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Robinson NA, Robledo D, Sveen L, Daniels RR, Krasnov A, Coates A, Jin YH, Barrett LT, Lillehammer M, Kettunen AH, Phillips BL, Dempster T, Doeschl‐Wilson A, Samsing F, Difford G, Salisbury S, Gjerde B, Haugen J, Burgerhout E, Dagnachew BS, Kurian D, Fast MD, Rye M, Salazar M, Bron JE, Monaghan SJ, Jacq C, Birkett M, Browman HI, Skiftesvik AB, Fields DM, Selander E, Bui S, Sonesson A, Skugor S, Østbye TK, Houston RD. Applying genetic technologies to combat infectious diseases in aquaculture. REVIEWS IN AQUACULTURE 2023; 15:491-535. [PMID: 38504717 PMCID: PMC10946606 DOI: 10.1111/raq.12733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Disease and parasitism cause major welfare, environmental and economic concerns for global aquaculture. In this review, we examine the status and potential of technologies that exploit genetic variation in host resistance to tackle this problem. We argue that there is an urgent need to improve understanding of the genetic mechanisms involved, leading to the development of tools that can be applied to boost host resistance and reduce the disease burden. We draw on two pressing global disease problems as case studies-sea lice infestations in salmonids and white spot syndrome in shrimp. We review how the latest genetic technologies can be capitalised upon to determine the mechanisms underlying inter- and intra-species variation in pathogen/parasite resistance, and how the derived knowledge could be applied to boost disease resistance using selective breeding, gene editing and/or with targeted feed treatments and vaccines. Gene editing brings novel opportunities, but also implementation and dissemination challenges, and necessitates new protocols to integrate the technology into aquaculture breeding programmes. There is also an ongoing need to minimise risks of disease agents evolving to overcome genetic improvements to host resistance, and insights from epidemiological and evolutionary models of pathogen infestation in wild and cultured host populations are explored. Ethical issues around the different approaches for achieving genetic resistance are discussed. Application of genetic technologies and approaches has potential to improve fundamental knowledge of mechanisms affecting genetic resistance and provide effective pathways for implementation that could lead to more resistant aquaculture stocks, transforming global aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A. Robinson
- Nofima ASTromsøNorway
- Sustainable Aquaculture Laboratory—Temperate and Tropical (SALTT)School of BioSciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Diego Robledo
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | - Rose Ruiz Daniels
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | - Andrew Coates
- Sustainable Aquaculture Laboratory—Temperate and Tropical (SALTT)School of BioSciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Ye Hwa Jin
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Luke T. Barrett
- Sustainable Aquaculture Laboratory—Temperate and Tropical (SALTT)School of BioSciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Institute of Marine Research, Matre Research StationMatredalNorway
| | | | | | - Ben L. Phillips
- Sustainable Aquaculture Laboratory—Temperate and Tropical (SALTT)School of BioSciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Tim Dempster
- Sustainable Aquaculture Laboratory—Temperate and Tropical (SALTT)School of BioSciences, The University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Andrea Doeschl‐Wilson
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Francisca Samsing
- Sydney School of Veterinary ScienceThe University of SydneyCamdenAustralia
| | | | - Sarah Salisbury
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | | | | | | | - Dominic Kurian
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Mark D. Fast
- Atlantic Veterinary CollegeThe University of Prince Edward IslandCharlottetownPrince Edward IslandCanada
| | | | | | - James E. Bron
- Institute of AquacultureUniversity of StirlingStirlingScotlandUK
| | - Sean J. Monaghan
- Institute of AquacultureUniversity of StirlingStirlingScotlandUK
| | - Celeste Jacq
- Blue Analytics, Kong Christian Frederiks Plass 3BergenNorway
| | | | - Howard I. Browman
- Institute of Marine Research, Austevoll Research Station, Ecosystem Acoustics GroupTromsøNorway
| | - Anne Berit Skiftesvik
- Institute of Marine Research, Austevoll Research Station, Ecosystem Acoustics GroupTromsøNorway
| | | | - Erik Selander
- Department of Marine SciencesUniversity of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Samantha Bui
- Institute of Marine Research, Matre Research StationMatredalNorway
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Guan Z, Shi S, Diaby M, Danley P, Ullah N, Puzakov M, Gao B, Song C. Horizontal transfer of Buster transposons across multiple phyla and classes of animals. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2022; 173:107506. [PMID: 35595006 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic elements in the genome and broadly distributed across both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and play an important role in shaping the genome evolution of their hosts. hAT elements are thought to be the most widespread cut-and-paste DNA transposon found throughout the tree of life. Buster is a recently recognized family of hAT. However, the evolutionary profile of the Buster family, such as its taxonomic distribution, evolutionary pattern, and activities, remains largely unknown. We conducted a systematic analysis of the evolutionary landscape of the Buster family and found that most Buster transposons are 1.72-4.66 kilobases (kb) in length, encode 500-736-amino acid (aa) transposases and are flanked by short (10-18 bp) terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) and 8 bp target site duplications (TSDs). Buster family is widely distributed in 609 species, involving eight classes of invertebrates and most lineage of vertebrates (including mammals). Horizontal transfer events were detected across multiple phyla and classes of animals, which may have contributed to their wide distribution, and both parasites and invasive species may facilitate HT events of Buster in vertebrates. Our data also suggest that Buster transposons are young, highly active, and appear as intact copies in multiple lineages of animals. High percentages of intact copies (>30%) were identified in some Arthropoda, Actinopterygii, Agnatha, and reptile species, and some of these may be active. These data will help increase understanding of the evolution of the hAT superfamily and its impact on eukaryotic genome evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongxia Guan
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China
| | - Shasha Shi
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China
| | - Mohamed Diaby
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China
| | - Patrick Danley
- University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Numan Ullah
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China
| | - Mikhail Puzakov
- A.O. Kovalevsky Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas of RAS, Nakhimov av., 2, Sevastopol 299011, Russia
| | - Bo Gao
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China
| | - Chengyi Song
- College of Animal Science & Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China.
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Yahaya ZS, Azizah MNS, Alkazmi L, Ravi R, Awosolu OB. First Molecular Identification of Caligus clemensi on Cultured Crimson Snapper Lutjanus erythropterus on Jerejak Island, Penang, Peninsular Malaysia. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11020188. [PMID: 35215132 PMCID: PMC8879188 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Fish parasites such as Caligus clemensi are a serious concern for cultured fish in many regions of the world, including Malaysia. This study was designed to elucidate the parasites’ prevalence and intensity coupled with the morphology and molecular identification of C. clemensi on cultured Lutjanus erythropterus in Jerejak Island, Penang, Peninsular Malaysia. The study was carried out on 200 fish specimens of cultured L. erythropterus obtained from the GST group aquaculture farm. Parasites were collected from the infested part of L. erythropterus fish, and their prevalence and intensity were determined. The parasites were identified morphologically using a field emission scanning electron microscope. Molecular studies were performed through PCR amplification and sequencing. MEGA 5 was used to construct a phylogenetic tree using the pairwise distance method. The results showed that only the C. clemensi parasite was found prevalent on L. erythropterus fish with a prevalence and mean intensity (S.D) of 198 (99%) and 36.4 ± 12.2, respectively. The prevalence varied significantly with respect to fish length (p < 0.05). The nucleotide BLAST sequence for 18S ribosomal RNA partial sequences showed 97% with 100% query similarity, E-value 0 with C. clemensi with the accession number DQ123833.1. Conclusively, C. clemensi remains a major parasite of L. erythropterus in the study area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zary Shariman Yahaya
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (R.R.); (O.B.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +60143497174
| | - Mohd Nor Siti Azizah
- Institute of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu 21030, Malaysia;
| | - Luay Alkazmi
- Department of Biology, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21961, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Rajiv Ravi
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (R.R.); (O.B.A.)
| | - Oluwaseun Bunmi Awosolu
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (R.R.); (O.B.A.)
- Department of Biology, Federal University of Technology, Akure 704, Nigeria
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Taccardi EY, Bricknell IR, Byron CJ. Stable isotopes reveal contrasting trophic dynamics between host-parasite relationships: A case study of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and parasitic lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Argulus foliaceus). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2020; 97:1821-1832. [PMID: 32944965 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Across existing fish host-parasite literature, endoparasites were depleted in δ15 N compared to their hosts, while ectoparasitic values demonstrated enrichment, depletion and equivalence relative to their hosts. δ13 C enrichment varied extensively for both endo- and ectoparasites across taxa and host tissues. In our case study, sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) were enriched in δ15 N relative to their farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) hosts, although the value contradicted the average that is currently assumed across the animal kingdom. Common fish lice (Argulus foliaceus) did not show a consistent trend in δ15 N compared to their wild S. salar hosts. Both parasitic species had a range of δ13 C enrichment patterns relative to their hosts. Farmed and wild S. salar had contrasting δ13 C and δ15 N, and signals varied across muscle, fin and skin within both groups. L. salmonis and A. foliaceus subsequently had unique δ13 C and δ15 N, and L. salmonis from opposite US coasts differed in δ15 N. Given the range of enrichment patterns that were exhibited across the literature and in our study system, trophic dynamics from host to parasite do not conform to traditional prey to predator standards. Furthermore, there does not appear to be a universal enrichment pathway for δ13 C nor δ15 N in parasitic relationships, which emphasizes the need to investigate host-parasite linkages across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Y Taccardi
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
- Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
| | - Ian R Bricknell
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
- Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
| | - Carrie J Byron
- Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
- School of Marine Programs, University of New England, Biddeford, Maine, USA
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5
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Integrative taxonomy of Pseudolepeophtheirus longicauda (Crustacea: Copepoda: Caligidae) parasitic on Platichthys stellatus (Actinopterygii: Pleuronectidae). Parasitol Int 2020; 78:102135. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2020.102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Pietrak M, Jensen A, Barbin Zydlewski G, Bricknell I. The Three-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus 1758, plays a minor role as a host of Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer 1837) in the Gulf of Maine. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2019; 42:985-989. [PMID: 31044445 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The sea louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer 1837), is a significant parasite of farmed salmon throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Management of on-farm louse populations can be improved by understanding the role that wild fish play in sustaining and providing refuge for the local population of sea lice. In this study, 1,064 sticklebacks were captured. Of these animals, 176 individuals were carrying a total of 238 sea lice, yielding a prevalence and intensity of 16.5% and 1.4 lice per fish, respectively. Detailed examination of the sea lice on the three-spined sticklebacks captured in Cobscook Bay found two L. salmonis individuals using three-spined sticklebacks as hosts. A 2012 survey of wild fish in Cobscook Bay, Maine, found multiple wild hosts for Caligus elongatus (von Nordmann 1832), including three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.), but no L. salmonis were found in this earlier study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pietrak
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, Franklin, Maine
| | - Alexander Jensen
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
| | | | - Ian Bricknell
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
- USA Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Orono, Maine
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Barker SE, Bricknell IR, Covello J, Purcell S, Fast MD, Wolters W, Bouchard DA. Sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer 1837), infected Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) are more susceptible to infectious salmon anemia virus. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0209178. [PMID: 30650077 PMCID: PMC6334929 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of parasitic sea lice (Siphonostomatoida; Caligidae), especially Lepeophtheirus salmonis, in the epidemiology of Infectious Salmon Anemia Virus (ISAv) has long been suspected. The epidemiological studies conducted during the 1998 major Infectious Salmon Anaemia (ISA) outbreak in Scotland demonstrated a strong correlation between sea lice presence and ISAv positive sites or subsequent clinical outbreaks of ISA. The question posed from this observation was "do sea lice infestations on Atlantic salmon make them more susceptible to viral infections?" This study investigated the role that sea lice infestations have on the severity of ISAv infections and disease mortality in experimental populations of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). A series of experiments was carried out that investigated the potential of sea lice to modify the outcome of an ISAv infection. Experimental populations of Atlantic salmon were established that had: no lice and no ISAv, a single infection with either ISAv or lice and a co-infection with lice then ISAV. The results were quite clear, the process of infestation by the parasite prior to ISAv exposure significantly increased the mortality and death rates of Atlantic salmon, when compared to uninfected controls and ISAv infected groups only. This was consistent over two source strains of Atlantic salmon (Pennobscot and Saint John River), but the severity and timing was altered. Immunological responses were also consistent in that pro-inflammatory genes were induced in lice only and co-infected fish, whereas the anti-viral response, Mx, MH class I β, Galectin 9 and TRIM 16, 25 genes were down-regulated by lice infection prior to and shortly after co-infection with ISAv. It is concluded that the sea lice settlement on Atlantic salmon and the parasite's subsequent manipulation of the host's immune system, which increases parasite settlement success, also increased susceptibility to ISAv.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Barker
- Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Hitchner Hall, Orono, Maine, United States of America
| | - Ian R. Bricknell
- Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Hitchner Hall, Orono, Maine, United States of America
- School of Marine Sciences, The University of Maine, Hitchner Hall, Orono, Maine, United States of America
| | - Julia Covello
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - Sarah Purcell
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - Mark D. Fast
- Hoplite Lab, Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada
| | - William Wolters
- USDA ARS National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, Franklin, Maine, United States of America
| | - Deborah A. Bouchard
- Aquaculture Research Institute, University of Maine, Hitchner Hall, Orono, Maine, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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9
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Atkinson EM, Bateman AW, Dill LM, Krkošek M, Reynolds JD, Godwin SC. Oust the louse: leaping behaviour removes sea lice from wild juvenile sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2018; 93:263-271. [PMID: 29956312 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We conducted a manipulative field experiment to determine whether the leaping behaviour of wild juvenile sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka dislodges ectoparasitic sea lice Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis by comparing sea-lice abundances between O. nerka juveniles prevented from leaping and juveniles allowed to leap at a natural frequency. Juvenile O. nerka allowed to leap had consistently fewer sea lice after the experiment than fish that were prevented from leaping. Combined with past research, these results imply potential costs due to parasitism and indicate that the leaping behaviour of juvenile O. nerka does, in fact, dislodge sea lice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma M Atkinson
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Andrew W Bateman
- Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Salmon Coast Field Station, Simoom Sound, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Lawrence M Dill
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Martin Krkošek
- Salmon Coast Field Station, Simoom Sound, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - John D Reynolds
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sean C Godwin
- Earth to Ocean Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
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Messmer AM, Leong JS, Rondeau EB, Mueller A, Despins CA, Minkley DR, Kent MP, Lien S, Boyce B, Morrison D, Fast MD, Norman JD, Danzmann RG, Koop BF. A 200K SNP chip reveals a novel Pacific salmon louse genotype linked to differential efficacy of emamectin benzoate. Mar Genomics 2018; 40:45-57. [PMID: 29673959 DOI: 10.1016/j.margen.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Antiparasitic drugs such as emamectin benzoate (EMB) are relied upon to reduce the parasite load, particularly of the sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis, on farmed salmon. The decline in EMB treatment efficacy for this purpose is an important issue for salmon producers around the world, and particularly for those in the Atlantic Ocean where widespread EMB tolerance in sea lice is recognized as a significant problem. Salmon farms in the Northeast Pacific Ocean have not historically experienced the same issues with treatment efficacy, possibly due to the relatively large population of endemic salmonid hosts that serve to both redistribute surviving lice and dilute populations potentially under selection by introducing naïve lice to farms. Frequent migration of lice among farmed and wild hosts should limit the effect of farm-specific selection pressures on changes to the overall allele frequencies of sea lice in the Pacific Ocean. A previous study using microsatellites examined L. salmonis oncorhynchi from 10 Pacific locations from wild and farmed hosts and found no population structure. Recently however, a farm population of sea lice was detected where EMB bioassay exposure tolerance was abnormally elevated. In response, we have developed a Pacific louse draft genome that complements the previously-released Atlantic louse sequence. These genomes were combined with whole-genome re-sequencing data to design a highly sensitive 201,279 marker SNP array applicable for both subspecies (90,827 validated Pacific loci; 153,569 validated Atlantic loci). Notably, kmer spectrum analysis of the re-sequenced samples indicated that Pacific lice exhibit a large within-individual heterozygosity rate (average of 1 in every 72 bases) that is markedly higher than that of Atlantic individuals (1 in every 173 bases). The SNP chip was used to produce a high-density map for Atlantic sea louse linkage group 5 that was previously shown to be associated with EMB tolerance in Atlantic lice. Additionally, 478 Pacific louse samples from farmed and wild hosts obtained between 2005 and 2014 were also genotyped on the array. Clustering analysis allowed us to detect the apparent emergence of an otherwise rare genotype at a high frequency among the lice collected from two farms in 2013 that had reported elevated EMB tolerance. This genotype was not observed in louse samples collected from the same farm in 2010, nor in any lice sampled from other locations prior to 2013. However, this genotype was detected at low frequencies in louse samples from farms in two locations reporting elevated EMB tolerance in 2014. These results suggest that a rare genotype present in Pacific lice may be locally expanded in farms after EMB treatment. Supporting this hypothesis, 437 SNPs associated with this genotype were found to be in a region of linkage group 5 that overlaps the region associated with EMB resistance in Atlantic lice. Finally, five of the top diagnostic SNPs within this region were used to screen lice that had been subjected to an EMB survival assay, revealing a significant association between these SNPs and EMB treatment outcome. To our knowledge this work is the first report to identify a genetic link to altered EMB efficacy in L. salmonis in the Pacific Ocean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber M Messmer
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Jong S Leong
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Eric B Rondeau
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Anita Mueller
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Cody A Despins
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - David R Minkley
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada.
| | - Matthew P Kent
- Centre for Integrative Genetics (CIGENE), Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.
| | - Sigbjørn Lien
- Centre for Integrative Genetics (CIGENE), Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.
| | - Brad Boyce
- Marine Harvest Canada, Campbell River, BC, Canada.
| | | | - Mark D Fast
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PEI C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Joseph D Norman
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; Present address: The Hospital for Sick Children, 686 Bay St., Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada.
| | - Roy G Danzmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Ben F Koop
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria V8W 2Y2, BC, Canada; Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3N5, Canada.
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Association between sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infestation on Atlantic salmon farms and wild Pacific salmon in Muchalat Inlet, Canada. Sci Rep 2018; 8:4023. [PMID: 29507330 PMCID: PMC5838213 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22458-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth in salmon aquaculture over the past two decades has raised concerns regarding the potential impacts of the industry on neighboring ecosystems and wild fish productivity. Despite limited evidence, sea lice have been identified as a major cause for the decline in some wild Pacific salmon populations on the west coast of Canada. We used sea lice count and management data from farmed and wild salmon, collected over 10 years (2007–2016) in the Muchalat Inlet region of Canada, to evaluate the association between sea lice recorded on salmon farms with the infestation levels on wild out-migrating Chum salmon. Our analyses indicated a significant positive association between the sea lice abundance on farms and the likelihood that wild fish would be infested. However, increased abundance of lice on farms was not significantly associated with the levels of infestation observed on the wild salmon. Our results suggest that Atlantic salmon farms may be an important source for the introduction of sea lice to wild Pacific salmon populations, but that the absence of a dose response relationship indicates that any estimate of farm impact requires more careful evaluation of causal inference than is typically seen in the extant scientific literature.
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Kakui K. Descriptions of two new species of Rhizorhina Hansen, 1892 (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida: Nicothoidae) parasitic on tanaidacean crustaceans, with a note on their phylogenetic position. Syst Parasitol 2016; 93:57-68. [PMID: 26739287 DOI: 10.1007/s11230-015-9604-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Two new species of nicothoid copepod are described. Rhizorhina ohtsukai n. sp. found on a leptocheliid (Leptochelia sp.) collected at depths of 151-136 m in the North Pacific Ocean is most similar to Rhizorhina aesthetes Boxshall & Harrison, 1988 but can be distinguished by the possession of a narrower body with a rounded anterior end, and in the position of the gonopores. Rhizorhina soyoae n. sp. found on an apseudid (Fageapseudes sp.) collected at depths of 1,595-1,557 m in East China Sea most closely resembles Rhizorhina tanaidaceae Gotto, 1984 but differs in having a narrower body with a rounded anterior end. Partial nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene were obtained from the two copepods in order to enable future barcoding. A phylogenetic reconstruction based on the 18S rRNA gene placed the copepods within the Siphonostomatoida Burmeister, 1835, with the nicothoid Choniosphaera maenadis (Bloch & Gallien, 1933), and separate from the Rhizorhina spp. clade, suggesting that the family Nicothoidae Dana, 1849 is not monophyletic. This is the third report of copepods parasitic on tanaidacean crustaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichi Kakui
- Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0810, Japan.
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Elmoslemany A, Revie CW, Milligan B, Stewardson L, Vanderstichel R. Wild juvenile salmonids in Muchalat Inlet, British Columbia, Canada: factors associated with sea lice prevalence. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2015; 117:107-120. [PMID: 26648103 DOI: 10.3354/dao02939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The Muchalat Inlet, British Columbia, is among the most westerly points at which aquaculture is practiced in Canada. In this paper, we summarise data from over 18000 wild fish sampled at 16 sites over an 8 yr period, between 2004 and 2011. The most prevalent wild species was chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta (82.4%), followed by Chinook O. tshawytscha (10%) and coho O. kisutch (4.3%). However, inter-annual and seasonal variation was evident, and smaller numbers of other Pacific salmon and stickleback species were sporadically observed. A high percentage of wild salmon (~95%) had no sea lice parasites present, with less than 1% of the fish hosting a mobile-stage sea louse. Of the data for which sea lice species were recorded, just over 96% of samples were identified as Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Logistic regression models assessed the association between the presence of lice and a range of independent variables. These models indicated a significant degree of spatial variation, much of which could be explained in terms of salinity levels. There were also important variations through time, both over the season within a year and across years. In addition, coho salmon were significantly more likely (odds ratio = 1.65; 95% CI = 1.20-2.3) to be infected than chum salmon. The protective effect of low salinity was most clearly seen at values lower than 15 psu, although this was dependent on fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Elmoslemany
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island C1A 4P3, Canada
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Patanasatienkul T, Sanchez J, Rees EE, Pfeiffer D, Revie CW. Space-time cluster analysis of sea lice infestation (Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis) on wild juvenile Pacific salmon in the Broughton Archipelago of Canada. Prev Vet Med 2015; 120:219-231. [PMID: 25869117 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Sea lice infestation levels on wild chum and pink salmon in the Broughton Archipelago region are known to vary spatially and temporally; however, the locations of areas associated with a high infestation level had not been investigated yet. In the present study, the multivariate spatial scan statistic based on a Poisson model was used to assess spatial clustering of elevated sea lice (Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infestation levels on wild chum and pink salmon sampled between March and July of 2004 to 2012 in the Broughton Archipelago and Knight Inlet regions of British Columbia, Canada. Three covariates, seine type (beach and purse seining), fish size, and year effect, were used to provide adjustment within the analyses. The analyses were carried out across the five months/datasets and between two fish species to assess the consistency of the identified clusters. Sea lice stages were explored separately for the early life stages (non-motile) and the late life stages of sea lice (motile). Spatial patterns in fish migration were also explored using monthly plots showing the average number of each fish species captured per sampling site. The results revealed three clusters for non-motile C. clemensi, two clusters for non-motile L. salmonis, and one cluster for the motile stage in each of the sea lice species. In general, the location and timing of clusters detected for both fish species were similar. Early in the season, the clusters of elevated sea lice infestation levels on wild fish are detected in areas closer to the rivers, with decreasing relative risks as the season progresses. Clusters were detected further from the estuaries later in the season, accompanied by increasing relative risks. In addition, the plots for fish migration exhibit similar patterns for both fish species in that, as expected, the juveniles move from the rivers toward the open ocean as the season progresses The identification of space-time clustering of infestation on wild fish from this study can help in targeting investigations of factors associated with these infestations and thereby support the development of more effective sea lice control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thitiwan Patanasatienkul
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3.
| | - Javier Sanchez
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Erin E Rees
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3
| | - Dirk Pfeiffer
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics & Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Crawford W Revie
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PE, Canada C1A 4P3
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Blaylock RB, Bullard SA. Counter-Insurgents of the Blue Revolution? Parasites and Diseases Affecting Aquaculture and Science. J Parasitol 2014; 100:743-55. [DOI: 10.1645/14-605.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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16
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Eaves AA, Ang KP, Murray HM. Occurrence of the parasitic copepod Ergasilus labracis on Threespine Sticklebacks from the south coast of Newfoundland. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2014; 26:233-242. [PMID: 25321153 DOI: 10.1080/08997659.2014.938871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A study conducted from August to October 2013 surveyed Threespine Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus (n = 822) for the presence of parasitic copepods in the vicinity of large sea-cage salmonid farms in Bay d'Espoir, Newfoundland. The majority of parasitic copepods surveyed were Ergasilus labracis (n = 4,684). Other parasitic copepods observed on Threespine Sticklebacks during the survey included chalimus-stage Lepeophtheirus spp. (n = 3), adult Argulus alosae (n = 2), and a single Thersitina gasterostei. This represents a new host record for E. labracis. The copepods were present on fish collected in a broad range of temperatures (6.9-17.7°C) and salinities (10.2-30.2 [Practical Salinity Scale]). The parasitic copepods were most commonly found on larger hosts estimated to be age 1 or older. Surprisingly, the highest infestations (approximately 65%) were found on regions of the hosts outside of the gills (behind the pectoral fins and pelvic spines); in some cases, the copepods had inflicted significant damage to the skin of their hosts. Among host fish with evidence of an additional infection, such as microsporidian tumors (xenomas) or hemorrhagic-like symptoms (dark red abdomens and bloody mucus), the prevalence of E. labracis was significantly higher (43.4%) than among healthy fish (28.9%) despite there being no significant difference in size between the two fish health groups. In contrast, intensity (mean number of individual parasites per host) was significantly higher among healthy hosts (23.6) than among unhealthy ones (7.63). Although this parasite has been listed as present in Newfoundland previously, it has a broad host range and has been reported to be pathogenic to farmed salmonids. Therefore, its potential impact on wild and farmed fish populations around Newfoundland should not be underestimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra A Eaves
- a Stantec Consulting, Ltd. , 141 Kelsey Drive, St. John's , Newfoundland A1B 0L2 , Canada
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17
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Zolfaghari Emameh R, Barker H, Hytönen VP, Tolvanen MEE, Parkkila S. Beta carbonic anhydrases: novel targets for pesticides and anti-parasitic agents in agriculture and livestock husbandry. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:403. [PMID: 25174433 PMCID: PMC4162934 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The genomes of many insect and parasite species contain beta carbonic anhydrase (β-CA) protein coding sequences. The lack of β-CA proteins in mammals makes them interesting target proteins for inhibition in treatment of some infectious diseases and pests. Many insects and parasites represent important pests for agriculture and cause enormous economic damage worldwide. Meanwhile, pollution of the environment by old pesticides, emergence of strains resistant to them, and their off-target effects are major challenges for agriculture and society. METHODS In this study, we analyzed a multiple sequence alignment of 31 β-CAs from insects, some parasites, and selected plant species relevant to agriculture and livestock husbandry. Using bioinformatics tools a phylogenetic tree was generated and the subcellular localizations and antigenic sites of each protein were predicted. Structural models for β-CAs of Ancylostoma caninum, Ascaris suum, Trichinella spiralis, and Entamoeba histolytica, were built using Pisum sativum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis β-CAs as templates. RESULTS Six β-CAs of insects and parasites and six β-CAs of plants are predicted to be mitochondrial and chloroplastic, respectively, and thus may be involved in important metabolic functions. All 31 sequences showed the presence of the highly conserved β-CA active site sequence motifs, CXDXR and HXXC (C: cysteine, D: aspartic acid, R: arginine, H: histidine, X: any residue). We discovered that these two motifs are more antigenic than others. Homology models suggested that these motifs are mostly buried and thus not well accessible for recognition by antibodies. CONCLUSIONS The predicted mitochondrial localization of several β-CAs and hidden antigenic epitopes within the protein molecule, suggest that they may not be considered major targets for vaccines. Instead, they are promising candidate enzymes for small-molecule inhibitors which can easily penetrate the cell membrane. Based on current knowledge, we conclude that β-CAs are potential targets for development of small molecule pesticides or anti-parasitic agents with minimal side effects on vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Zolfaghari Emameh
- />School of Medicine, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />Fimlab Laboratories Ltd and Tampere University Hospital, Biokatu 4, 33520 Tampere, Finland
| | - Harlan Barker
- />School of Medicine, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
| | - Vesa P Hytönen
- />BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />Fimlab Laboratories Ltd and Tampere University Hospital, Biokatu 4, 33520 Tampere, Finland
| | - Martti E E Tolvanen
- />BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />Department of Information Technology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Seppo Parkkila
- />School of Medicine, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />BioMediTech, University of Tampere, 33520 Tampere, Finland
- />Fimlab Laboratories Ltd and Tampere University Hospital, Biokatu 4, 33520 Tampere, Finland
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Fast MD. Fish immune responses to parasitic copepod (namely sea lice) infection. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 43:300-312. [PMID: 24001580 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 08/22/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Parasitic copepods, in particular sea lice, have considerable impacts upon global freshwater and marine fisheries, with major economic consequences recognized primarily in aquaculture. Sea lice have been a contentious issue with regards to interactions between farmed and wild populations of fish, in particular salmonids, and their potential for detrimental effects at a population level. The following discussion will pertain to aquatic parasitic copepod species for which we have significant information on the host-parasite interaction and host response to infection (Orders Cyclopoida, Poecilostomatoida and Siphonostomatoida). This review evaluates prior research in terms of contributions to understanding parasite stage specific responses by the host, and in many cases draws upon model organisms like Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Atlantic salmon to convey important concepts in fish responses to parasitic copepod infection. The article discusses TH1 and TH2-like host responses in light of parasite immunomodulation of the host, current methods of immunological stimulation and where the current and future work in this field is heading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Fast
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College - University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada.
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Skern-Mauritzen R, Torrissen O, Glover KA. Pacific and Atlantic Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer, 1838) are allopatric subspecies: Lepeophtheirus salmonis salmonis and L. salmonis oncorhynchi subspecies novo. BMC Genet 2014; 15:32. [PMID: 24628716 PMCID: PMC4007600 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2156-15-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is a parasitic copepod that infects salmonids in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Although considered as a single species, morphological and biological differences have been reported between lice from the two oceans. Likewise, studies based on nucleotide sequencing have demonstrated that sequence differences between Atlantic and Pacific L. salmonis are highly significant, albeit smaller than the divergence observed between congeneric copepod species. Results We demonstrated reproductive compatibility between L. salmonis from the two oceans and successfully established F2 hybrid strains using separate maternal lines from both the Pacific and Atlantic. The infection success for the F2 hybrid strains were similar to results typically observed for non hybrid lice strains in the rearing facility used. Lepeophtheirus salmonis COI and 16S sequences divergence between individuals from the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans was high compared to what may be expected within a copepod species and phylogenetic analysis showed that they consistently formed monophyletic clades representing their origin from the Pacific or Atlantic oceans. Conclusions Lepeophtheirus salmonis from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans are reproductively compatible at least until adults at the F2 hybrid stage, and should not be regarded as separate species based on reproductive segregation or sequence divergence levels. Reported biological and genetic differences in L. salmonis seen in conjunction with the reported genetic diversity commonly observed between and within species demonstrate that Atlantic and Pacific L. salmonis should be regarded as two subspecies: Lepeophtheirus salmonis salmonis and L. salmonis oncorhynchi subsp. nov.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kevin Alan Glover
- Institute of Marine Research, P,O, Box 1870, Nordnes, 5817, Bergen, Norway.
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Peacock SJ, Krkosek M, Proboszcz S, Orr C, Lewis MA. Cessation of a salmon decline with control of parasites. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2013; 23:606-620. [PMID: 23734489 DOI: 10.1890/12-0519.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The resilience of coastal social-ecological systems may depend on adaptive responses to aquaculture disease outbreaks that can threaten wild and farm fish. A nine-year study of parasitic sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) and pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) from Pacific Canada indicates that adaptive changes in parasite management on salmon farms have yielded positive conservation outcomes. After four years of sea lice epizootics and wild salmon population decline, parasiticide application on salmon farms was adapted to the timing of wild salmon migrations. Winter treatment of farm fish with parasiticides, prior to the out-migration of wild juvenile salmon, has reduced epizootics of wild salmon without significantly increasing the annual number of treatments. Levels of parasites on wild juvenile salmon significantly influence the growth rate of affected salmon populations, suggesting that these changes in management have had positive outcomes for wild salmon populations. These adaptive changes have not occurred through formal adaptive management, but rather, through multi-stakeholder processes arising from a contentious scientific and public debate. Despite the apparent success of parasite control on salmon farms in the study region, there remain concerns about the long-term sustainability of this approach because of the unknown ecological effects of parasticides and the potential for parasite resistance to chemical treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie J Peacock
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G1 Canada.
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Braden LM, Barker DE, Koop BF, Jones SR. Comparative defense-associated responses in salmon skin elicited by the ectoparasite Lepeophtheirus salmonis. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2012; 7:100-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Revised: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 12/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Yasuike M, Leong J, Jantzen SG, von Schalburg KR, Nilsen F, Jones SRM, Koop BF. Genomic resources for sea lice: analysis of ESTs and mitochondrial genomes. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2012; 14:155-166. [PMID: 21748342 PMCID: PMC3280385 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-011-9398-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 06/22/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Sea lice are common parasites of both farmed and wild salmon. Salmon farming constitutes an important economic market in North America, South America, and Northern Europe. Infections with sea lice can result in significant production losses. A compilation of genomic information on different genera of sea lice is an important resource for understanding their biology as well as for the study of population genetics and control strategies. We report on over 150,000 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from five different species (Pacific Lepeophtheirus salmonis (49,672 new ESTs in addition to 14,994 previously reported ESTs), Atlantic L. salmonis (57,349 ESTs), Caligus clemensi (14,821 ESTs), Caligus rogercresseyi (32,135 ESTs), and Lernaeocera branchialis (16,441 ESTs)). For each species, ESTs were assembled into complete or partial genes and annotated by comparisons to known proteins in public databases. In addition, whole mitochondrial (mt) genome sequences of C. clemensi (13,440 bp) and C. rogercresseyi (13,468 bp) were determined and compared to L. salmonis. Both nuclear and mtDNA genes show very high levels of sequence divergence between these ectoparastic copepods suggesting that the different species of sea lice have been in existence for 37-113 million years and that parasitic association with salmonids is also quite ancient. Our ESTs and mtDNA data provide a novel resource for the study of sea louse biology, population genetics, and control strategies. This genomic information provides the material basis for the development of a 38K sea louse microarray that can be used in conjunction with our existing 44K salmon microarray to study host-parasite interactions at the molecular level. This report represents the largest genomic resource for any copepod species to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoshige Yasuike
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3020 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3N5 Canada
- Present Address: Aquatic Genomics Research Center, National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries Research Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648 Japan
| | - Jong Leong
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3020 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3N5 Canada
| | - Stuart G. Jantzen
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3020 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3N5 Canada
| | | | - Frank Nilsen
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Simon R. M. Jones
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7 Canada
| | - Ben F. Koop
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, PO Box 3020 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 3N5 Canada
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Bocking S. Science, salmon, and sea lice: constructing practice and place in an environmental controversy. JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF BIOLOGY 2012; 45:681-716. [PMID: 21847601 DOI: 10.1007/s10739-011-9299-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Over the last three decades salmon aquaculture has become both a significant coastal industry and a focus of controversy regarding its environmental impacts. Both circumstances have also provoked a great deal of environmental research. This article examines one episode in the history of this research. The Broughton Archipelago is a region of islands and channels on the Pacific coast of Canada, densely populated with salmon farms. Beginning in 2001 this region attracted researchers from several institutions, who examined the ecology of the farms, and particularly the possibility that they release large numbers of parasites (known as sea lice), which then infect wild salmon. This local research community drew on aspects of the regional environment, including its ecological conditions, and opportunities for surveys, field experiments, and ecological modeling, to construct methods that were both situated in this place, yet intended to be persuasive to audiences outside the region. Knowledge of this environment was also influenced by knowledge from elsewhere, including the results of European research on sea lice, and various disciplinary perspectives. Research results were invoked to support opposing views of the impacts of salmon farms, as well as contrasting perspectives on the region's identity. Sea lice themselves, within the context of the ecosystem that gave them meaning, were objectified as the ecological link between salmon farms and the environment, and the basis for research and debate over these farms. This historical episode therefore demonstrates the inseparability of scientific practice, knowledge and place, particularly in the context of controversy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Bocking
- Environmental and Resource Studies Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9J 7B8, Canada,
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Morales-Serna FN, Rubio-Godoy M, Gómez S. Seasonality of Parasitic Copepods on Bullseye Puffer, Sphoeroides annulatus (Pisces: Tetraodontidae), From the Northwestern Coast of Mexico. J Parasitol 2011; 97:565-73. [DOI: 10.1645/ge-2638.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Jones SRM, Prosperi-Porta G. The diversity of sea lice (Copepoda: Caligidae) parasitic on threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) in coastal British Columbia. J Parasitol 2011; 97:399-405. [PMID: 21506860 DOI: 10.1645/ge-2617.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence, intensity, and abundance of sea lice belonging to Lepeophtheirus or Caligus clemensi are reported from threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) collected from the Broughton Archipelago region of coastal British Columbia, Canada, between 2005 and 2008. In total, 25,130 sea lice were collected from 7,684 sticklebacks. The prevalence of Lepeophtheirus ranged from 51% in 2005 to 11% in 2008 and that of C. clemensi from 56% in 2007 to 24% in 2008. Chalimus stages accounted for approximately 69% of all Lepeophtheirus and 88% of Caligus specimens. Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene sequences, useful in distinguishing reference specimens belonging to 8 species of Lepeophtheirus, Caligus, and Bomolochus, were used to identify the Lepeophtheirus specimens from stickleback as L. salmonis (71%) and L. cuneifer (29%). A COI phylogenetic analysis confirmed a monophylogenetic origin of Lepeophtheirus but not of Caligus. Two genotypes were resolved in L. cuneifer, i.e., genotype A occurred twice as often as genotype B. Virtually all immature Lepeophtheirus specimens from juvenile salmon were L. salmonis. The results emphasized the need to accurately identify immature sea lice as a prerequisite to understanding sea lice ecology. The threespine stickleback may be a useful sentinel species for the abundance and diversity of the sea lice that are also parasites of wild and farmed salmon in coastal ecosystems in British Columbia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon R M Jones
- Fisheries & Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada.
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Connors BM, Hargreaves NB, Jones SRM, Dill LM. Predation intensifies parasite exposure in a salmonid food chain. J Appl Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01887.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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27
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Losos CJC, Reynolds JD, Dill LM. Sex-selective Predation by Threespine Sticklebacks on Sea Lice: A Novel Cleaning Behaviour. Ethology 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01814.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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28
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Nowak BF, Bryan J, Jones SRM. Do salmon lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, have a role in the epidemiology of amoebic gill disease caused by Neoparamoeba perurans? JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2010; 33:683-687. [PMID: 20412358 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2010.01158.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B F Nowak
- National Centre for Marine Conservation and Resource Sustainability, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
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Costello MJ. How sea lice from salmon farms may cause wild salmonid declines in Europe and North America and be a threat to fishes elsewhere. Proc Biol Sci 2009; 276:3385-94. [PMID: 19586950 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.0771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fishes farmed in sea pens may become infested by parasites from wild fishes and in turn become point sources for parasites. Sea lice, copepods of the family Caligidae, are the best-studied example of this risk. Sea lice are the most significant parasitic pathogen in salmon farming in Europe and the Americas, are estimated to cost the world industry euro300 million a year and may also be pathogenic to wild fishes under natural conditions. Epizootics, characteristically dominated by juvenile (copepodite and chalimus) stages, have repeatedly occurred on juvenile wild salmonids in areas where farms have sea lice infestations, but have not been recorded elsewhere. This paper synthesizes the literature, including modelling studies, to provide an understanding of how one species, the salmon louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, can infest wild salmonids from farm sources. Three-dimensional hydrographic models predicted the distribution of the planktonic salmon lice larvae best when they accounted for wind-driven surface currents and larval behaviour. Caligus species can also cause problems on farms and transfer from farms to wild fishes, and this genus is cosmopolitan. Sea lice thus threaten finfish farming worldwide, but with the possible exception of L. salmonis, their host relationships and transmission adaptations are unknown. The increasing evidence that lice from farms can be a significant cause of mortality on nearby wild fish populations provides an additional challenge to controlling lice on the farms and also raises conservation, economic and political issues about how to balance aquaculture and fisheries resource management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Costello
- Leigh Marine Laboratory, University of Auckland, PO Box 347, Warkworth, New Zealand.
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Abstract
While intensive aquaculture has and will continue to supply the ever growing population with highly nutritious protein, it also comes with problems which include more frequent outbreaks of diseases in fish farms and transmission of diseases between farmed and wild fish. We have selected four Phyla of economically important fish parasites for our present discussion-a haemoflagellate (Cryptobia salmositica), a microsporidian, (Loma salmonae), a monogenean (Gyrodactylus salaries) and two copepods (Lepeophtheirus salmonis, Caligus rogercresseyi). This review consists of two parts with a brief description of each parasite and its biology related to transmission, followed by discussions on epizootic outbreaks in both wild and farmed fish, interactions between wild and farmed fish, and disease prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Guo
- Novartis Animal Health Canada Inc., Aqua Heath Business, Victoria, PE, C0A 2G0, Canada.
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Gottesfeld AS, Proctor B, Rolston LD, Carr-Harris C. Sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, transfer between wild sympatric adult and juvenile salmon on the north coast of British Columbia, Canada. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2009; 32:45-57. [PMID: 19245630 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2008.01003.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We examine sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, on juvenile and adult salmon from the north coast of British Columbia between 2004 and 2006 in an area that does not at present contain salmon farms. There is a pronounced zonation in the abundance of L. salmonis on juvenile pink salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, in the Skeena and Nass estuaries. Abundances in the proximal and distal zones of these estuaries are 0.01 and 0.05 respectively. The outer zones serve as feeding and staging areas for the pink salmon smolts. Returning Chinook, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, and coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, concentrate in these areas. We collected data in 2006 to examine whether L. salmonis on returning adult salmon are an important source of the sea lice that appear on juvenile pink salmon. Nearly all (99%) of the sea lice on returning Chinook and over 80% on coho salmon were L. salmonis. Most of the L. salmonis were motile stages including many ovigerous females. There was a sharp increase in the abundance of sea lice on juvenile pink salmon smolts between May and July 2006 near the sites of adult captures. As there are no salmon farms on the north coast, few sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, and very few resident salmonids until later in the summer, it seems that the most important reservoir of L. salmonis under natural conditions is returning adult salmon. This natural source of sea lice results in levels of abundance that are one or two orders of magnitude lower than those observed on juvenile pink salmon in areas with salmon farms such as the Broughton Archipelago.
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Brooks KM. Considerations in developing an integrated pest management programme for control of sea lice on farmed salmon in Pacific Canada. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2009; 32:59-73. [PMID: 19245631 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2008.01013.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In the development of integrated pest management (IPM) plans for the control of sea lice there are some components that are common to many areas. However, effective plans must be tailored to regionally varying environmental and biological factors affecting the severity of sea lice infections. This paper describes factors that would be involved in the development of an IPM plan for sea lice in the Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia. Temperature, salinity and currents affect the production, dispersion and competence of larvae of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer), as they develop to the infective copepodid stage. This information can be coupled with oceanographic conditions in the Broughton Archipelago and emerging computer models to define zones of infection where infections of new hosts are most likely. Salinity and temperature depend, in part, on river discharge in estuarine systems. River discharge depends on precipitation, snow pack and ambient temperatures, which can be monitored to help forecast the intensity of sea lice infections associated with both farmed and wild hosts. One of the goals of IPM planning is to reduce reliance on pesticides to avoid development of resistance in targeted parasites and to minimize environmental residues. Recommendations for developing an IPM plan specific to the Broughton Archipelago are provided along with a discussion of the additional information needed to refine IPM plans in this and other areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Brooks
- Aquatic Environmental Sciences, Port Townsend, Washington 98368, USA.
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BROOKS KENNETHM, JONES SIMONRM. Perspectives on Pink Salmon and Sea Lice: Scientific Evidence Fails to Support the Extinction Hypothesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/10641260801937131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Lees F, Gettinby G, Revie CW. Changes in epidemiological patterns of sea lice infestation on farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in Scotland between 1996 and 2006. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2008; 31:259-268. [PMID: 18353017 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2007.00897.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Analyses of a unique database containing sea lice records over an 11 year period provide evidence of changing infestation patterns in Scotland. The data, collected from more than 50 commercial Atlantic salmon farms, indicate that both species of sea lice commonly found in Scotland, Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus elongatus, have declined on farms over the past decade. Reductions for both species have been particularly marked since 2001 when more effective veterinary medicines became available. Treatment data were also available in the database and these show a growing trend towards the use of the in-feed medication emamectin benzoate (Slice), particularly in the first year of the salmon production cycle. However, this trend towards single product use has not been sustained in 2006, the latest year for which data are available. There is some evidence of region to region variation within Scotland with the Western Isles experiencing higher levels of infestation. However, compared to the levels observed between 1996 and 2000, all regions have benefited from reduced lice infestation, with the overall pattern showing a particular reduction in the second and third quarters of the second year of production.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Lees
- Department of Statistics and Modelling Science, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Krkosek M, Gottesfeld A, Proctor B, Rolston D, Carr-Harris C, Lewis MA. Effects of host migration, diversity and aquaculture on sea lice threats to Pacific salmon populations. Proc Biol Sci 2008; 274:3141-9. [PMID: 17939989 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2007.1122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal migrations can affect disease dynamics. One consequence of migration common to marine fish and invertebrates is migratory allopatry-a period of spatial separation between adult and juvenile hosts, which is caused by host migration and which prevents parasite transmission from adult to juvenile hosts. We studied this characteristic for sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus clemensi) and pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) from one of the Canada's largest salmon stocks. Migratory allopatry protects juvenile salmon from L. salmonis for two to three months of early marine life (2-3% prevalence). In contrast, host diversity facilitates access for C. clemensi to juvenile salmon (8-20% prevalence) but infections appear ephemeral. Aquaculture can augment host abundance and diversity and increase parasite exposure of wild juvenile fish. An empirically parametrized model shows high sensitivity of salmon populations to increased L. salmonis exposure, predicting population collapse at one to five motile L. salmonis per juvenile pink salmon. These results characterize parasite threats of salmon aquaculture to wild salmon populations and show how host migration and diversity are important factors affecting parasite transmission in the oceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Krkosek
- Centre for Mathematical Biology, Department of Mathematical, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G1.
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Jones SRM, Hargreaves NB. THE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEPEOPHTHEIRUS SALMONIS(COPEPODA: CALIGIDAE) ON PINK (ONCORHYNCHUS GORBUSCHA) ANDCHUM (O. KETA) SALMON IN COASTAL BRITISH COLUMBIA. J Parasitol 2007; 93:1324-31. [DOI: 10.1645/ge-1252.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Saksida S, Karreman GA, Constantine J, Donald A. Differences in Lepeophtheirus salmonis abundance levels on Atlantic salmon farms in the Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia, Canada. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2007; 30:357-66. [PMID: 17498179 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2007.00814.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Sea lice data collected from Atlantic salmon farms in the Broughton Archipelago between 2003 and 2005 were examined for inter-regional differences in mobile Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer) abundance using the generalized linear model procedure. Factors such as age of the salmon populations, location of farms and time of year had a significant effect on the abundance of the mobile stages of L. salmonis whereas water temperature and salinity did not. Separate evaluation of SLICE treatment data found no significant difference in treatment frequency among the areas but did show that there were significantly lower numbers of farm treatments during the summer months when compared with other seasons. The role of environment and wild fish in influencing sea lice abundance on the farmed salmon is discussed. The findings suggest that effective management programmes for sea lice should not only be based on geographical location but should take into account other factors which could influence lice abundance levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Saksida
- British Columbia Centre for Aquatic Health Sciences, Campbell River, BC, Canada.
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Jones S, Kim E, Dawe S. Experimental infections with Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer) on threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus L., and juvenile Pacific salmon, Oncorhynchus spp. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2006; 29:489-95. [PMID: 16911536 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2006.00742.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Experimental infections with Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer) were established on threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus L., juvenile pink, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum), and chum, Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum), salmon. The prevalence and abundance of infections were initially higher on sticklebacks than on either salmon species. The initial prevalence and intensity of infections on chum salmon were higher than those on pink salmon, and declined on both species during louse development. The rate of parasite development to adult stages was similar on all species although development beyond the preadult stage was not observed on sticklebacks. These results confirm previous field observations on the occurrence and development of L. salmonis on threespine sticklebacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Jones
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, BC, Canada.
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