percentage and intensity immediately after the race when comparing samples collected during rest or training periods. In the mean values of oxidative burst on samples collected immediately after the race, group I animals demonstrated a decrease (524.2 ± 248.9) when compared with those samples collected in other moments. No significant differences were found between the results of different moments regarding the apoptotic cells and lymphoproliferation assays. The mean values of serum cortisol levels were increased immediately after racing. There was an increase in the percentage of neutrophils found immediately after the race. It was possible to conclude that, although a transient reduction was found in the number of neutrophils, the horses’ adaptive function was not affected.

Influence of exercise and vitamin D on the immune system against Covid-19: an integrative review of current literature

Respiratory infections of viral origin have become the leading cause of infectious diseases in the world. In 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a pandemic due to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19). The pandemic caused by the new coronavirus has challenged the entire global health system, since Covid-19 has a high rate of morbidity and mortality. The immune response to the virus depends on factors such as age, genetics, nutritional status, physical status, as well as environmental factors. Despite scientific advances, so far, there is still no specific therapy for the disease. Thus, this study aims to analyze the contribution of physical exercise and maintenance and/or supplementation of vitamin D to the strengthening of the immune system against viral infections, among them, Covid-19. Regular practice of moderate-intensity physical activity is responsible for promoting a reduction in the concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β), as well as triggering the increase in the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10). In addition, hypovitaminosis D predisposes to the development of chronic diseases and infections. Therefore, in patients affected by Covid-19, the maintenance of vitamin D levels contributes significantly to the 0prevention of the cytokine storm. Thus, the association between maintaining vitamin D levels and performing moderate-intensity physical exercise is responsible for strengthening the immune system and, therefore, triggering a defense mechanism against infections by intracellular microorganisms, in which SARS -CoV-2.

Changes in Cytokines Concentration Following Long-Distance Running: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Long-distance running is an exhausting effort for the whole organism. Prolonged aerobic exercise induces changes in inflammatory markers. However, predicting muscle damage in response has limitations in terms of selecting biomarkers used to measure inflammatory status. The present study conducts a systematic review and meta-analysis of articles focusing in ultra-marathon, marathon, and half-marathon and levels of cytokines. The search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases, resulting in the inclusion of 76 articles. IL-6 was highlighted, evaluated in 62 studies and show increase in the standard mean difference (SMD): half-marathon (SMD −1.36; IC 95%: −1.82, −0.89, Ch²:0.58; tau²:0.00; p < 0.0001), marathon (SMD −6.81; IC 95%: −9.26, −4.37; Ch²:481.37 tau²:11.88; p < 0.0001) and ultra-marathon (SMD −8.00 IC 95%: −10.47, −5.53; Ch²:328.40; tau²:14.19; p < 0.0001). In contrast meta-regression analysis did not show relationship to the running distance (p = 0.864). The meta-analysis evidenced increase in the concentration of IL-1ra (p < 0.0001), IL-1B (p < 0.0001), IL-8 (p < 0.0001), IL-10 (p < 0.0001) and TNF-α (p < 0.0001). Reduction in IL-2 (p < 0.0001) and INF-y (p < 0.03) and no change in the IL-4 (p < 0.56). The number of studies evaluating the effect of adipokines was limited, however Leptin and Resistin were recurrent. The effects of an acute bout of prolonged aerobic exercise will protect against chronic systemic inflammation. The time to return to baseline values showed a substantial and dose-dependent relationship with run volume. The concentration of IL-6 was robustly studied and the marathon running was the most explored. Network of endocrine interactions in which circulating factors, released in extreme exercises, interplay through inter-organ crosstalk and physiologic changes were expressed. The running volume variability was able to modulate compounds that play a fundamental role in the maintenance of homeostasis and cell signaling.

Therapeutic Effects of Physical Exercise and the Mesenchymal Stem Cell Secretome by Modulating Neuroinflammatory Response in Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative, demyelinating, and chronic inflammatory disease characterized by central nervous system (CNS) lesions that lead to high levels of disability and severe physical and cognitive disturbances. Conventional therapies are not enough to control the neuroinflammatory process in MS and are not able to inhibit ongoing damage to the CNS. Thus, the secretome of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC-S) has been postulated as a potential therapy that could mitigate symptoms and disease progression. We considered that its combination with physical exercise (EX) could induce superior effects and increase the MSC-S effectiveness in this condition. Recent studies have revealed that both EX and MSC-S share similar mechanisms of action that mitigate auto-reactive T cell infiltration, regulate the local inflammatory response, modulate the proinflammatory profile of glial cells, and reduce neuronal damage. Clinical and experimental studies have reported that these treatments in an isolated way also improve myelination, regeneration, promote the release of neurotrophic factors, and increase the recruitment of endogenous stem cells. Together, these effects reduce disease progression and improve patient functionality. Despite these results, the combination of these methods has not yet been studied in MS. In this review, we focus on molecular elements and cellular responses induced by these treatments in a separate way, showing their beneficial effects in the control of symptoms and disease progression in MS, as well as indicating their contribution in clinical fields. In addition, we propose the combined use of EX and MSC-S as a strategy to boost their reparative and immunomodulatory effects in this condition, combining their benefits on synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, remyelination, and neuroinflammatory response. The findings here reported are based on the scientific evidence and our professional experience that will bring significant progress to regenerative medicine to deal with this condition.

Is Physical Activity Protective against Emotional Eating Associated Factors during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Cross-Sectional Study among Physically Active and Inactive Adults

Physical activity levels during the COVID-19 pandemic have been decreasing and this may be a risk factor for development of emotional eating and its associated factors. The aim of the study was to analyze the factors associated with emotional eating among individuals with different physical activity levels during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data relating to the pandemic on physical activity, emotional eating, sociodemographic data, perceptions about lifestyle habits, body satisfaction, and perceptions about eating habits and food consumption were collected. Factors associated with emotional eating in the group of active and inactive individuals were observed using multiple linear regression controlled for age, sex, BMI, and monthly income. Emotional eating for the active group was associated with perceived stress, body dissatisfaction, and increased consumption of sweets and desserts. In addition to these factors found among the active group, working or studying >8 h/day, sleep worsening, increased amount of food consumed, increased purchase of food through delivery, and increased vegetable consumption were also associated with emotional eating for the inactive group. These findings suggest a potential protective role of physical activity in the appearance of factors associated with emotional eating during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Chronic Aerobic Training at Different Volumes in the Modulation of Macrophage Function and in vivo Infection of BALB/c Mice by Leishmania major

Physical inactivity is one of the main causes of chronic diseases; however, strenuous exercise can induce immunosuppression. Several studies suggest that moderate amounts of exercise lead to a Th1 response, favoring the resolution of infections caused by intracellular microorganisms, while high volumes of exercise tend to direct the response to Th2, favoring infection by them. Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease promoted by parasites of the Leishmania genus, with clinical manifestations that vary according to the species of the parasite and the immune response of the host. The experimental Leishmania major–BALB/C mouse model provides a good model for the resistance (Th1 response) or susceptibility (Th2 response) that determines the progression of this infection. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of aerobic training at different volumes on modulation of in vitro macrophage infection by L. major, as well as to assess the effect of high volume (HV) aerobic training on the development of L. major in vivo in BALB/c mice. Uninfected animals were submitted to various exercise volumes: none (SED), light (LV), moderate (MV), high (HV), very high (VHV), and tapering (TAP). The macrophages of these animals were infected by L. major and the LV and MV groups showed a decrease in the infection factor, while the VHV showed an increase in the infection factor, when treated with LPS. The cytokine concentration pattern measured in the supernatants of these macrophages suggested a predominant Th1 response profile in the LV and MV groups, while the Th2 profile predominated in the VHV and TAP groups. Groups of BALB/C mice infected with L. major were subjected to high volume (iHV) or non-periodized high volume (iNPHV) exercise or kept sedentary (iSED). The exercised animals suffered a significant increase in injuries caused by the parasites. The animals in the group submitted to high volume exercise (iHV) showed visceralization of the infection. These data strongly suggest that a very high volume of aerobic training increased the susceptibility of BALB/C mice to L. major infection, while moderate distribution of training loads promoted immunological balance, better controlling the infection by this parasite.

Sustaining efficient immune functions with regular physical exercise in the COVID-19 era and beyond

The new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) appearance in Wuhan, China, did rise the new virus disease (COVID-19), which spread globally in a short time, leading the World Health Organization to declare a new global pandemic. To contain and mitigate the spread of SARS-CoV-2, specific public health procedures were implemented in virtually all countries, with a significant impact on society, making it difficult to keep the regular practice of physical activity. It is widely accepted that an active lifestyle contributes to the improvement of general health and preservation of cardiovascular, respiratory, osteo-muscular and immune system capacities. The positive effects of regular physical activity on the immune system have emerged as a pivotal trigger of general health, underlying the beneficial effects of physical activity on multiple physiological systems. Accordingly, recent studies have already pointed out the negative impact of physical inactivity caused by the social isolation imposed by the public sanitary authorities due to COVID-19. Nevertheless, there are still no current narrative reviews evaluating the real impact of COVID-19 on active lifestyle or even discussing the possible beneficial effects of exercise-promoted immune upgrade against the severity or progression of COVID-19. Based on the consensus in the scientific literature, in this review, we discuss how an exercise adherence could adequately improve immune responses in times of the 'COVID-19 Era and beyond'.

Effects of Eight-Week Combined Resistance and Endurance Training on Salivary Interleukin-12, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Cortisol, and Testosterone Levels in Patients with Breast Cancer

Background: In recent years, several studies have shown the association between exercise and decreased risk of mortality in patients with breast cancer. However, the effects of combined resistance and endurance training on salivary Interleukin-12 (IL-12), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), Cortisol, and Testosterone levels in patients with breast cancer have not been investigated. Objectives: This study aimed at determining the effect of 8 weeks of combined resistance and endurance training on salivary IL-12, TNF-α, Cortisol, and Testosterone levels in women with breast cancer. Methods: Forty-two postmenopausal women with breast cancer were randomly selected and divided into training (intervention) and control groups. The training group performed resistance training with 2 to 3 sets, 10 to 18 repetitions, 50 to 70% 1 repetition maximum (1RM), and aerobic exercise with 50 to 70% maximum heart rate (maxHR) (12-14 degrees borg scale) for 20 to 40 minutes for 8 weeks. The salivary IL-12, TNF-α, cortisol, and testosterone levels were measured, using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Two-way analysis of variance repeated measure was also used to analyze variance with the confidence interval of 95%. Results: In the training group, there was a significant decrease in salivary TNF-α levels, cortisol, TNF-α/IL-12 ratio, and variables of weight, fat percentage, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference (P < 0.05). Also, the results showed a significant increase in salivary testosterone and testosterone/cortisol ratio in the intervention group (P < 0.05). However, no significant changes were observed in the interaction between-group and time in IL-12 and waist–hip ratio (WHR) values (P > 0.05). Conclusions: The results indicate that resistance and endurance training could be used as a useful method to improve salivary pro-inflammatory factors and hormonal levels in patients with breast cancer. Medical oncologists can underline a resistance and endurance training program for patients with breast cancer under their care.

Physical exercise as a tool to help the immune system against COVID-19: an integrative review of the current literature

Acute viral respiratory infections are the main infectious disease in the world. In 2020, a new disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), became a global pandemic. The immune response to the virus depends on factors such as genetics, age and physical state, and its main input receptor is the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. The practice of physical exercises acts as a modulator of the immune system. During and after physical exercise, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines are released, lymphocyte circulation increases, as well as cell recruitment. Such practice has an effect on the lower incidence, intensity of symptoms and mortality in viral infections observed in people who practice physical activity regularly, and its correct execution must be considered to avoid damage. The initial response is given mainly by type I interferons (IFN-I), which drive the action macrophages and lymphocytes, followed by lymphocyte action. A suppression of the IFN-I response has been noted in COVID-19. Severe conditions have been associated with storms of pro-inflammatory cytokines and lymphopenia, as well as circulatory changes and virus dispersion to other organs. The practice of physical activities strengthens the immune system, suggesting a benefit in the response to viral communicable diseases. Thus, regular practice of adequate intensity is suggested as an auxiliary tool in strengthening and preparing the immune system for COVID-19. Further studies are needed to associate physical exercise with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Physical exercise as a tool to help the immune system against COVID-19: an integrative review of the current literature

Acute viral respiratory infections are the main infectious disease in the world. In 2020, a new disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), became a global pandemic. The immune response to the virus depends on factors such as genetics, age and physical state, and its main input receptor is the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. The practice of physical exercises acts as a modulator of the immune system. During and after physical exercise, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines are released, lymphocyte circulation increases, as well as cell recruitment. Such practice has an effect on the lower incidence, intensity of symptoms and mortality in viral infections observed in people who practice physical activity regularly, and its correct execution must be considered to avoid damage. The initial response is given mainly by type I interferons (IFN-I), which drive the action macrophages and lymphocytes, followed by lymphocyte action. A suppression of the IFN-I response has been noted in COVID-19. Severe conditions have been associated with storms of pro-inflammatory cytokines and lymphopenia, as well as circulatory changes and virus dispersion to other organs. The practice of physical activities strengthens the immune system, suggesting a benefit in the response to viral communicable diseases. Thus, regular practice of adequate intensity is suggested as an auxiliary tool in strengthening and preparing the immune system for COVID-19. Further studies are needed to associate physical exercise with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Combined effects of moderate exercise and short-term fasting on markers of immune function in healthy human subjects

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a short-term (36 h) fasting period combined with an acute bout of exercise on markers of immune function and inflammation in healthy human subjects. Fourteen moderately trained male subjects (aged 19-39 yr) participated in a 36-h fasting trial (FA-T), followed by an acute bout of moderate exercise (60% V̇o_2max). After 1 wk, the same subjects, as their own control, participated in a nonfasting trial (NFA-T) in which they performed an exercise trial of the same duration and intensity. Blood samples were taken before, immediately after, and 1 h after each exercise bout and analyzed for several immunological and metabolic markers. At baseline, fasting subjects showed lower levels of T cell apoptosis, lymphocyte-proliferative responses, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), insulin, and leptin (P < 0.05) as well as higher levels of neutrophil oxidative burst and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) than those in the NFA-T (P < 0.05). After the exercise protocol, fasted subjects revealed higher T cell apoptosis, neutrophil oxidative burst, TBARS, TNFα, and MCP-1 levels as well as lower levels of lymphocyte-proliferative response, IL-6, insulin, and leptin than those in the NFA-T (P < 0.05). Short-term fasting aggravates perturbations in markers of immune function, and inflammation was induced by an acute moderate-intensity exercise protocol.

Immune System Modulation in Response to Strength Training With Blood Flow Restriction

Souza, TSP, Pfeiffer, PAS, Pereira, JN, Pereira Neto, EA, Dutra, TS, Mendonça, MGL, and Cirilo-Sousa, MS. Immune system modulation in response to strength training with blood flow restriction. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-This study aimed to compare the strength training with blood flow restriction (ST-BFR) to the multiple-set training at different intensities (30% of 1RM and 75% of 1RM) as for their effect on immunoinflammatory responses (total leukocytes, segmented neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, and lymphocyte subpopulations). It is a randomized experimental study with a repeated measures design with inter and intragroup effects of a strength training session. Eighteen physically active adults aged 20-31 years (26.17 ± 3.7 years), apparently healthy, performed a strength training session with 2 exercises. Six milliliters of blood were collected before the training, immediately after the training, and at 30 minutes and 24 hours after the session to carry out the analyses. The results showed that the strength training could promote modulation (time effect) in the leukocyte count (F = 25.86, p < 0.01, η = 0.74), regardless of the method used. Neutrophils (F = 22.71, p < 0.01, η = 0.60), specifically the TCD4+ lymphocytes (F = 6.33, p < 0.05, η = 0, 3), were the main factors responsible for this variation. Despite the similarity, there were differences between the methods in the modulations of total leukocytes (F = 4.16, p < 0.05, η = 0.36) and neutrophils (F = 4.80, p < 0.05, η = 0.39). In conclusion, compared to the multiple-set training, ST-BFR produces immunoinflammatory responses similar to the low-intensity training and different from the high-intensity training. However, the demargination process of some cells was different depending on the method and intensity used. Nevertheless, these variations are compatible with an appropriate recovery process, because the amplitude and length of the modulation curves of leukocytes, and lymphocyte subpopulations were not compatible with immunosuppression.

Exercise and Vitamin D Supplementation Modify Spleen Morphology in Lean, but not, in Monosodium-Glutamate-Obese Rats

We evaluated the effect of exercise and vitamin D supplementation on histological aspects of the spleens of lean and obese rats. Male Wistar rats received neonatal administration of monosodium glutamate (MSG; 4g/Kg), while Control (CON) rats received an equimolar solution. At 30 days of age, CON and MSG rats were subdivided into Exercised (E) or Sedentary (S) groups and Vitamin D (VD; 12µg/Kg) supplemented or non-supplemented (NS) groups. At the 86th day of life, rats were euthanized, and their body weights and adiposity were evaluated. Spleens were submitted to histomorphometric analysis of the white pulp (WP), germinal center (GC) and lymphatic nodule (LN). Data are presented as mean ± SEM (p<0.05). MSG treatment promoted a reduction in spleen weight, increased LN thickness and WP area, but reduced GC occupation, compared to spleens of CON-lean rats (p<0.05). Exercise and VD did not provoke changes in the spleens of MSG-obese rats. In CON-lean rats, E and VD induced augmentation of LN thickness. VD supplementation increased the WP area, while E reduced GC area occupation in spleens of CON-lean rats (p<0.05). In conclusion, exercise and VD supplementation increased LN thickness and WP area, but had the opposite effect on the GC in spleens of CON-lean rats. However, neither exercise nor VD supplementation prevented the development of morphological abnormalities in the spleens of MSG-obese rats.

Effects of two intensities of treadmill exercise on neuromuscular recovery after median nerve crush injury in Wistar rats

Considering the potential action of exercise on neuroplasticity and the need to adapt protocols to enhance functional recovery after nerve injury, this study evaluated the effects of two intensities of treadmill exercise on nervous and muscular tissues and functional recovery after nerve crush injury. Wistar rats were distributed into sedentary group (SED), and 10 m/min (EG10) and 17 m/min (EG17) exercise groups. The exercise started one week after the injury. Ten daily sessions were performed with a 2-day interval after the fifth day. The flexor digitorum muscle and two segments of the median nerve were analysed histomorphometrically by light microscopy and computer analysis. Function was evaluated by grasping test, in 3 moments. Approval number: 016/2013. In the proximal segments of the median nerve, the diameter of myelinated fibres and axon, the myelin sheath thickness and the ratio of axon diameter to fibre diameter (g ratio) were significantly larger (P<0.05) in the EG10. The number of myelinated fibres was lesser in the EG17 than the other groups (P<0.05). No difference in the number of myelinated fibres among groups was observed in the distal segments, but the SED presented significantly larger axon and fibre diameters than those that performed exercise. The EG10 presented greater area and diameter of muscle fibres (P<0.05) and functional improvement observed on the 21st day after injury (P<0.05) compared with the EG17 and SED. Continuous exercise at 10 m/min accentuates nerve regeneration, accelerating functional recovery and preventing muscle atrophy.

Immunomodulation From Moderate Exercise Promotes Control of Experimental Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

Physical exercise has been described as an important tool in the prevention and treatment of numerous diseases as it promotes a range of responses and adaptations in several biological systems, including the immune system. Studies on the effect of exercise on the immune system could play a critical role in improving public health. Current literature suggests that moderate intensity exercise can modulate the Th1/Th2 dichotomy directing the immune system to a Th1 cellular immune response, which favors the resolution of infections caused by intracellular microorganisms. Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases presenting a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations that range from self-limiting lesions to visceral injuries whose severity can lead to death. The etiological agents responsible for this group of diseases are protozoa of the genus Leishmania. Infections by the parasite Leishmania major in mice (Balb/c) provide a prototype model for the polarization of CD4+ T cell responses of both Th1 (resistance) or Th2 (susceptibility), which determines the progression of infections. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of exercise on the development of L. major experimental infections by scanning the pattern of immune response caused by exercise. Groups of Balb/c mice infected with L. major were divided into groups that preformed a physical exercise of swimming three times a week or were sedentary along with treatment or not with the reference drug, meglumine antimoniate. Animals in groups submitted to physical exercise did not appear to develop lesions and presented a significantly lower parasite load independent of drug treatment. They also showed a positive delayed hypersensitivity response to a specific Leishmania antigen compared to control animals. The IFN-γ/IL-4 and IFN-γ/IL10 ratios in trained animals were clearly tilted to a Th1 response in lymph node cells. These data suggest that moderate intensity exercise is able to modulate the Th1 response that provides a protective effect against the development of leishmanial lesions.

Effects of a polysaccharide-based multi-ingredient supplement on salivary immunity in non-elite marathon runners

BACKGROUND

Extreme exercise may alter the innate immune system. Glycans are involved in several biological processes including immune system regulation. However, limited data regarding the impact of glycan supplementation on immunological parameters after strenuous exercise are available. We aimed to determine the impact of a standardized polysaccharide-based multi-ingredient supplement, Advanced Ambrotose© complex powder (AA) on salivary secretory Immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and pro- and anti-inflammatory protein levels before and after a marathon in non-elite runners.

METHODS

Forty-one male marathon runners who completed the 42.195 km of the 2016 Barcelona marathon were randomly assigned to two study groups. Of them, n = 20 (48%) received the AA supplement for 15 days prior the race (AA group) and n = 21 (52%) did not receive any AA supplement (non-AA group). Saliva and blood samples were collected the day before the marathon and two days after the end of the race. Salivary IgA, pro-inflammatory chemokines (Gro-alpha, Gro-beta, MCP-1) and anti-inflammatory proteins (Angiogenin, ACRP, Siglec 5) were determined using commercially ELISA kits in saliva supernatant. Biochemical parameters, including C-reactive protein, cardiac biomarkers, and blood hemogram were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Marathon runners who did not receive the AA supplement experienced a decrease of salivary sIgA and pro-inflammatory chemokines (Gro-alpha and Gro-beta) after the race, while runners with AA supplementation showed lower levels of anti-inflammatory chemokines (Angiogenin). Gro-alpha and Gro-beta salivary levels were lower before the race in the AA group and correlated with blood leukocytes and platelets.

CONCLUSIONS

Changes in salivary sIgA and inflammatory chemokines, especially Gro-alfa and Gro-beta, were observed in marathon runners supplemented with AA prior to the race. These findings suggested that AA may have a positive effect on immune response after a strenuous exercise.

Effect of exercise on the plasma vesicular proteome: a methodological study comparing acoustic trapping and centrifugation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of actively released vesicles originating from a wide range of cell types. Characterization of these EVs and their proteomes in the human plasma provides a novel approach in clinical diagnostics, as they reflect physiological and pathological states. However, EV isolation is technically challenging with the current methods having several disadvantages, requiring large sample volumes, and resulting in loss of sample and EV integrity. Here, we use an alternative, non-contact method based on a microscale acoustic standing wave technology. Improved coupling of the acoustic resonator increased the EV recovery from 30% in earlier reports to 80%, also displaying long term stability between experiment days. We report a pilot study, with 20 subjects who underwent physical exercise. Plasma samples were obtained before and 1 h after the workout. Acoustic trapping was compared to a standard high-speed centrifugation protocol, and the method was validated by flow cytometry (FCM). To monitor the device stability, the pooled frozen plasma from volunteers was used as an internal control. A key finding from the FCM analysis was a decrease in CD62E+ (E-selectin) EVs 1 h after exercise that was consistent for both methods. Furthermore, we report the first data that analyse differential EV protein expression before and after physical exercise. Olink-based proteomic analysis showed 54 significantly changed proteins in the EV fraction in response to physical exercise, whereas the EV-free plasma proteome only displayed four differentially regulated proteins, thus underlining an important role of these vesicles in cellular communication, and their potential as plasma derived biomarkers. We conclude that acoustic trapping offers a fast and efficient method comparable with high-speed centrifugation protocols. Further, it has the advantage of using smaller sample volumes (12.5 μL) and rapid contact-free separation with higher yield, and can thus pave the way for future clinical EV-based diagnostics.

Immune biomarkers in older adults: Role of physical activity

Aging is associated with a decline in the normal functioning of the immune system. Several studies described the relationship between immunological alterations, including immunosenescence and inflammation, and aging or age-related outcomes, such as sarcopenia, depression, and neurodegenerative disorders. Physical activity is known to improve muscle function and to exert a number of benefits on older adult health, including reduced risk for heart and metabolic system chronic diseases. However, the positive influence of physical activity on the immune system has not been elucidated. In order to shed light on the role of physical activity in immune responses of older individuals, a number of immunological parameters comprising % lymphocyte subsets (CD3⁺, CD4⁺, CD8⁺, CD19⁺, and CD16⁺56⁺) and serum levels of neopterin and tryptophan metabolism products were evaluated in peripheral blood samples of older adults performing normal (N = 170) or reduced (N = 89) physical activity. In addition, the potential influence of other clinical and epidemiological factors was also considered. Results showed that subjects with reduced physical activity displayed significantly higher levels of CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio, kynurenine/tryptophan ratio, and serum neopterin, along with lower %CD19⁺ cells and tryptophan concentrations. Further, some immunological biomarkers were associated with cognitive impairment and functional status. These data contribute to reinforce the postulation that physical activity supports healthy aging, particularly by helping to protect the immunological system from aging-related changes.

RESPOSTAS AGUDAS DO EXERCÍCIO FÍSICO EM PESSOAS INFECTADAS PELO HIV: UMA REVISÃO SISTEMÁTICA

RESUMO O treinamento físico é uma estratégia importante para a saúde de pessoas que vivem com HIV/AIDS; contudo, suas respostas a curto prazo ainda não foram amplamente estudadas, o que limita o entendimento dos efeitos e da segurança da prescrição do treinamento para essa população. Portanto, objetivou-se revisar sistematicamente as respostas agudas decorrentes do exercício físico em pessoas com HIV sobre variáveis fisiológicas e imunológicas. Para isso, foi realizada uma revisão sistemática a partir de trabalhos indexados nas seguintes bases de dados: Medline, Lilacs, Scielo, Web of Science e Science Direct. Os descritores utilizados foram: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, HIV, AIDS, seropositive, acute session, short, physical activity, exercise, training. As buscas foram realizadas em fevereiro de 2015 e atualizadas em dezembro de 2015 e foram conduzidas sem restrição de datas de publicação ou idioma específico. Foram incluídos para esta revisão artigos que avaliaram as respostas agudas decorrentes de algum modelo de prescrição de treinamento físico envolvendo exercícios aeróbicos, com pesos ou combinados (exercícios aeróbicos e com pesos) relacionados com variáveis fisiológicas e imunológicas em pessoas infectadas pelo HIV. Foram encontrados 2.422 títulos, dos quais, após exclusão das duplicatas e a aplicação dos critérios de elegibilidade, foram selecionados sete artigos para síntese qualitativa. De acordo com os resultados reportados pelos estudos há evidências de que, imediatamente após a realização do exercício físico, ocorre um aumento do número de células circulantes, incluindo leucócitos totais, neutrófilos, monócitos e linfócitos T CD8+ em pessoas infectadas pelo HIV. Além disso, também se observaram alterações significantes nas concentrações de lactato, triglicerídeos, epinefrina e norepinefrina imediatamente após a realização do treinamento aeróbico, independentemente do uso de TARV e/ou de hiperlactatemia. No entanto, não há evidências suficientes para afirmar que o treinamento físico seja totalmente seguro e eficaz para esta população.

The morphological and functional effects of exercise in the aquatic environment, performed before and/or after sciatic nerve compression in Wistar rats

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of exercise in the aquatic environment, performed before and/or after sciatic nerve compression in Wistar rats on morphological and functional parameters. Twenty-five Wistar rats were divided into the following groups: control (C), lesion (L), trained+lesion (TL), lesion+exercise (LE), and training+lesion+exercise (TLE), who underwent right sciatic nerve compression on day 21 of the experiment. The TL and TLE groups were submitted to a jumping exercise in a water environment for 20 days prior to injury and the LE and TLE groups after injury. The functional analysis was carried out using the sciatic functional index (SFI). On the last day of the experiment, the right sciatic nerves were collected, processed and analysed according to morphology and morphometry. The C group showed higher SFI in relation to the other groups. In the morphometric analysis, in comparison to C, all groups showed a decrease in the diameter of the injured nerve fibre, the myelin sheath and an increase in the percentage of connective tissue. There was a decrease in axon diameter in L, TL, and LE groups and a decrease in the density of nerve fibres in the TL and LE groups. The exercise did not affect functional recovery. However, the exercise prior to the injury improved morphology of the nervous tissue, and when performed pre- and postinjury, there was also an improvement in nerve regeneration, but this was not the case with exercise performed after the injury demonstrating worse results.

Carbohydrate supplementation attenuates decrement in performance in overtrained rats

Carbohydrate ingestion at the end of a single exercise is recognized as delaying fatigue and accelerating recovery, but whether chronic ingestion can prevent overtraining during periods of intense training has not yet been elucidated. This study aimed to determine whether carbohydrate supplementation minimizes overtraining in Wistar rats. The animals underwent 11 weeks of training (running) on a treadmill, and the last 3 weeks were designed to induce overtraining. One group was supplemented with carbohydrates (EX-CHO) (n = 13), 1 group had no supplementation (EX) (n = 10), and a third group remained inactive (C) (n = 9). Performance tests were given before training (Pr1) and at the 8th (Pr2) and 11th (Pr3) training week. Food intake, body weight, testosterone, cortisol, malondialdehyde, creatine kinase, and activities of the PI3-K, Akt-1, mTOR, and GSK-3 enzymes were measured. In the EX group, there was a significant 32.6% performance decrease at Pr3 when compared with Pr2. In addition, at protocol completion, the EX-CHO group had a greater gastrocnemius weight than did the C group (p = 0.02), which the EX group did not. Training caused anorexia, decreased testosterone (p = 0.001), and increased malondialdehyde (p = 0.009) in both exercise groups compared with the C group, with no influence of carbohydrate supplementation on these variables (p > 0.05). Compared with in the C group, the activity of Akt-1 was higher in the EX-CHO group but not in the EX group (p = 0.013). Carbohydrate supplementation promoted an attenuation in the performance decrement and maintained gastrocnemius muscle mass in animals that had undergone overtraining protocols, which was accompanied by increased activity of the Akt-1 molecular indicator.

Prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in female athletes in São Paulo, Brazil

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in female athletes.

METHODS

An observational, cross-sectional study was conducted including 50 female athletes with mean age of 20 ± 3 years. Colposcopy, pap smear, and polymerase chain reaction for Chlamydia trachomatis, human papillomavirus and Neisseria gonorrhoeae were performed. Blood samples were collected to test for the human immunodeficiency virus, syphilis, hepatitis B and C. The athletes presenting clinical diseases or conditions identifiable by laboratory tests were treated and followed up in the unit.

RESULTS

Forty-six percent of the participants were unaware of sexually transmitted diseases. The prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases among athletes was 48% (24 cases). Human papillomavirus was the most frequent agent (44%). Considering the human papillomavirus genotypes, subtype 16 was the most prevalent (53%), followed by 11-6 (22%) and 18 (13%). Two athletes tested positive for C. trachomatis. There were no cases diagnosed of infection by N. gonorrhoeae, syphilis, hepatitis B, hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus. However, only 26 athletes had been vaccinated for hepatitis B.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in female athletes was high. Primary prevention measures (hepatitis B and human papillomavirus vaccination) and secondary (serology, pap smears) must be offered to this specific group of women. The matter should be further approached in sports.

Effects of exercise in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (an animal model of multiple sclerosis)

Exercise training has improved many outcomes in "clinical" research involving persons with multiple sclerosis (MS), but there is limited understanding of the underlying "basic" pathophysiological mechanisms. The animal model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), seems ideal for examining the effects of exercise training on MS-disease pathophysiology. EAE is an autoimmune T-helper cell-mediated disease characterized by T-cell and monocyte infiltration and inflammation in the CNS. To that end, this paper briefly describes common models of EAE, reviews existing research on exercise and EAE, and then identifies future research directions for understanding the consequences of exercise training using EAE.