Andrographolide ameliorates OVA-induced lung injury in mice by suppressing ROS-mediated NF-κB signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Potential efficacy and safety of Xiyanping injection as adjuvant therapy in treatment of suppurative acute tonsillitis: a meta-analysis, trial sequential analysis, and certainty of evidence

Background: Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a global concern. Xiyanping injection (XYP), a traditional Chinese medicine injection, has been extensively utilized for the treatment of suppurative acute tonsillitis (SAT) in China, exhibiting clinical efficacy. Consequently, there is a need for further evaluation of the potential effectiveness and safety of this treatment. This meta-analysis consolidated data from multiple independent studies to assess the overall treatment efficacy of XYP as adjuvant therapy in patients with SAT. Methods: The search for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) encompassed databases from their inception to 1 April 2024, including the Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, SinoMed, CNKI, Wanfang, VIP, and CBM. Data extraction, methodological quality assessment, and meta-analysis were performed independently by two researchers. Review Manager 5.4 was used for data analysis. Various tools were employed for assessment, including forest plots to visualize results, funnel plots to detect publication bias, trial sequential analysis to estimate sample size, and GRADE to evaluate evidence quality. Results: A comprehensive analysis of 32 RCTs involving 4,265 cases was conducted. When compared to conventional treatments (CTs; β-lactams/clindamycin hydrochloride injection/ribavirin) alone, the combination of XYP with CTs demonstrated significant reductions in symptom duration. This included sore throat (MD = -21.08, 95% CI: -24.86 to -17.29, p < 0.00001), disappearance of tonsillar redness and swelling (mean difference [MD] = -20.28, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -30.05 to -10.52, p < 0.0001), tonsil purulent discharge (MD = -22.40, 95% CI: -28.04 to -16.75, p < 0.00001), and normalization of temperature (MD = -19.48, 95% CI: -22.49 to -16.47, p < 0.00001). Furthermore, patients receiving CTs combined with XYP exhibited lower levels of interleukin-6 (MD = -7.64, 95% CI: 8.41 to -6.87, p < 0.00001) and interleukin-8 (MD = -5.23, 95% CI: -5.60 to -4.86, p < 0.00001) than those receiving CTs alone. Additionally, the combination therapy significantly improved the recovery rate (relative risk [RR] = 1.55, 95% CI: 1.37 to 1.77, p < 0.00001), white blood cell count recovery rate (RR = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.04 to 1.23, p = 0.004), and disappearance rate of tonsillar redness and swelling (RR = 0.51, 95% CI: 1.14 to 1.38, p < 0.00001), with no significant increase in adverse events (RR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.20 to 1.10, p = 0.08). Conclusion: The current systematic review and meta-analysis tentatively suggest that the combination of XYP and CTs yields superior clinical outcomes for patients with SAT compared to CTs alone, with a favorable safety profile. Nonetheless, these findings warrant further confirmation through more rigorous RCTs, given the notable heterogeneity and publication bias observed in the included studies. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=296118, identifier CRD42022296118.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation as a novel mechanism of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs)-induced pulmonary inflammation in chickens

Microplastics (MPs) have attracted growing attention worldwide as an increasingly prevalent environmental pollutant. In addition, chicken meat is currently the most widely consumed kind of poultry in the global market. Consumer demand for chicken is on the rise both at home and abroad. As a result, the safety of chicken raising has also received significant attention. The lungs play an essential role in the physiological activities of chickens, and they are also the most vulnerable organs. Lung injury is difficult to repair after the accumulation of contaminants, and the mortality rate is high, which brings huge economic losses to farmers. The research on the toxicity of MPs has mainly focused on the marine ecosystem, while the mechanisms of toxicity and lung damage in chickens have been poorly studied. Thus, this study explored the effects of exposure to polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) at various concentrations for 42 d on chicken lungs. PS-MPs could cause lung pathologies and ultrastructural abnormalities, such as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) swelling, inflammatory cell infiltration, chromatin agglutination, and plasma membrane rupture. Simultaneously, PS-MPs increased the expression of genes related to the heat shock protein family (Hsp60, Hsp70, and Hsp90), ER stress signaling (activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6), ATF4, protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase (PERK), and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 subunit α (eIF2α)), pyroptosis-related genes (NOD-‍, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), cysteinyl aspartate-specific proteinase 1 (Caspase1), and gasdermin-D (GSDMD)), and the inflammatory signaling pathway (nuclear factor-‍κB (NF-‍κB), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)). The above results showed that PS-MP exposure could result in lung stress, ER stress, pyroptosis, and inflammation in broilers. Our findings provide new scientific clues for further research on the mechanisms of physical health and toxicology regarding MPs.

An Andrographis paniculata Burm. Nees extract standardized for three main Andrographolides prevents house dust mite-induced airway inflammation, remodeling, and hyperreactivity by regulating Th1/Th2 gene expression in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Andrographis paniculata Burm. Nees (AP) is an herb used traditionally in Indian and Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of various inflammatory and respiratory tract diseases. However, the anti-inflammatory potential of standardized Andrographis paniculata 50% ethanol extract (APEE50) in the murine model of asthma has not been investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to evaluate the protective anti-inflammatory potential and better understand the underlying mechanism of action of APEE50 in a clinically-relevant mouse asthma model. Thereafter, develop the ethanolic extract of AP as a supplement for asthma prophylaxis.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

APEE50 was prepared and standardized for AGP, NAG, and DDAG using a high-performance liquid chromatography system. Asthma was induced according to a 14-day house dust mite (HDM) induction protocol. The prophylactic potential of APEE50 (50 mg/kg - 200 mg/kg) was determined by assessing cardinal asthma features, which included BALF leukocyte and differential cell count, BALF cytokine assay, histology, gene expression, and airway hyperreactivity study.

RESULTS

APEE50 significantly inhibited HDM-induced airway eosinophilia and neutrophilia. In addition to decreased levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and eotaxin in bronchoalveolar fluid, APEE50 abrogated HDM-induced airway mucus over-secretion and airway hyper-responsiveness. Administration of APEE50 downregulated HDM-induced upregulation of the oxidative stress enzyme Duox1 (dual oxidase 1) and marginally induced Nfe2l2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) gene expressions. Similarly, Th2-related (Serpinb2, Clca3a1, Il4 and Il13) and Muc5ac gene expression were significantly downregulated.

CONCLUSION

Prophylactic administration of APEE50 prevented the progression of HDM-induced asthmatic responses by down-regulating Th2 cytokine gene expression and oxidative stress level.

Anti-gout and Urate-lowering Potentials of Curcumin: A Review from Bench to Beside

BACKGROUND

Gouty arthritis is a complex form of inflammatory arthritis, triggered by the sedimentation of monosodium urate crystals in periarticular tissues, synovial joints, and other sites in the body. Curcumin is a natural polyphenol compound, isolated from the rhizome of the plant Curcuma longa, possessing countless physiological features, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-rheumatic qualities.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to discuss the beneficial impacts of curcumin and its mechanism in treating gout disease.

METHODS

Ten English and Persian databases were used to conduct a thorough literature search. Studies examining the anti-gouty arthritis effects of curcumin and meeting the inclusion criteria were included.

RESULTS

According to the studies, curcumin has shown xanthine oxidase and urate transporter- 1 inhibitory properties, uric acid inhibitory characteristics, and antioxidant and anti- inflammatory effects. However, some articles found no prominent reduction in uric acid levels.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we emphasized the potency of curcumin and its compounds against gouty arthritis. Despite the potency, we suggest an additional well-designed evaluation of curcumin, before its therapeutic effectiveness is completely approved as an antigouty arthritis agent.

Acacetin protects against sepsis-induced acute lung injury by facilitating M2 macrophage polarization via TRAF6/NF-κB/COX2 axis

Acute lung injury (ALI) is the leading cause of death in patients with sepsis syndrome and without effective protective or therapeutic treatments. Acacetin, a natural dietary flavonoid, reportedly exerts several biological effects, such as anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative effects. However, acacetin's effect and underlying mechanism on sepsis-induced ALI remain unclear. Here, the mouse model was established to explore the impact of acacetin on sepsis-induced ALI. Acacetin significantly increased ALI murine survival and attenuated lung injury in histological examinations. Additionally, acacetin down-regulated myeloperoxidase activity, protein concentration, and number of neutrophils and macrophages in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Subsequently, inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, were examined. Results showed that acacetin dramatically suppressed the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. These above results indicated that acacetin attenuated sepsis-induced ALI by inhibiting the inflammatory response. Moreover, acacetin inhibited the expression of markers for M1-type (iNOS, CD86) macrophages and promoted the expression of markers for M2-type (CD206, Arg1) macrophages by western blot. In addition, acacetin down-regulated the expression TRAF6, NF-κB, and Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) by western blot. The high concentration of acacetin had a better effect than the low concentration. Besides, over-expression of TRAF6 up-regulated the expression of COX2, CD86, and iNOS, and the ratio of p-NF-κB to NF-κB increased the mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, down-regulated the expression of CD206 and Arg1. The effects of TRAF6 were the opposite of acacetin. And TRAF6 could offset the impact of acacetin. This study demonstrated that acacetin could prevent sepsis-induced ALI by facilitating M2 macrophage polarization via TRAF6/NF-κB/COX2 axis.

[Efficacy of intramuscular injection of Xiyanping injection for the treatment of acute bronchitis in children: a multicenter, randomized, parallel-controlled clinical study]

OBJECTIVES

To study the efficacy and safety of Xiyanping injection through intramuscular injection for the treatment of acute bronchitis in children.

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted from December 2021 to October 2022, including 78 children with acute bronchitis from three hospitals using a multicenter, randomized, parallel-controlled design. The participants were divided into a test group (conventional treatment plus Xiyanping injection; n=36) and a control group (conventional treatment alone; n=37) in a 1:1 ratio. Xiyanping injection was administered at a dose of 0.3 mL/(kg·d) (total daily dose ≤8 mL), twice daily via intramuscular injection, with a treatment duration of ≤4 days and a follow-up period of 7 days. The treatment efficacy and safety were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

The total effective rate on the 3rd day after treatment in the test group was significantly higher than that in the control group (P<0.05), while there was no significant difference in the total effective rate on the 5th day between the two groups (P>0.05). The rates of fever relief, cough relief, and lung rale relief in the test group on the 3rd day after treatment were higher than those in the control group (P<0.05). The cough relief rate on the 5th day after treatment in the test group was higher than that in the control group (P<0.05), while there was no significant difference in the fever relief rate and lung rale relief rate between the two groups (P>0.05). The cough relief time, daily cough relief time, and nocturnal cough relief time in the test group were significantly shorter than those in the control group (P<0.05), while there were no significant differences in the fever duration and lung rale relief time between the two groups (P>0.05). There was no significant difference in the incidence of adverse events between the two groups (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The overall efficacy of combined routine treatment with intramuscular injection of Xiyanping injection in the treatment of acute bronchitis in children is superior to that of routine treatment alone, without an increase in the incidence of adverse reactions.

Antioxidant Effects of Catechins (EGCG), Andrographolide, and Curcuminoids Compounds for Skin Protection, Cosmetics, and Dermatological Uses: An Update

Here we have chosen to highlight the main natural molecules extracted from Camellia sinensis, Andrographis paniculata, and Curcuma longa that may possess antioxidant activities of interest for skin protection. The molecules involved in the antioxidant process are, respectively, catechins derivatives, in particular, EGCG, andrographolide, and its derivatives, as well as various curcuminoids. These plants are generally used as beverages for Camellia sinensis (tea tree), as dietary supplements, or as spices. The molecules they contain are known for their diverse therapeutic activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-cancer, antidiabetic, and dermatological treatment. Their common antioxidant activities and therapeutic applications are widely documented, but their use in cosmetics is more recent. We will see that the use of pharmacomodulated derivatives, the addition of co-antioxidants, and the use of various formulations enable better skin penetration and greater ingredient stability. In this review, we will endeavor to compile the cosmetic uses of these natural molecules of interest and the various structural modulations reported with the aim of improving their bioavailability as well as establishing their different mechanisms of action.

Anti-Cancer Agent: The Labdane Diterpenoid-Andrographolide

In spite of the progress in treatment strategies, cancer remains a major cause of death worldwide. Therefore, the main challenge should be the early diagnosis of cancer and the design of an optimal therapeutic strategy to increase the patient's life expectancy as well as the continuation of the search for increasingly active and selective molecules for the treatment of different forms of cancer. In the recent decades, research in the field of natural compounds has increasingly shifted towards advanced and molecular level understandings, thus leading to the development of potent anti-cancer agents. Among them is the diterpene lactone andrographolide, isolated from Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees that showed shows a plethora of biological activities, including not only anti-cancer activity, but also anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, and immunomodulatory properties. Andrographolide has been shown to act as an anti-tumor drug by affecting specific molecular targets that play a part in the development and progression of several cancer types including breast, lung, colon, renal, and cervical cancer, as well as leukemia and hepatocarcinoma. This review comprehensively and systematically summarized the current research on the potential anti-cancer properties of andrographolide highlighting its mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, and potential side effects and discussing the future perspectives, challenges, and limitations of use.

A plant-derived glucocorticoid receptor modulator with potency to attenuate the side effects of glucocorticoid therapy

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Continuous efforts have been made to move towards maintaining the beneficial anti-inflammatory functions of glucocorticoids (GCs) while minimizing side effects. Here, we investigated the selective glucocorticoid receptor (GR) modulator-like properties of a plant-derived compound caesaldekarin e (CA-e).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The therapeutic efficacy of CA-e was evaluated in several mouse models, including dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis, ovalbumin-induced lung allergic inflammation, imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation and skin atrophy. The action of CA-e targeting the GR was analysed using molecular docking, cellular thermal shift assays and microscale thermophoresis. Other methods included DNA-protein pull-down assays and mass spectrometry.

KEY RESULTS

CA-e selectively inhibited positive GC response element ((+) GRE)-mediated direct transactivation while maintaining and even enhancing the anti-inflammatory effects of treatment with dexamethasone. CA-e, alone and in combination with dexamethasone, efficiently alleviated inflammation in several mouse models with milder side effects compared with dexamethasone alone. Mechanistically, CA-e inhibited the formation of dimers by binding to the dimerization interface located in the ligand-binding domain of GR and facilitated embryonic ectoderm development that is involved in the regulation of transcriptional repression to compete for binding to (+) GRE, eventually leading to the repression of (+) GRE-regulated genes. In addition, CA-e repressed NF-κB-dependent genes by enhancing the interaction between GR and p65.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results reveal that CA-e is a novel GR modulator with strong potency to attenuate the side effects of GC therapy and can be used as a potential molecular tool for deciphering GR signalling.

The antithrombosis effect of dehydroandrographolide succinate: in vitro and in vivo studies

CONTEXT

Dehydroandrographolide succinate (DAS) is mainly used in the clinical treatment of various infectious diseases. Its potential effects on platelet aggregation and blood coagulation systems have not been reported systematically.

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether DAS exerts an antithrombotic effect and its internal mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human blood samples and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats divided into control, aspirin (30 mg/kg), and DAS groups (200, 400 and 600 mg/kg) were used to measure the platelet aggregation rate, coagulation function, coagulation factor activity, and contents of thromboxane B₂ (TXB₂) and 6-keto-prostaglandin F_1α (6-keto-PGF_1α). The histopathology of the SD rat gastric mucosa was also observed. All rats were administered intragastric or intraperitoneal injections once a day for 3 consecutive days.

RESULTS

Compared to control group, DAS significantly inhibited the platelet aggregation rate (ED₅₀ = 386.9 mg/kg) by decreasing TXB₂ levels (1531.95 ± 649.90 pg/mL to 511.08 ± 411.82 pg/mL) and activating antithrombin III (AT-III) (103.22 ± 16.22% to 146.46 ± 8.96%) (p < 0.05). In addition, DAS significantly enhanced the coagulation factors FV (304.12 ± 79.65% to 443.44 ± 75.04%), FVII (324.19 ± 48.03% to 790.66 ± 225.56%), FVIII (524.79 ± 115.47% to 679.92 ± 143.34%), FX (34.90 ± 7.40% to 102.76 ± 29.41%) and FXI (38.12 ± 10.33% to 65.47 ± 34.08%), increased the content of Fg (2.18 ± 0.39 to 3.61 ± 0.37 g/L), shorten the PT (10.42 ± 0.44 to 9.22 ± 0.21 s), APTT (16.43 ± 1.4 to 14.07 ± 0.75 s) and TT time (37.04 ± 2.13 to 32.68 ± 1.29 s) (p < 0.05), while the aspirin group showed no such effect on these items but showed reduced activity of FII (89.21 ± 21.72% to 61.83 ± 8.95%) and FVIII (524.79 ± 115.47% to 306.60 ± 29.96%) (p < 0.05). Histopathological changes showed aspirin-induced gastric mucosa haemorrhage and the protective effect of DAS in the gastric mucosa.

CONCLUSIONS

DAS is more suitable than aspirin in thromboprophylaxis treatment, which provides a reliable theoretical and experimental basis for its clinical application.

Andrographolide restored production performances and serum biochemical indexes and attenuated organs damage in Mycoplasma gallisepticum-infected broilers

1. This study aimed to study the preventive and therapeutic effects of andrographolide (Andro) during Mycoplasma gallisepticum HS strain (MG) infection in ArborAcres (AA) broilers.2. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Andro against MG was measured. Broiler body weight, feed efficiency, morbidity, cure rate and mortality were recorded during the experiment. Air sac lesion scores and immune organ index were calculated. Expression of pMGA1.2 in lung tissue and serum biochemical indices were examined. Histopathological examinations of immune organs, liver, trachea and lung tissue were conducted by Haematoxylin and Eosin stain.3. MIC was 3.75 μg/mL and Andro significantly inhibited the expression of pMGA1.2 (P ≤ 0.05). Compared with control MG-infected group, Andro low-dose and high-dose prevention reduced the morbidity of chronic respiratory disease in 40.00% and 50.00%, respectively. Mortality of C, D and E group was 16.67%, 10.00% and 6.67%, respectively. Cure rate of E, F, G and H group was 92.00%, 92.86%, 93.33% and 100.0%, respectively. Compared with control MG-infected group, Andro treatment significantly increased average weight gain (AWG), relative weight gain rate (RWG) and feed conversion rate (FCR) at 18 to 24 days (P ≤ 0.05). Compared with control group, Andro alone treatment significantly increased AWG in broilers (P ≤ 0.05).4. Compared with control MG-infected group, Andro significantly attenuated MG-induced air sac lesion, immune organs, liver, trachea and lung damage in broilers. Andro alone treatment did not induce abnormal morphological changes in these organs in healthy broilers. Serum biochemical analysis results showed, comparing with control MG-infected group, Andro significantly decreased the content of total protein, albumin, globulin, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, total bilirubin, urea, creatinine, uric acid, total cholesterol, and increased the albumin/globulin ratio and content of alkaline phosphatase, apolipoprotein B and apolipoprotein A-I in a dose-dependent manner (P ≤ 0.05).5. Andro could act as a potential agent against MG infection in broilers.

Andrographolide, a natural anti-inflammatory agent: An Update

Botanicals have attracted much attention in the field of anti-inflammatory due to their good pharmacological activity and efficacy. Andrographis paniculata is a natural plant ingredient that is widely used around the world. Andrographolide is the main active ingredient derived from Andrographis paniculata, which has a good effect on the treatment of inflammatory diseases. This article reviews the application, anti-inflammatory mechanism and molecular targets of andrographolide in different inflammatory diseases, including respiratory, digestive, immune, nervous, cardiovascular, skeletal, and tumor system diseases. And describe its toxicity and explain its safety. Studies have shown that andrographolide can be used to treat inflammatory lesions of various systemic diseases. In particular, it acts on many inflammation-related signalling pathways. The future direction of andrographolide research is also introduced, as is the recent research that indicates its potential clinical application as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Study on the mechanism of andrographolide activation

Andrographolide is a natural antibiotic that has the ability to dispel heat, detoxify, reduce inflammation, and relieve pain. Recent research has shown that it can exert anti-inflammatory effects via multiple pathways and multiple targets (mediated by NF-κB, JAK/STAT, T cell receptor, and other signaling pathways). It can inhibit human lung cancer cells, colon cancer cells, osteosarcoma cells, and other tumor cells, as well as reduce bacterial virulence and inhibit virus-induced cell apoptosis. It can also regulate inflammatory mediator expression to protect the nervous system and effectively prevent mental illness. Additionally, andrographolide regulates the immune system, treats cardiovascular and cerebral vascular diseases, protects the liver, and the gallbladder. It is clear that andrographolide has a huge range of potential applications. The mechanism of andrographolide's anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, and nervous system defense in recent years have been reviewed in this article.

Andrographolide promote the growth and immunity of Litopenaeus vannamei, and protects shrimps against Vibrio alginolyticus by regulating inflammation and apoptosis via a ROS-JNK dependent pathway

Vibrio alginolyticus (V. alginolyticus) is one of the major pathogens causing mass mortality of shrimps worldwide, affecting energy metabolism, immune response and development of shrimps. In the context of the prohibition of antibiotics, it is necessary to develop a drug that can protect shrimp from V. alginolyticus. Andrographolide (hereinafter called Andr), a traditional drug used in Chinese medicine, which possesses diverse biological effects including anti-bacteria, antioxidant, immune regulation. In this study, we investigated the effect of Andr on growth, immunity, and resistance to V. alginolyticus infection of Litopenaeus vannamei (L. vannamei) and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. Four diets were formulated by adding Andr at the dosage of 0 g/kg (Control), 0.5 g/kg, 1 g/kg, and 2 g/kg in the basal diet, respectively. Each diet was randomly fed to one group with three replicates of shrimps in a 4-week feeding trial. The results showed that dietary Andr improved the growth performance and non-specific immune function of shrimps. L. vannamei fed with Andr diets showed lower mortality after being challenged by V. alginolyticus. After 6 h of V. alginolyticus infection, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, tissue injury, apoptosis, expression of inflammatory factors (IL-1 β and TNFα) and apoptosis-related genes (Bax, caspase3 and p53) were increased in hemocytes and hepatopancreas, while feeding diet with 0.5 g/kg Andr could inhibit the increase. Considering that JNK are important mediators of apoptosis, we examined the influence of Andr on JNK activity during V. alginolyticus infection. We found that Andr inhibited JNK activation induced by V. alginolyticus infection on L. vannamei. The ROS scavenger N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) suppressed V. alginolyticus-induced inflammation and apoptosis, suggesting that ROS play an important role in V. alginolyticus-induced inflammation and apoptosis. Treated cells with JNK specific activator anisomycin, the inflammation and apoptosis inhibited by Andr were counteracted. Collectively, Andr promote the growth and immunity of L. vannamei, and protects shrimps against V. alginolyticus by regulating inflammation and apoptosis via a ROS-JNK dependent pathway. These results improve the understanding of the pathogenesis of V. alginolyticus infection and provide clues to the development of effective drugs against V. alginolyticus.

In Silico Insights on the Pro-Inflammatory Potential of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and the Prospective Anti-Inflammatory Capacity of Andrographis paniculata Phytocompounds

Inflammation linked to various diseases is the biological response to certain stimuli. The pro-inflammatory potential of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) as potential inducers of inflammation bound to the Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4) and the anti-inflammatory capacity of A. paniculata (AP) phytocompounds as prospective inhibitors of the Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB) p50 transcription factor are investigated via in silico techniques. The molecular docking of the PAHs and AP phytocompounds is performed in AutoDock Vina by calculating their binding energies. The molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) of the apo and ligand-bound complex of the top binding ligands were performed in CABS-flex. The agonists, which included the PAHs indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (IP), and dibenz(a,h)anthracene (DahA), had the highest binding energies of −10 kcal/mol and −9.2 kcal/mol, respectively. The most stable antagonists in the binding site with binding energies to the NF-κB p50 were the AP phytocompounds with −5.6 kcal/mol for ergosterol peroxide and −5.3 kcal/mol for 14-deoxy-14,15-dehydroandrographolide. The MDS of the apo human TLR4 and PAH-bound TLR4, and the apo p50 and the AP phytocompound-bound NF-κB p50 showed minimal fluctuations. These results reveal that IP and DahA are significant inducers of inflammation, whereas ergosterol peroxide and 14-deoxy-14,15-dehydroandrographolide are inhibitors of the NF-κB pathway. Furthermore, the study theorizes that any inflammatory activity induced by PAH can be potentially inhibited by A. paniculata phytocompounds.

The NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway: A Review of Mechanisms and Inhibitors for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases

The NLRP3 inflammasome is a multiprotein complex that plays a pivotal role in regulating the innate immune system and inflammatory signaling. Upon activation by PAMPs and DAMPs, NLRP3 oligomerizes and activates caspase-1 which initiates the processing and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. NLRP3 is the most extensively studied inflammasome to date due to its array of activators and aberrant activation in several inflammatory diseases. Studies using small molecules and biologics targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway have shown positive outcomes in treating various disease pathologies by blocking chronic inflammation. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in understanding the NLRP3 mechanism, its role in disease pathology, and provide a broad review of therapeutics discovered to target the NLRP3 pathway and their challenges.

An insight into the pharmacological and analytical potential of Andrographolide

Andrographis paniculata is an annual medicinal herb from the family Acanthaceae. Andrographolide is generally considered an essential bioactive component of plant A. paniculata. Since ancient times, it has been widely recognized for its therapeutic qualities and has attracted the scientific and medical communities' attention. This review summarizes the molecular, clinical, and in vitro research of compound andrographolide and its mechanism of action. Andrographolide, when combined with other enhancing agents, offers a wide variety of health benefits. The therapeutic potential of andrographolide has been exemplified and exhibited by directly regulating genes and indirectly interacting with small molecules and different enzymes. This review compiles and consolidates the pharmacological action of andrographolide and its analogs and deciphers the gaps that have hindered its use in medicinal research.

Amphiregulin induces CCN2 and fibronectin expression by TGF-β through EGFR-dependent pathway in lung epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Airway fibrosis is one of the pathological characteristics of severe asthma. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β has been known to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition formation and to play a role in the progression of tissue fibrosis. Cellular communication network factor 2 (CCN2) and fibronectin (FN) are well-known markers of EMT and fibrosis. However, whether AREG is involved in TGF-β-induced CCN2 and FN expression in human lung epithelial cells is unknown.

METHODS

AREG and FN were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining on ovalbumin-challenged mice. CCN2 and FN expression were evaluated in human lung epithelial (A459) cells following TGF or AREG treatment for the indicated times. Secreted AREG from A549 cells was detected by ELISA. Cell migration was observed by a wound healing assay. Chromatin immunoprecipitation was used to detect the c-Jun binding to the CCN2 promoter.

RESULTS

AREG and FN expression colocalized in lung tissues from mice with ovalbumin-induced asthma by immunofluorescence staining. Moreover, TGF-β caused the release of AREG from A549 cells into the medium. Smad3 siRNA down-regulated AREG expression. AREG also stimulated CCN2 and FN expression, JNK and c-Jun phosphorylation, and cell migration in A549 cells. AREG small interfering (si) RNA inhibited TGF-β-induced expression of CCN2, FN, and cell migration. Furthermore, AREG-induced CCN2 and FN expression were inhibited by EGFR siRNA, a JNK inhibitor (SP600125), and an activator protein-1 (AP-1) inhibitor (curcumin). EGFR siRNA attenuated AREG-induced JNK and c-Jun phosphorylation. Moreover, SP600125 downregulated AREG-induced c-Jun phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that AREG mediates the TGF-β-induced EMT in human lung epithelial cells through EGFR/JNK/AP-1 activation. Understanding the role of AREG in the EMT could foster the development of therapeutic strategies for airway remodeling in severe asthma.

Advances in ameliorating inflammatory diseases and cancers by andrographolide: Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and perspective

Andrographolide, a well-known natural lactone having a range of pharmacological actions in traditional Chinese medicine. It has long been used to cure a variety of ailments. In this review, we cover the pharmacokinetics and pharmacological activity of andrographolide which supports its further clinical application in cancers and inflammatory diseases. Growing evidence shows a good therapeutic effect in inflammatory diseases, including liver diseases, joint diseases, respiratory system diseases, nervous system diseases, heart diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, and inflammatory skin diseases. As a result, the effects of andrographolide on immune cells and the processes that underpin them are discussed. The preclinical use of andrographolide to different organs in response to malignancies such as colorectal, liver, gastric, breast, prostate, lung, and oral cancers has also been reviewed. In addition, several clinical trials of andrographolide in inflammatory diseases and cancers have been summarized. This review highlights recent advances in ameliorating inflammatory diseases as well as cancers by andrographolide and its analogs, providing a new perspective for subsequent research of this traditional natural product.

Andrographolide: A review of its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and clinical trials and pharmaceutical researches

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees, a renowned herb medicine in China, is broadly utilized in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for the treatment of cold and fever, sore throat, sore tongue, snake bite with its excellent functions of clearing heat and toxin, cooling blood and detumescence from times immemorial. Modern pharmacological research corroborates that andrographolide, the major ingredient in this traditional herb, is the fundamental material basis for its efficacy. As the main component of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees, andrographolide reveals numerous therapeutic actions, such as antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic and so on. However, there are scarcely systematic summaries on the specific mechanism of disease treatment and pharmacokinetics. Moreover, it is also found that it possesses easily ignored security issues in clinical application, such as nephrotoxicity and reproductive toxicity. Thereby it should be kept a lookout over in clinical. Besides, the relationship between the efficacy and security issues of andrographolide should be investigated and evaluated scientifically. In this review, special emphasis is given to andrographolide, a multifunctional natural terpenoids, including its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and pharmaceutical researches. A brief overview of its clinical trials is also presented. This review intends to systematically and comprehensively summarize the current researches of andrographolide, which is of great significance for the development of andrographolide clinical products. Noteworthy, those un-cracked issues such as specific pharmacological mechanisms, security issues, as well as the bottleneck in clinical transformation, which detailed exploration and excavation are still not to be ignored before achieving integration into clinical practice. In addition, given that current extensive clinical data do not have sufficient rigor and documented details, more high-quality investigations in this field are needed to validate the efficacy and/or safety of many herbal products.

Chinese herbal injections for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A narrative review

Background

The outbreak of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused more than 180 million infections and 3.9 million deaths. To date, emerging clinical evidence has shown the synergetic benefits of Chinese herbal injections in treating this contagious respiratory disease. This review aims to summarize and analyze the efficacy and safety of Chinese herbal injections in the therapy of COVID-19.

Methods

The literature from 3 electronic databases, PubMed, CNKI, and Web of Science, were searched using the search terms “COVID-19”, “SARS-CoV-2”, “traditional Chinese medicine”, “herb”, “herbal”, and “injection”. Then the identified articles were comprehensively evaluated.

Results

Limited data demonstrated that Chinese herbal injections could significantly improve the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients, especially in combination with conventional treatment strategies. The benefits of which were mainly associated with the relief of symptoms, prevention of secondary infection, regulation of inflammation and immune function. There was also evidence showing the inhibitory effects on SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. Nevertheless, available real-world data suggested the increased risk of adverse event. Furthermore, the defects of existing researches and the insights for discovering novel antiviral drugs were prospectively discussed.

Conclusion

Evidence-based advances revealed that Chinese herbal injections such as XueBiJing injection and ShenMai injection, exerted potent effects against COVID-19. Further laboratory researches and clinical evaluation are needed to gather scientific evidence on the efficacy and safety.

Norisoboldine Attenuates Sepsis-Induced Acute Lung Injury by Modulating Macrophage Polarization via PKM2/HIF-1α/PGC-1α Pathway

This study aimed to investigate the effect of norisopoldine (NOR) on acute lung injury in septic mice. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to establish sepsis induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. The dry and wet weight of mice lung was detected, and the pathological changes of lung were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was detected. Inflammatory factors in BALF were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The polarization of macrophages in lung tissue was detected by flow cytometry. The markers of M1 and M2 macrophages were detected by RT-PCR. LPS induced RAW264.7 cells were treated with NOR. Inflammatory response, macrophage polarization, glycolysis, and M2 pyruvate kinase (PKM2)/hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α)/peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ co-activator 1-α (PGC-1α) signaling pathway were detected. NOR could effectively alleviate sepsis induced ALI, and reduce the number of total cells, total protein concentration, neutrophils, macrophages in BALF. NOR decreased the level of inflammatory factors and promoted macrophages from M1 to M2 type in vivo and vitro. Moreover, NOR could activated PKM2, and inhibited PKM2 from cytoplasm to nuclear, attenuated HIF-1α expression, and increased PGC-1α and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ expression. In addition, NOR inhibited glycolysis and promoted oxidative phosphorylation in RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, PKM2 inhibitors could reverse the effect of NOR on PKM2/HIF-1α/PGC-1α signaling pathway in RAW264.7 cells. NOR alleviated sepsis induced AIL in mice, inhibited the inflammatory response, promote M2 polarization of macrophages through regulating PKM2/HIF-1α/PGC-1α signaling pathway.

Herbal Nanoformulations for Asthma Treatment

BACKGROUND

In recent decades, the prevalence of asthma has substantially increased worldwide. Advances in phytochemistry and phytopharmacology have clarified the active ingredients and biological activities of medicinal plant products for treating asthma, and the role of herbal therapies in asthma treatment has become increasingly evident. However, most plant extracts have low solubility and poor stability of bioactive components, resulting in low bioavailability and loss of efficacy. Owing to these shortcomings, the clinical use of many herbal extracts is limited.

OBJECTIVE

To summarise and analyse the characteristics of herbal nanoformulations and their application in asthma treatment. The objective of this review article is to address the emerging trends of herbal nanoformulations for an effective treatment for asthma.

METHODS

Various research and review articles from reputed international journals were referred and compiled.

RESULTS

The nano-sized herbal formulations improve the solubility and bioavailability of herbal medicines and contribute to the sustained release of drugs, thus, increasing the therapeutic applications of herbal extracts. The review present different types of herbal nanoformulations, including micelles, nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-based liquid crystalline nanoparticles and nanoemulsions, which are potential nanodrugs for asthma treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Herbal nanoformulations have shown great prospects for treatment of asthma in recent years. More safety and toxicity data are still needed to promote their development and application.

Biological properties of andrographolide, an active ingredient of Andrographis Paniculata: a narrative review

Andrographolide is a labdane diterpenoid isolated from Andrographis paniculata and traditionally used in Chinese and Indian medicine. Reported effects include anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer functions. Most of the studies support the hypothesis that andrographolide supplementation stimulates immune system, so the observed effects migh in fact be secondary to the stimulation of defense reactions. As andrographolide is involved in regulation of inflammation, it is not surprising that it is also evaluated in inflammation-mediated diseases such as ulcerative colitis. Anticancer effects of the andrographolide have been tested on various cancer panels. Colon cancer, breast cancer, and head and neck carcinomas were the most investigated, followed by prostate cancer and glioblastoma. The results looked promising. However, problems with solubility and low level of active substance in natural extract leads to preparation of chemical analogs. Objective of this short review is to summarize current knowledge of the biological effects of andragrapholide. We conclude that despite documented effects and some partly characterized mechanisms of action, more research is clearly needed. At present, the doses, types of treatment and possible negative side effects are not yet established. In addition, various isolations and compound formulas have been used for treatment of various diseases, making final conclusions problematic.

Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in myeloid-derived suppressor cells by andrographolide sulfonate contributes to 5-FU sensitization in mice

5-Fluorouracil (5-FU)-based chemotherapy is the first-line recommended regimen in colorectal cancer (CRC), but resistance limits its clinical application. Andrographolide sulfonate, a traditional Chinese medicine, is mainly used to treat infectious diseases. In the present study, we reported that andrographolide sulfonate could significantly inhibit the growth of transplanted CT26 colon cancer in mice and improve survival when combined with 5-FU. Furthermore, TUNEL assay and immunohistochemistry analysis of proliferating cell nuclear antigen, Ki-67 and p-STAT3 confirmed that co-treatment could inhibit tumor proliferation and promote apoptosis. In tumor tissues of groups that received 5-FU and andrographolide sulfonate, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell infiltration was increased, and the expression of IFN-γ and Granzyme B detected by immunohistochemistry and qPCR was upregulated, reflecting improved antitumor immunity. Finally, we verified that 5-FU significantly activated the NLR Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and that andrographolide sulfonate reversed this process to sensitize cells to 5-FU. In summary, andrographolide sulfonate synergistically enhanced antitumor effects and improved antitumor immunity by inhibiting 5-FU-induced NLRP3 activation in MDSCs. These findings provide a novel strategy to address 5-FU resistance in the treatment of CRC.

Herbal Active Ingredients: Potential for the Prevention and Treatment of Acute Lung Injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening clinical syndrome with high morbidity and mortality. The main pathological features of ALI are increased alveolar-capillary membrane permeability, edema, uncontrolled migration of neutrophils to the lungs, and diffuse alveolar damage, resulting in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Glucocorticoids, aspirin, and other anti-inflammatory drugs are commonly used to treat ALI. Respiratory supports, such as a ventilator, are used to alleviate hypoxemia. Many treatment methods are available, but they cannot significantly ameliorate the quality of life of patients with ALI and reduce mortality rates. Herbal active ingredients, such as flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, alkaloids, and quinonoids, exhibit advantages for ALI prevention and treatment, but the underlying mechanism needs further study. This paper summarizes the role of herbal active ingredients in anti-ALI therapy and progresses in the understanding of their mechanisms. The work also provides some references and insights for the discovery and development of novel drugs for ALI prevention and treatment.

Andrographolide Inhibition of Th17-Regulated Cytokines and JAK1/STAT3 Signaling in OVA-Stimulated Asthma in Mice

Asthma has long been considered a disease of airway inflammation. The excessive or prolonged production of inflammatory mediators can result in airway remodeling and severe clinical syndromes such as dyspnea or even apnea. Therefore, pharmaceutical intervention is required to restrain the excessive release of such inflammatory mediators in control of asthma. Novel therapeutics and mechanistic insight are sought for the management of this chronic inflammatory disease. Andrographolide (AG) is a type of diterpenoid ester compound and is reported to demonstrate multiple properties such as antioxidation and anti-inflammation. However, the anti-inflammatory capacity of AG by regulating immunologic function in airway of asthma has not been fully studied to date. Therefore, this study investigates whether AG is capable of suppressing the inflammatory response of asthma in OVA-stimulated mice and the mechanism by which this is achieved. Animals were randomly divided into 4 groups: control group, OVA model group, OVA + AG (0.1 mg/ml) group, and OVA + dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) group. The serum, BALF, and lung tissue of the mice were collected separately for the administration of ELISA, rt-PCR, western blot and pathological section and staining. We found that AG attenuated the OVA-induced production of IL-6, IL-17A, IL-17F, and RORγt; inhibited the OVA-mediated phosphorylation of JAK 1 and STAT3; and alleviated airway remodeling and the neutrophil infiltration of lung tissue. We conclude that AG inhibits the inflammatory response of asthma in OVA-stimulated mice by blocking the activation of Th17-regulated cytokines and the JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Andrographolide alleviates bleomycin-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in lung epithelial cells by suppressing AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

Background

Andrographolide (Andro), a diterpenoid extracted from Andrographis paniculata, has been shown to attenuate pulmonary fibrosis in rodents; however, the potential mechanisms remain largely unclear. This study investigated whether and how Andro alleviates bleomycin (BLM)-induced NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in the lung epithelial cells.

Methods

The in vivo effects of Andro were evaluated in a rat model of BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis. The roles of Andro in BLM-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation, EMT and AKT/mTOR signaling were investigated using human alveolar epithelial A549 cells.

Results

We found that Andro significantly alleviated pulmonary edema and histopathological changes, decreased weight loss, and reduced collagen deposition. Andro downregulated the levels of NLRP3, the adaptor molecule apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC), and Caspase-1 in the lungs of BLM-treated rats, suggesting the inhibitory effect of Andro on NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vivo. Additionally, the symptoms of BLM-mediated EMT phenotype in the lung were also attenuated after Andro administration. In vitro, Andro also markedly inhibited BLM-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and EMT in A549 cells. Moreover, Andro inhibited BLM-induced phosphorylation of AKT and mTOR in A549 cells, suggesting that AKT/mTOR inactivation mediates Andro-induced effects on BLM-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and EMT.

Conclusions

These data indicate that Andro can reduce BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis through suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation and EMT in lung epithelial cells via AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Andrographolide Against Lung Cancer-New Pharmacological Insights Based on High-Throughput Metabolomics Analysis Combined with Network Pharmacology

Andrographolide (Andro) has known to treat various illnesses such as colds, diarrhea, fever and infectious diseases. However, the effect mechanism of Andro is still unclear. Therefore, we used high-throughput metabolomics analysis to discover biomarkers, metabolic profiles and pathways to reveal the pharmacological action and effective mechanism of Andro against lung cancer. The metabolic effects of Andro on lung cancer animal was explored by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-triple-time of flight/mass spectrometry (UPLC-TOF/MS) analysis. Our results showed that Andro exhibited significant protective effects against lung cancer. Compared with control group, a total of 25 metabolites biomarkers was identified in urine of model animals, which 18 of them were regulated toward the normal direction after Andro treatment, and network pharmacology analysis showed that they were related with 570 proteins. Biological pathways analysis showed that the 11 metabolism pathways were regulated by Andro treatment in lung cancer mouse, and amino acid metabolism and arachidonic acid metabolism have great potential as target pathways for Andro against lung cancer. It revealed that high-throughput metabolomics combined with network pharmacology analysis provides deeply insight into the therapeutic mechanisms of natural product for promoting medicine development and disease treatment.

Curcumin analogue AI-44 alleviates MSU-induced gouty arthritis in mice via inhibiting cathepsin B-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome activation

NOD-like receptors (NLRs), as a part of intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRR), are important regulators in innate immune system. The NLRP3 inflammasome which is a member of NLRs has been linked to several human inflammatory diseases. Gouty arthritis is triggered when the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in joints induces acute inflammation characterized by the recruitment of macrophages and neutrophils. In this study, we explored the curcumin analogue AI-44 alleviated the gouty arthritis in mice via suppressing MSU engaging NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that AI-44 inhibited the interaction of cathepsin B and NLRP3 to prevent the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Moreover, we found AI-44 inhibited the enzyme activity of cathepsin B and bound to the key residue E122 in cytoplasm but not in lysosome. Collectively, these data suggest that AI-44 is a novel drug candidate for the treatment of gouty arthritis through targeting cathepsin B and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Regulatory Effects of Andrographolide on Lung Tissue Inflammation and Th17/Treg in Rats with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Induced by Smoking and Lipopolysaccharide

The pathogenesis of Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is complex, and lung tissue inflammation and Th17/Treg imbalance are the key factors causing lung dysfunction. We constructed a rat COPD model induced by smoking and lipopolysaccharide to explore andrographolide’s regulation on lung inflammation and Th17/Treg in COPD rats. By contrast, the study found that normal rats, COPD rats forced expiratory volume of 0.3 seconds (FEV0.3), FEV0.3/forced vital capacity (FVC), and peak expiratory flow (PEF) levels decreased. In addition, the levels of IL-8, TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-6 in alveolar lavage fluid increased, and the level of IL-10 decreased. Concurrently, the total number of white blood cells, monocytes and macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes increased. Meanwhile, the contents of CD25, CD4, and Foxp3 in lung tissue all increased, and the protein levels of HMGB1, TLR4, and p65 increased. After treatment with andrographolide, the levels of FEV0.3, FEV0.3/FVC, and PEF increased, proving the increase was positively correlated with the concentration of andrographolide. The levels of IL-8, TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-6 in rat alveolar lavage fluid decreased, and the level of IL-10 sequentially. The total number of white blood cells, the number of monocytes and macrophages, the number of lymphocytes, and the neutral Granulocytes decreased significantly. And the contents of CD25, CD4, and Foxp3 in lung tissue significantly decreased, and the protein levels of HMGB1, TLR4, and p65 significantly decreased. The above results indicate that andrographolide might be a potential COPD treatment approach. Andrographolide improves the lung function of rats with COPD, reduces lung inflammation, regulates Th17/Treg balance, and its mechanism may be related to HMGB1/TLR4/NF-кB signaling.

Estrogen prevent atherosclerosis by attenuating endothelial cell pyroptosis via activation of estrogen receptor α-mediated autophagy

Excessive inflammation and the pyroptosis of vascular endothelial cells caused by estrogen deficiency is one cause of atherosclerosis in post-menopausal women. Because autophagy is highly regulated by estrogen, we hypothesized that estrogen can reduce vascular endothelial cell pyroptosis through estrogen receptor alpha (ERα)-mediated activation of autophagy to improve atherosclerosis in post-menopausal stage. Aortic samples from pro-menopausal and post-menopausal women with ascending aortic arteriosclerosis were analyzed, and bilateral ovariectomized (OVX) female ApoE-/- mice and homocysteine (Hcy)-treated HUVECs were used to analyze the effect of estrogen supplementation therapy. The aortic endothelium showed a decrease in ERα expression and autophagy, but presented an increase in inflammation and pyroptosis in female post-menopausal patients. Estrogen treatment accelerated autophagy and ameliorated cell pyroptosis in the cardiac aortas of OVX ApoE-/- mice and Hcy-treated HUVECs. Estrogen had therapeutic effect on atherosclerosis and improved the symptoms associated with lipid metabolism disorders in OVX ApoE-/- mice. Inhibition and silencing of ERα led to a reduction in the autophagy promoting ability of estrogen and aggravated pyroptosis. Moreover, the inhibition of autophagy promoted pyroptosis and abolished the protective effect of estrogen, but had no influence on ERα expression. Thus, the results of the present study demonstrated that post-menopausal women present decreased autophagy and ERα expression and excessive damage to the ascending aorta. In addition, in vitro and in vivo assay results demonstrated that estrogen prevents atherosclerosis by upregulating ERα expression and subsequently induces autophagy to reduce inflammation and pyroptosis.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Diterpenes and Their Derivatives Through NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway: A Review

Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing protein (NLRP) inflammasomes are involved in the molecular pathogenesis of many diseases and disorders. Among NLRPs, the NLRP3 (in humans encoded by the NLRP3 gene) is expressed predominantly in macrophages as a component of the inflammasome and is associated with many diseases, including gout, type 2 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, atherosclerosis, and neurological diseases and disorders. Diterpenes containing repeated isoprenoid units in their structure are a member of some essential oils that possess diverse biological activities and are becoming a landmark in the field of drug discovery and development. This review sketches a current scenario of diterpenes or their derivatives acting through NLRPs, especially NLRP3-associated pathways with anti-inflammatory effects. For this, a literature survey on the subject has been undertaken using a number of known databases with specific keywords. Findings from the aforementioned databases suggest that diterpenes and their derivatives can exert anti-inflammatory effects via NLRPs-related pathways. Andrographolide, triptolide, kaurenoic acid, carnosic acid, oridonin, teuvincenone F, and some derivatives of tanshinone IIA and phorbol have been found to act through NLRP3 inflammasome pathways. In conclusion, diterpenes and their derivatives could be one of the promising compounds for the treatment of NLRP3-mediated inflammatory diseases and disorders.

Andrographolide attenuates choroidal neovascularization by inhibiting the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV), a characteristic of wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD), leads to severe vision loss amongst the elderly in the developed countries. Currently, the premier treatment for AMD is anti-VEGF therapy, which has limited efficacy, and is still controversial. Previous studies have showed that Andrographolide (Andro) had various biological effects, including anti-angiogenesis, anti-inflammation, and antioxidant. However, the effect of Andro on the formation of CNV has not been studied thus far. Here our results showed that Andro reduced the expression levels of HIF-1α and VEGF in the RF/6A cells chemical hypoxia model and the laser-induced CNV mouse model. Moreover, Andro inhibited the tube formation activity of RF/6A cells under hypoxic conditions. Furthermore, intraperitoneal injection of Andro reduced the severity of choroidal vascular leakage and the size of CNV in the laser-induced CNV mouse model, indicating that Andro attenuated the development of CNV by inhibiting the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway. These results suggest that Andro could be a potential novel therapeutic agent for AMD.

Andrographolide potentiates PD-1 blockade immunotherapy by inhibiting COX2-mediated PGE2 release

Cancer immunotherapy has now become a first line therapy for several kinds of tumors. However, the clinical performance of immnuocheckpoint blockade therapy is usually limited by low response rate or side effects including cytokine storm. Andrographolide, a natural diterpenoid from Andrographis paniculata, has been used in Asia for treatment of bronchitis, paristhmitis and bacillary dysentery for its unique anti-inflammatory effect. However, its effect on anti-tumor immunity remains elusive. In this study, we found that andrographolide in combination with anti-PD-1 antibody showed a higher therapeutic benefit than individual therapy in murine xenograft model of CT26 colon cancer. Consequently, andrographolide and anti-PD-1 antibody co-treatment boosted the function of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells evidenced by considerable tissue infiltration, elevated IFN-γ secretion and enhanced expression of cytotoxic T-cell related molecules including FasL, perforin and Granzyme B, which significantly decreases the tumor load. Mechanistically, andrographolide treatment inhibited COX2 activity and PGE2 release both in vivo and in vitro, which augments anti-tumor efficiency of anti-PD-1 therapy. Finally, we confirmed that COX2 level in human colon cancer sample positively correlated with tumor-promoting factors. Our study here provides a potential combination strategy for immunotherapy against colorectal cancer.

Imperatorin alleviates ROS-mediated airway remodeling by targeting the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway

In this study, we investigated the role and mechanism of imperatorin (IMP) in chronic inflammation and airway remodeling. The levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, VEGF, α-SMA, and ROS were detected by ELISA, immunohistochemistry (IHC), immunofluorescence, and Western blot. In addition, we evaluated the effect of IMP on MAPK, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. IMP treatment obviously attenuated the production of inflammatory cytokines and inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of OVA-induced airway remodeling model. Meanwhile, it significantly inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration, goblet cell hyperplasia, collagen deposition, VEGF production, α-SMA, and ROS expression. Our study has shown that IMP could regulate the signaling pathways including MAPK, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, and Nrf2/HO-1 to release the inflammatory responses. IMP might attenuate airway remodeling by the down-regulation of Nrf2/HO-1/ROS/PI3K/Akt, Nrf2/HO-1/ROS/MAPK, and Nrf2/HO-1/ROS/NF-κB signaling pathways.

Inhibition of AIM2 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis by Andrographolide contributes to amelioration of radiation-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis

Radiation-induced lung injury (RILI) is one of the most common and fatal complications of thoracic radiotherapy, whereas no effective interventions are available. Andrographolide, an active component extracted from Andrographis paniculate, is prescribed as a treatment for upper respiratory tract infection. Here we report the potential radioprotective effect and mechanism of Andrographolide on RILI. C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 18 Gy of whole thorax irradiation, followed by intraperitoneal injection of Andrographolide every other day for 4 weeks. Andrographolide significantly ameliorated radiation-induced lung tissue damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, and pro-inflammatory cytokine release in the early phase and progressive fibrosis in the late phase. Moreover, Andrographolide markedly hampered radiation-induced activation of the AIM2 inflammasome and pyroptosis in vivo. Furthermore, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were exposed to 8 Gy of X-ray radiation in vitro and Andrographolide significantly inhibited AIM2 inflammasome mediated-pyroptosis in BMDMs. Mechanistically, Andrographolide effectively prevented AIM2 from translocating into the nucleus to sense DNA damage induced by radiation or chemotherapeutic agents in BMDMs. Taken together, Andrographolide ameliorates RILI by suppressing AIM2 inflammasome mediated-pyroptosis in macrophage, identifying Andrographolide as a novel potential protective agent for RILI.

Andrographolide alleviates Parkinsonism in MPTP-PD mice via targeting mitochondrial fission mediated by dynamin-related protein 1

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Accumulating evidence indicates that mitochondrial dynamics play an important role in the progressive deterioration of dopaminergic neurons. Andrographolide has been found to exert neuroprotective effects in several models of neurological diseases. However, the mechanism of how andrographolide protects neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) remains not fully understood.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Behavioural experiments were performed to examine the effect of andrographolide in 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-PD mice. Mitochondrial mass and morphology were visualized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). SH-SY5Y cells and primary mouse neurons were exposed to rotenone to mimic PD in vitro. Western blotting, co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence were performed. The target protein of andrographolide was identified by biotin-andrographolide pulldown assay as well as drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS), cellular thermal shift (CETSA), and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assays.

KEY RESULTS

Andrographolide administration improved behavioural deficits and attenuated loss of dopaminergic neurons in MPTP-exposed mice and reduced cell death induced by rotenone in vitro. An increased mitochondrial mass, and decreased surface area were found in the striatum from MPTP-PD mice, as well as in rotenone-treated primary neurons and SH-SY5Y cells, while andrographolide treatment preserved mitochondrial mass and morphology. Dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) was identified as a target protein of andrographolide. Andrographolide bound to DRP1 and inhibited its GTPase activity, thereby preventing excessive mitochondria fission and neuronal damage in PD.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our findings suggest that andrographolide may protect neurons against rotenone- or MPTP-induced damage in vitro and in vivo through inhibiting mitochondrial fission.

Current status of terpenoids as inflammasome inhibitors

Increasing evidence supports NLRP3 inflammasome as a new target to control inflammation. Dysregulation of NLRP3 inflammasome has been reported to be involved in the pathogenesis of several human inflammatory diseases. However, no NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors are available in clinic. Terpenoids are natural products with multi-target activities against inflammation. Recent studies have revealed that these compounds are capable of inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in several mouse models of NLRP3 inflammasome-related pathogenesis. Thus, terpenoids represent an interesting pharmacological approach for the treatment of inflammatory diseases as they are endowed with a dual mechanism of inhibition of NF-KB transcription factor and inflammasome activation, both critically involved in their anti-inflammatory effects. This work provides an overview of the current knowledge on the therapeutic potential of terpenoids as NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors.

Dexamethasone alleviate allergic airway inflammation in mice by inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome

Dexamethasone (DEX) is the mainstay treatment for asthma, which is a common chronic airway inflammation disease. However, the mechanism of DEX resolute symptoms of asthma is not completely clear. Here, we aimed to analyze the effect of DEX on airway inflammation in OVA-induced mice and whether this effect is related to the inhibition of the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Female (C57BL/6) mice were used to establish the allergic airway inflammation model by inhalation OVA. The number of inflammatory cells in the bronchi alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was counted by Swiss-Giemsa staining, and the contents of IL-1β, IL-18, IL-5 and IL-17 were detected by ELISA. The degree of inflammatory cells infiltration and mucous cells proliferation in lung tissue were separately observed by H&E and PAS staining. The proteins expression of NLRP3, pro-caspase-1, caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17 in lung tissue were detected by Western blotting. We found that DEX significantly inhibited OVA-induced inflammatory cells infiltration, airway mucus secretion and goblet cell proliferation in mice. The total and classified numbers of inflammatory cells and the levels of IL-1β, IL-18, IL-5 and IL-17 in the BALF of the experimental group were significantly lower than those of the model group after DEX treatment. DEX also significantly inhibited the activity of NLRP3 inflammasome and reduced the protein contents of Pro-Caspase-1, Caspase-1, Capase-1/Pro-Caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17 in lung tissues. Our study suggested that DEX alleviates allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting the activity of NLRP3 inflammasome and the levels of IL-1β and IL-18.

Andrographolide, a Natural Antioxidant: An Update

Traditionally, Andrographis paniculata has been used as an herbal remedy for lung infection treatments. Its leaves contain a diterpenoid labdane called andrographolide responsible for a wide range of biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. This manuscript is a brief review of the antioxidant mechanisms and the regulation of the Nrf2 (nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2) signaling pathway by andrographolide.

Cryptotanshinone Attenuates Airway Remodeling by Inhibiting Crosstalk Between Tumor Necrosis Factor-Like Weak Inducer of Apoptosis and Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 Signaling Pathways in Asthma

The study is to investigate the effect of cryptotanshinone (CTS) on airway remodeling and the possible mechanism. Male BALB/c mice were pretreated with CTS or dexamethasone 30 min before nebulized inhalation of ovalbumin (OVA). CTS significantly inhibited OVA-induced increases of eosinophils and neutrophils infiltration of bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALFs), reduced airway resistance in asthmatic mice, decreased the accumulation of inflammatory cells, the hyperplasia of goblet cells and the deposition of collagen in asthmatic mice lung tissue, as well as markedly attenuated the leakage of inflammatory cells and the level of OVA-specific immunoglobulin E in BALFs. CTS also inhibited the expressions of alpha-smooth muscle actin, tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK), Fn14, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, Smad4, and phosphorylation of Smad2/3 and STAT3 (Tyr705). In comparison to TWEAK inhibitor or TWEAK small interfering RNA (siRNA), which were used to inhibit TWEAK/STAT3 signaling pathways, CTS caused a similar effect as them on airway remodeling. Additionally, CTS also played a similar role as the TGF-β1 inhibitor or TGF-β1 siRNA in TGF-β1/STAT3 signaling pathways in airway remodeling. The anti-inflammatory effects of CTS against OVA-induced airway remodeling may be through inhibiting STAT3, which further suppresses TWEAK and TGF-β1 signaling cross talk in asthma. CTS may be a promising therapeutic reagent for asthma treatment.

Andrographolide Protects against HG-Induced Inflammation, Apoptosis, Migration, and Impairment of Angiogenesis via PI3K/AKT-eNOS Signalling in HUVECs

Andrographolide (Andr) is a major component isolated from the plant Andrographis paniculata. Inflammation, apoptosis, and impaired angiogenesis are implicated in the pathogenesis of high glucose (HG)-induced injury of vascular endotheliocytes. Our study is aimed at evaluating the effect of Andr on HG-induced HUVEC injury and the underlying mechanism. HUVECs were exposed to HG levels (33 mM) and treated with Andr (0, 12.5, 25, and 50 μM). Western blot analysis, real-time PCR, immunofluorescence staining, the scratch test, and the tube formation assay were performed to assess the effects of Andr. We discovered that Andr inhibited the inflammatory response (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα), decreased the apoptosis ratio and cell migration, and promoted tube formation in response to HG stimulation. Andr ameliorated the levels of phosphorylated PI3K (p-PI3K), phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT), and phosphorylated eNOS (p-eNOS). The expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) protein, a vital factor in angiogenesis, was improved by Andr treatment under HG stimulation. LY294002 is a blocker of PI3K, MK-2206 2HCI (MK-2206) is a highly selective AKT inhibitor, and L-NAME is a suppressor of eNOS, all of which significantly reduce Andr-mediated protective effects in vitro. Hence, Andr may be involved in regulating HG-induced injury by activating PI3K/AKT-eNOS signalling in HUVECs.

Andrographolide Derivative AL-1 Ameliorates Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Murine Colitis by Inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK Signaling Pathways

Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) are commonly used to induce experimental murine ulcerative colitis (UC). Our recent study has demonstrated that a novel andrographolide derivative, AL-1, ameliorated TNBS-induced colitis in mice. However, the effect of AL-1 on DSS-induced murine colitis and the underlying mechanisms are yet unknown. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of AL-1 against DSS-induced UC in mice and to define its mechanisms of action. Oral administration of AL-1 attenuated body weight loss, reduced colon length shortening, lowered the disease activity index score, and alleviated colon histological damage. AL-1 significantly inhibited myeloperoxidase activity and suppressed immune inflammatory responses in colonic tissues. Moreover, AL-1 reversed DSS-altered expression of inflammatory cytokines in DSS-induced colitis mice. Importantly, the efficacy of 45 mg/kg of AL-1 was higher than that of 100 mg/kg of the positive control drugs 5-aminosalicylic acid and mesalazine. AL-1 decreased lipopolysaccharide-induced generation of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in cultured macrophages in vitro; it also reversed the altered expression of inflammatory cytokines. In both in vivo and in vitro studies, Western blot analysis revealed that AL-1 reduced the expression of phosphorylated NF-κB p65 and IκBα, downregulated the expression of iNOS and COX-2, and attenuated the expression of phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), ERK, and JNK. In conclusion, AL-1 alleviated DSS-induced murine colitis by inhibiting activation of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Our data suggest that AL-1 could be a potential new treatment for UC.