MicroRNA-137 is downregulated in glioblastoma and inhibits the stemness of glioma stem cells by targeting RTVP-1

Decoding the Role of Kinesin Superfamily Proteins in Glioma Progression

Glioma is a highly aggressive and invasive brain tumor with limited treatment options, highlighting the need for novel therapeutic approaches. Kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs) are a diverse group of motor proteins that play essential roles in cellular processes such as mitosis, intracellular transport, and signal transduction, all of which are crucial for tumorigenesis. This review focuses on the multifaceted role of KIFs in glioma, examining their clinical relevance, contribution to tumor progression, and potential as therapeutic targets. We discuss how KIFs influence key aspects of glioma biology, including cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and metastasis. Furthermore, we explore the regulation of the cell cycle and critical signaling pathways associated with glioma, such as PI3K-Akt, Wnt/β-catenin, and Hedgehog signaling by KIFs. The review also addresses the emerging interplay between KIFs and non-coding RNAs, including circular RNAs (circRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), in glioma progression. Finally, we examine current therapeutic strategies targeting KIFs, including immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and small-molecule inhibitors, and their potential to improve treatment outcomes for glioma patients. By synthesizing these insights, this review underscores the significance of KIFs in glioma pathogenesis and their promise as novel therapeutic targets in the fight against glioma.

Aptamers: ushering in new hopes in targeted glioblastoma therapy

Glioblastoma, a formidable brain cancer, has remained a therapeutic challenge due to its aggressive nature and resistance to conventional treatments. Recent data indicate that aptamers, short synthetic DNA or RNA molecules can be used in anti-cancer therapy due to their better tumour penetration, specific binding affinity, longer retention in tumour sites and their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. With the ability to modify these oligonucleotides through the selection process, and using rational design to modify them, post-SELEX aptamers offer several advantages in glioblastoma treatment, including precise targeting of cancer cells while sparing healthy tissue. This review discusses the pivotal role of aptamers in glioblastoma therapy and diagnosis, emphasising their potential to enhance treatment efficacy and also highlights recent advancements in aptamer-based therapies which can transform the landscape of glioblastoma treatment, offering renewed hope to patients and clinicians alike.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Liquid Biopsies in the Evaluation of Adult Gliomas

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to discuss recent research regarding the biomolecules explored in liquid biopsies and their potential clinical uses for adult-type diffuse gliomas.

RECENT FINDINGS

Evaluation of tumor biomolecules via cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is an emerging technology in neuro-oncology. Studies to date have already identified various circulating tumor DNA, extracellular vesicle, micro-messenger RNA and protein biomarkers of interest. These biomarkers show potential to assist in multiple avenues of central nervous system (CNS) tumor evaluation, including tumor differentiation and diagnosis, treatment selection, response assessment, detection of tumor progression, and prognosis. In addition, CSF liquid biopsies have the potential to better characterize tumor heterogeneity compared to conventional tissue collection and CNS imaging. Current imaging modalities are not sufficient to establish a definitive glioma diagnosis and repeated tissue sampling via conventional biopsy is risky, therefore, there is a great need to improve non-invasive and minimally invasive sampling methods. CSF liquid biopsies represent a promising, minimally invasive adjunct to current approaches which can provide diagnostic and prognostic information as well as aid in response assessment.

Combined therapy of CAR-IL-15/IL-15Rα-T cells and GLIPR1 knockdown in cancer cells enhanced anti-tumor effect against gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has shown remarkable responses in hematological malignancies with several approved products, but not in solid tumors. Patients suffer from limited response and tumor relapse due to low efficacy of CAR-T cells in the complicated and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. This clinical challenge has called for better CAR designs and combined strategies to improve CAR-T cell therapy against tumor changes.

METHODS

In this study, IL-15/IL-15Rα was inserted into the extracellular region of CAR targeting mesothelin. In-vitro cytotoxicity and cytokine production were detected by bioluminescence-based killing and ELISA respectively. In-vivo xenograft mice model was used to evaluate the anti-tumor effect of CAR-T cells. RNA-sequencing and online database analysis were used to identify new targets in residual gastric cancer cells after cytotoxicity assay. CAR-T cell functions were detected in vitro and in vivo after GLI Pathogenesis Related 1 (GLIPR1) knockdown in gastric cancer cells. Cell proliferation and migration of gastric cancer cells were detected by CCK-8 and scratch assay respectively after GLIPR1 were overexpressed or down-regulated.

RESULTS

CAR-T cells constructed with IL-15/IL-15Rα (CAR-ss-T) showed significantly improved CAR-T cell expansion, cytokine production and cytotoxicity, and resulted in superior tumor control compared to conventional CAR-T cells in gastric cancer. GLIPR1 was up-regulated after CAR-T treatment and survival was decreased in gastric cancer patients with high GLIPR1 expression. Overexpression of GLIPR1 inhibited cytotoxicity of conventional CAR-T but not CAR-ss-T cells. CAR-T treatment combined with GLIPR1 knockdown increased anti-tumor efficacy in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrated for the first time that this CAR structure design combined with GLIPR1 knockdown in gastric cancer improved CAR-T cell-mediated anti-tumor response.

Propofol Inhibits Glioma Stem Cell Growth and Migration and Their Interaction with Microglia via BDNF-AS and Extracellular Vesicles

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor. GBM contains a small subpopulation of glioma stem cells (GSCs) that are implicated in treatment resistance, tumor infiltration, and recurrence, and are thereby considered important therapeutic targets. Recent clinical studies have suggested that the choice of general anesthetic (GA), particularly propofol, during tumor resection, affects subsequent tumor response to treatments and patient prognosis. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying propofol's anti-tumor effects on GSCs and their interaction with microglia cells. Propofol exerted a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the self-renewal, expression of mesenchymal markers, and migration of GSCs and sensitized them to both temozolomide (TMZ) and radiation. At higher concentrations, propofol induced a large degree of cell death, as demonstrated using microfluid chip technology. Propofol increased the expression of the lncRNA BDNF-AS, which acts as a tumor suppressor in GBM, and silencing of this lncRNA partially abrogated propofol's effects. Propofol also inhibited the pro-tumorigenic GSC-microglia crosstalk via extracellular vesicles (EVs) and delivery of BDNF-AS. In conclusion, propofol exerted anti-tumor effects on GSCs, sensitized these cells to radiation and TMZ, and inhibited their pro-tumorigenic interactions with microglia via transfer of BDNF-AS by EVs.

A Comprehensive Review of miRNAs and Their Epigenetic Effects in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma is the most aggressive form of brain tumor originating from glial cells with a maximum life expectancy of 14.6 months. Despite the establishment of multiple promising therapies, the clinical outcome of glioblastoma patients is abysmal. Drug resistance has been identified as a major factor contributing to the failure of current multimodal therapy. Epigenetic modification, especially DNA methylation has been identified as a major regulatory mechanism behind glioblastoma progression. In addition, miRNAs, a class of non-coding RNA, have been found to play a role in the regulation as well as in the diagnosis of glioblastoma. The relationship between epigenetics, drug resistance, and glioblastoma progression has been clearly demonstrated. MGMT hypermethylation, leading to a lack of MGMT expression, is associated with a cytotoxic effect of TMZ in GBM, while resistance to TMZ frequently appears in MGMT non-methylated GBM. In this review, we will elaborate on known miRNAs linked to glioblastoma; their distinctive oncogenic or tumor suppressor roles; and how epigenetic modification of miRNAs, particularly via methylation, leads to their upregulation or downregulation in glioblastoma. Moreover, we will try to identify those miRNAs that might be potential regulators of MGMT expression and their role as predictors of tumor response to temozolomide treatment. Although we do not impact clinical data and survival, we open possible experimental approaches to treat GBM, although they should be further validated with clinically oriented studies.

Signaling pathways governing glioma cancer stem cells behavior

Glioma is the most common malignant brain tumor that develops in the glial tissue. Several studies have identified that glioma cancer stem cells (GCSCs) play important roles in tumor-initiating features in malignant gliomas. GCSCs are a small population in the brain that presents an essential role in the metastasis of glioma cells to other organs. These cells can self-renew and differentiate, which are thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioma. Therefore, targeting GCSCs might be a novel strategy for the treatment of glioma. Accumulating evidence revealed that several signaling pathways, including Notch, TGF-β, Wnt, STAT3, AKT, and EGFR mediated GCSC growth, proliferation, migration, and invasion. Besides, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including miRNAs, circular RNAs, and long ncRNAs have been found to play pivotal roles in the regulation of GCSC pathogenesis and drug resistance. Therefore, targeting these pathways could open a new avenue for glioma management. In this review, we summarized critical signaling pathways involved in the stimulation or prevention of GCSCs tumorigenesis and invasiveness.

Non-coding RNAs and glioma: Focus on cancer stem cells

Glioblastoma and gliomas can have a wide range of histopathologic subtypes. These heterogeneous histologic phenotypes originate from tumor cells with the distinct functions of tumorigenesis and self-renewal, called glioma stem cells (GSCs). GSCs are characterized based on multi-layered epigenetic mechanisms, which control the expression of many genes. This epigenetic regulatory mechanism is often based on functional non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). ncRNAs have become increasingly important in the pathogenesis of human cancer and work as oncogenes or tumor suppressors to regulate carcinogenesis and progression. These RNAs by being involved in chromatin remodeling and modification, transcriptional regulation, and alternative splicing of pre-mRNA, as well as mRNA stability and protein translation, play a key role in tumor development and progression. Numerous studies have been performed to try to understand the dysregulation pattern of these ncRNAs in tumors and cancer stem cells (CSCs), which show robust differentiation and self-regeneration capacity. This review provides recent findings on the role of ncRNAs in glioma development and progression, particularly their effects on CSCs, thus accelerating the clinical implementation of ncRNAs as promising tumor biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

The evaluation expression of non-coding RNAs in response to HSV-G47∆ oncolytic virus infection in glioblastoma multiforme cancer stem cells

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most aggressive astrocytes brain tumor. Glioblastoma cancer stem cells and hypoxia conditions are well-known major obstacles in treatment. Studies have revealed that non-coding RNAs serve a critical role in glioblastoma progression, invasion, and resistance to chemo-radiotherapy. The present study examined the expression levels of microRNAs (in normoxic condition) and long non-coding RNAs (in normoxic and hypoxic conditions) in glioblastoma stem cells treated with the HSV-G47∆. The expression levels of 43 miRNAs and 8 lncRNAs isolated from U251-GBM-CSCs were analyzed using a miRCURY LNA custom PCR array and a quantitative PCR assay, respectively. The data revealed that out of 43 miRNAs that only were checked in normoxic condition, the only 8 miRNAs, including miR-7-1, miR-let-7b, miR-130a, miR-137, miR-200b, miR-221, miR-222, and miR-874, were markedly upregulated. The expression levels of lncRNAs, including LEF1 antisense RNA 1 (LEF1-AS1), metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1), long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 470 (LINC00470), tumor suppressor candidate 7 (TUSC7), HOX transcript antisense RNA (HOTAIR), nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1), and X inactive specific transcript (XIST), were markedly downregulated in the hypoxic microenvironment, and H19-imprinted maternally expressed transcript (H19) was not observed to be dysregulated in this environment. Under normoxic conditions, LEF1-AS1, MALAT1, LINC00470, H19, HOTAIR, NEAT1, and XIST were downregulated and TUSC7 was not targeted by HSV-G47∆. Overall, the present data shows HSVG47Δ treatment deregulates non-coding RNA expression in GBM-CSC tumor microenvironments.

Heterogeneity of glioblastoma stem cells in the context of the immune microenvironment and geospatial organization

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an extremely aggressive and incurable primary brain tumor with a 10-year survival of just 0.71%. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are thought to seed GBM's inevitable recurrence by evading standard of care treatment, which combines surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, contributing to this grim prognosis. Effective targeting of CSCs could result in insights into GBM treatment resistance and development of novel treatment paradigms. There is a major ongoing effort to characterize CSCs, understand their interactions with the tumor microenvironment, and identify ways to eliminate them. This review discusses the diversity of CSC lineages present in GBM and how this glioma stem cell (GSC) mosaicism drives global intratumoral heterogeneity constituted by complex and spatially distinct local microenvironments. We review how a tumor's diverse CSC populations orchestrate and interact with the environment, especially the immune landscape. We also discuss how to map this intricate GBM ecosystem through the lens of metabolism and immunology to find vulnerabilities and new ways to disrupt the equilibrium of the system to achieve improved disease outcome.

Genomic and Epigenomic Features of Glioblastoma Multiforme and its Biomarkers

Glioblastoma multiforme is a serious and life-threatening tumor of central nervous system, characterized by aggressive behavior, poor prognosis, and low survival rate. Despite of the availability of aggressive antitumor therapeutic regimen for glioblastoma (radiotherapy followed by chemotherapeutic dose), recovery rate, and patients' survival ratio is attributed to the lack of selectivity of therapeutic drugs and less advancement in cancer therapeutics over last decade. Moreover, tools employed in conventional diagnosis of glioblastoma are more invasive and painful, making the process excruciating for the patients. These challenges urge for the need of novel biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction purpose with less invasiveness and more patient compliance. This article will explore the genetic biomarkers isocitrate dehydrogenase mutation, MGMT mutations, and EGFR that can be deployed as an analytical tool in diagnosis of disease and prognosis of a therapeutic course. The review also highlights the importance of employing novel microRNAs as prognostic biomarkers. Recent clinical advancements to treat GBM and to prevent relapse of the disease are also discussed in this article in the hope of finding a robust and effective method to treat GBM.

Emerging role of non-coding RNAs in the regulation of Sonic Hedgehog signaling pathway

Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling cascade is one of the complex signaling pathways that control the accurately organized developmental processes in multicellular organisms. This pathway has fundamental roles in the tumor formation and induction of resistance to conventional therapies. Numerous non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been found to interact with Shh pathway to induce several pathogenic processes, including malignant and non-malignant disorders. Many of the Shh-interacting ncRNAs are oncogenes whose expressions have been increased in diverse malignancies. A number of Shh-targeting miRNAs such as miR-26a, miR-1471, miR-129-5p, miR-361-3p, miR-26b-5p and miR-361-3p have been found to be down-regulated in tumor tissues. In addition to malignant conditions, Shh-interacting ncRNAs can affect tissue regeneration and development of neurodegenerative disorders. XIST, LOC101930370, lncRNA-Hh, circBCBM1, SNHG6, LINC‐PINT, TUG1 and LINC01426 are among long non-coding RNAs/circular RNAs that interact with Shh pathway. Moreover, miR-424, miR-26a, miR-1471, miR-125a, miR-210, miR-130a-5p, miR-199b, miR-155, let-7, miR-30c, miR-326, miR-26b-5p, miR-9, miR-132, miR-146a and miR-425-5p are among Shh-interacting miRNAs. The current review summarizes the interactions between ncRNAs and Shh in these contexts.

Recent insights into the microRNA-dependent modulation of gliomas from pathogenesis to diagnosis and treatment

Gliomas are the most lethal primary brain tumors in adults. These highly invasive tumors have poor 5-year survival for patients. Gliomas are principally characterized by rapid diffusion as well as high levels of cellular heterogeneity. However, to date, the exact pathogenic mechanisms, contributing to gliomas remain ambiguous. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), as small noncoding RNAs of about 20 nucleotides in length, are known as chief modulators of different biological processes at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. More recently, it has been revealed that these noncoding RNA molecules have essential roles in tumorigenesis and progression of multiple cancers, including gliomas. Interestingly, miRNAs are able to modulate diverse cancer-related processes such as cell proliferation and apoptosis, invasion and migration, differentiation and stemness, angiogenesis, and drug resistance; thus, impaired miRNAs may result in deterioration of gliomas. Additionally, miRNAs can be secreted into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), as well as the bloodstream, and transported between normal and tumor cells freely or by exosomes, converting them into potential diagnostic and/or prognostic biomarkers for gliomas. They would also be great therapeutic agents, especially if they could cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Accordingly, in the current review, the contribution of miRNAs to glioma pathogenesis is first discussed, then their glioma-related diagnostic/prognostic and therapeutic potential is highlighted briefly.

Molecular Pathways and Genomic Landscape of Glioblastoma Stem Cells: Opportunities for Targeted Therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive tumor of the central nervous system categorized by the World Health Organization as a Grade 4 astrocytoma. Despite treatment with surgical resection, adjuvant chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, outcomes remain poor, with a median survival of only 14-16 months. Although tumor regression is often observed initially after treatment, long-term recurrence or progression invariably occurs. Tumor growth, invasion, and recurrence is mediated by a unique population of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). Their high mutation rate and dysregulated transcriptional landscape augment their resistance to conventional chemotherapy and radiation therapy, explaining the poor outcomes observed in patients. Consequently, GSCs have emerged as targets of interest in new treatment paradigms. Here, we review the unique properties of GSCs, including their interactions with the hypoxic microenvironment that drives their proliferation. We discuss vital signaling pathways in GSCs that mediate stemness, self-renewal, proliferation, and invasion, including the Notch, epidermal growth factor receptor, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt, sonic hedgehog, transforming growth factor beta, Wnt, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, and inhibitors of differentiation pathways. We also review epigenomic changes in GSCs that influence their transcriptional state, including DNA methylation, histone methylation and acetylation, and miRNA expression. The constituent molecular components of the signaling pathways and epigenomic regulators represent potential sites for targeted therapy, and representative examples of inhibitory molecules and pharmaceuticals are discussed. Continued investigation into the molecular pathways of GSCs and candidate therapeutics is needed to discover new effective treatments for GBM and improve survival.

The effects of altered neurogenic microRNA levels and their involvement in the aggressiveness of periventricular glioblastoma

INTRODUCTION

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common primary brain tumour, with the least favourable prognosis. Despite numerous studies and medical advances, it continues to be lethal, with an average life expectancy of 15 months after chemo-radiotherapy.

DEVELOPMENT

Recent research has addressed several factors associated with the diagnosis and prognosis of glioblastoma; one significant factor is tumour localisation, particularly the subventricular zone, which represents one of the most active neurogenic niches of the adult human brain. Glioblastomas in this area are generally more aggressive, resulting in unfavourable prognosis and a shorter life expectancy. Currently, the research into microRNAs (miRNA) has intensified, revealing different expression patterns under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. It has been reported that the expression levels of certain miRNAs, mainly those related to neurogenic processes, are dysregulated in oncogenic events, thus favouring gliomagenesis and greater tumour aggressiveness. This review discusses some of the most important miRNAs involved in subventricular neurogenic processes and their association with glioblastoma aggressiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

MiRNA regulation and function play an important role in the development and progression of glioblastoma; understanding the alterations of certain miRNAs involved in both differentiation and neural and glial maturation could help us to better understand the malignant characteristics of glioblastoma.

Delphinidin and Its Glycosides' War on Cancer: Preclinical Perspectives

Until now, several studies have looked at the issue of anthocyanin and cancer, namely the preventive and inhibitory effects of anthocyanins, as well as the underlying molecular processes. However, no targeted review is available regarding the anticarcinogenic effects of delphinidin and its glycosides on various cancers and their plausible molecular mechanisms. Considerable evidence shows significant anticancer properties of delphinidin-rich preparations and delphinidin alone both in vitro and in vivo. This review covers the in vitro and preclinical implications of delphinidin-mediated cell protection and cancer prevention; thus, we strongly recommend that delphinidin-rich preparations be further investigated as potential functional food, dietary antioxidant supplements, and natural health products targeting specific chronic diseases, including cancer. In addition to in vitro investigations, future research should focus on more animal and human studies to determine the true potential of delphinidin.

GLIPR1 Protects Against Cigarette Smoke-Induced Airway Inflammation via PLAU/EGFR Signaling

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a major health problem associated with high mortality worldwide. Cigarette smoke (CS) exposure is the main cause of COPD. Glioma pathogenesis-related protein 1 (GLIPR1) plays a key role in cell growth, proliferation, and invasion; however, the role of GLIPR1 in COPD remains unclear.

Methods

To clarify the involvement of GLIPR1 in COPD pathogenesis, Glipr1 knockout (Glipr1-/-) mice were generated. Wild-type (WT) and Glipr1-/- mice were challenged with CS for 3 months. To illustrate how GLIPR1 regulates CS-induced airway damage, knockdown experiments targeting GLIPR1 and PLAU, as well as overexpression experiments of PLAU, were performed with human bronchial epithelial cells.

Results

Compared with WT mice, Glipr1-/- mice showed exacerbated CS-induced airway damage including lung inflammation, airway wall thickening, and alveolar destruction. After CS exposure, total proteins, total white cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes, IL-6, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 increased significantly in lung of Glipr1-/- mice than those in lung of WT mice. Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro experiments demonstrated that silencing of GLIPR1 inactivated PLAU/EGFR signaling and promoted caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis (a mode of inflammatory cell death) induced by CS and CS extract exposure, respectively. In vitro experiments further revealed the interaction between GLIPR1 and PLAU, and silencing of PLAU blocked EGFR signaling and promoted pyroptosis, while overexpression of PLAU activated EGFR signaling and reversed pyroptosis.

Conclusion

To conclude, GLIPR1 played a pivotal role in COPD pathogenesis and protected against CS-induced inflammatory response and airway damage, including cell pyroptosis, through the PLAU/EGFR signaling. Thus, GLIPR1 may play a potential role in COPD treatment.

Role of microRNAs in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive primary human brain cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a set of small endogenous non-coding RNA molecules which play critical roles in different biological processes including cancer. The realization of miRNA regulatory functions in GBM has demonstrated that these molecules play a critical role in its initiation, progression and response to therapy. In this review we discuss the studies related to miRNA discovery and function in glioblastoma. We first summarize the typical miRNAs and their roles in GBM. Then we debate the potential for miRNA-based therapy for glioblastoma, including various delivery strategies. We surmise that future directions identified by these studies will point towards the necessity for therapeutic development and optimization to improve the outcomes for patients with glioblastoma.

MicroRNAs mediated regulation of glutathione peroxidase 7 expression and its changes during adipogenesis

Glutathione peroxidase 7 (GPx7) acts as an intracellular stress sensor/transmitter and plays an important role in adipocyte differentiation and the prevention of obesity related pathologies. For this reason, finding the regulatory mechanisms that control GPx7 expression is of great importance. As microRNAs (miRNAs) could participate in the regulation of GPx7 expression, we studied the inhibition of GPx7 expression by four selected miRNAs with relation to obesity and adipogenesis. The effect of the transfection of selected miRNAs mimics on GPx7 expression was tested in three cell models (HEK293, SW480, AT-MSC). The interaction of selected miRNAs with the 3'UTR of GPx7 was followed up on using a luciferase gene reporter assay. In addition, the levels of GPx7 and selected miRNAs in adipose tissue mesenchymal stem cells (AT-MSC) and mature adipocytes from four human donors were compared, with the changes in these levels during adipogenesis analyzed. Our results show for the first time that miR-137 and miR-29b bind to the 3'UTR region of GPx7 and inhibit the expression of this enzyme at the mRNA and protein level in all the human cells tested. However, no negative correlation between miR-137 nor miR-29b level and GPx7 was observed during adipogenesis. Despite the confirmed inhibition of GPx7 expression by miR-137 and miR-29b, the action of these two molecules in adipogenesis and mature adipocytes must be accompanied by other regulators.

An Insight into the microRNAs Associated with Arteriovenous and Cavernous Malformations of the Brain

Background: Brain arteriovenous malformations (BAVMs) and cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) are rare developmental anomalies of the intracranial vasculature, with an irregular tendency to rupture, and as of yet incompletely deciphered pathophysiology. Because of their variety in location, morphology, and size, as well as unpredictable natural history, they represent a management challenge. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are strands of non-coding RNA of around 20 nucleotides that are able to modulate the expression of target genes by binding completely or partially to their respective complementary sequences. Recent breakthroughs have been made on elucidating their contribution to BAVM and CCM occurrence, growth, and evolution; however, there are still countless gaps in our understanding of the mechanisms involved. Methods: We have searched the Medline (PubMed; PubMed Central) database for pertinent articles on miRNAs and their putative implications in BAVMs and CCMs. To this purpose, we employed various permutations of the terms and idioms: ‘arteriovenous malformation’, ‘AVM’, and ‘BAVM’, or ‘cavernous malformation’, ‘cavernoma’, and ‘cavernous angioma’ on the one hand; and ‘microRNA’, ‘miRNA’, and ‘miR’ on the other. Using cross-reference search; we then investigated additional articles concerning the individual miRNAs identified in other cerebral diseases. Results: Seven miRNAs were discovered to play a role in BAVMs, three of which were downregulated (miR-18a, miR-137, and miR-195*) and four upregulated (miR-7-5p, miR-199a-5p, miR-200b-3p, and let-7b-3p). Similarly, eight miRNAs were identified in CCM in humans and experimental animal models, two being upregulated (miR-27a and mmu-miR-3472a), and six downregulated (miR-125a, miR-361-5p, miR-370-3p, miR-181a-2-3p, miR-95-3p, and let-7b-3p). Conclusions: The following literature review endeavored to address the recent discoveries related to the various implications of miRNAs in the formation and growth of BAVMs and CCMs. Additionally, by presenting other cerebral pathologies correlated with these miRNAs, it aimed to emphasize the potential directions of upcoming research and biological therapies.

GliPR1 knockdown by RNA interference exerts anti-glioma effects in vitro and in vivo

INTRODUCTION

In human glioblastomas, glioma pathogenesis-related protein1 (GliPR1) is overexpressed and appears to be an oncoprotein. We investigated whether GliPR1 knockdown in glioma cells by RNA interference exerts anti-glioma effects.

METHODS

Experiments used human glioblastoma cell lines transduced with GliPR1 shRNA (sh#301, sh#258). Transduction produced stringent doxycycline-dependent GliPR1 knockdown in clones (via lentiviral "all-in-one" TetOn-shRNA vector) or stable GliPR1 knockdown in polyclonal cells (via constitutive retroviral-shRNA vector). In vitro assessments included cellular proliferation and clonogenic survival. In vivo assessments in tumor-bearing nude mice included tumor growth and survival.

RESULTS

Using doxycycline-dependent GliPR1 knockdown, shGliPR1-transduced U87-MG clones demonstrated reductions in cellular proliferation in the presence versus absence of doxycycline. Using stable GliPR1 knockdown, polyclonal shGliPR1-transduced U87-MG, A172, and U343-MG cells consistently showed decreased clonogenic survival and induced apoptosis (higher proportion of early apoptotic cells) compared to control shLuc-transduced cells. In tumor-bearing nude mice, using doxycycline-dependent GliPR1 knockdown, subcutaneous and cranial transplantation of the U87-MG clone 980-5 (transduced with GliPR1 sh#301) resulted in reduced subcutaneous tumor volume and cerebral tumor area in doxycycline-treated mice versus those left untreated. Using stable GliPR1 knockdown, nude mice cranially transplanted with polyclonal U87-MG cells transduced with GliPR1 sh#258 had significantly prolonged survival compared to mice cranially transplanted with control shLuc-transduced cells (41 versus 26 days; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

GliPR1 knockdown in glioma cells decreased cellular proliferation, decreased clonogenic survival, and induced apoptosis in vitro, and reduced glioblastoma tumor growth and prolonged survival in vivo. These findings support that GliPR1 may have potential value as a therapeutic target.

Glioma pathogenesis-related protein 1 performs dual functions in tumor cells

Glioma pathogenesis-related protein 1 (GLIPR1) was identified as an oncoprotein in some cancer types including gliomas, breast cancers, melanoma cancers, and Wilms tumors, but as a tumor suppressor in some other types of cancers, such as prostate cancers, lung cancers, bladder cancers, and thyroid cancers. In gliomas, GLIPR1 promotes the migration and invasion of glioma cells by interaction with the actin polymerization regulator Neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) and then abolishes the negative effects of Heterogeneous nuclear ribonuclear protein K (hnRNPK). In prostate cancers, high levels of GLIPR1 induce apoptosis and destruction of oncoproteins. In lung cancers, overexpression of GLIPR1 inhibits the growth of lung cancer cells partially through inhibiting the V-ErbB avian erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog3 (ErbB3) pathway. However, the mechanisms that GLIPR1 performs its function in other tumors still remain unclear. The tumor suppressing role of GLIPR1 has been explored to the cancer treatment. The adenoviral vector-mediated Glipr1 (AdGlipr1) gene therapy and the GLIPR1-transmembrane domain deleted (GLIPR1-ΔTM) protein therapy both showed antitumor activities and stimulated immune response in prostate cancers. Whether GLPIR1 can be used to treat other tumors is an important topic to be explored. Among which, whether GLPIR1 can be used to treat lung cancer by atomizing inhalation is the key topic we care about. If it does, this therapy has a wide application prospect and is a great progression in lung cancer treatment.

The functions of CAP superfamily proteins in mammalian fertility and disease

BACKGROUND

Members of the cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPS), antigen 5 (Ag5) and pathogenesis-related 1 (Pr-1) (CAP) superfamily of proteins are found across the bacterial, fungal, plant and animal kingdoms. Although many CAP superfamily proteins remain poorly characterized, over the past decade evidence has accumulated, which provides insights into the functional roles of these proteins in various processes, including fertilization, immune defence and subversion, pathogen virulence, venom toxicology and cancer biology.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The aim of this article is to summarize the current state of knowledge on CAP superfamily proteins in mammalian fertility, organismal homeostasis and disease pathogenesis.

SEARCH METHODS

The scientific literature search was undertaken via PubMed database on all articles published prior to November 2019. Search terms were based on following keywords: 'CAP superfamily', 'CRISP', 'Cysteine-rich secretory proteins', 'Antigen 5', 'Pathogenesis-related 1', 'male fertility', 'CAP and CTL domain containing', 'CRISPLD1', 'CRISPLD2', 'bacterial SCP', 'ion channel regulator', 'CatSper', 'PI15', 'PI16', 'CLEC', 'PRY proteins', 'ASP proteins', 'spermatogenesis', 'epididymal maturation', 'capacitation' and 'snake CRISP'. In addition to that, reference lists of primary and review article were reviewed for additional relevant publications.

OUTCOMES

In this review, we discuss the breadth of knowledge on CAP superfamily proteins with regards to their protein structure, biological functions and emerging significance in reproduction, health and disease. We discuss the evolution of CAP superfamily proteins from their otherwise unembellished prokaryotic predecessors into the multi-domain and neofunctionalized members found in eukaryotic organisms today. At least in part because of the rapid evolution of these proteins, many inconsistencies in nomenclature exist within the literature. As such, and in part through the use of a maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis of the vertebrate CRISP subfamily, we have attempted to clarify this confusion, thus allowing for a comparison of orthologous protein function between species. This framework also allows the prediction of functional relevance between species based on sequence and structural conservation.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

This review generates a picture of critical roles for CAP proteins in ion channel regulation, sterol and lipid binding and protease inhibition, and as ligands involved in the induction of multiple cellular processes.

MicroRNAs at the Crossroad of the Dichotomic Pathway Cell Death vs. Stemness in Neural Somatic and Cancer Stem Cells: Implications and Therapeutic Strategies

Stemness and apoptosis may highlight the dichotomy between regeneration and demise in the complex pathway proceeding from ontogenesis to the end of life. In the last few years, the concept has emerged that the same microRNAs (miRNAs) can be concurrently implicated in both apoptosis-related mechanisms and cell differentiation. Whether the differentiation process gives rise to the architecture of brain areas, any long-lasting perturbation of miRNA expression can be related to the occurrence of neurodevelopmental/neuropathological conditions. Moreover, as a consequence of neural stem cell (NSC) transformation to cancer stem cells (CSCs), the fine modulation of distinct miRNAs becomes necessary. This event implies controlling the expression of pro/anti-apoptotic target genes, which is crucial for the management of neural/neural crest-derived CSCs in brain tumors, neuroblastoma, and melanoma. From a translational point of view, the current progress on the emerging miRNA-based neuropathology therapeutic applications and antitumor strategies will be disclosed and their advantages and shortcomings discussed.

A novel miR-7156-3p-HOXD13 axis modulates glioma progression by regulating tumor cell stemness

Malignant glioma is the most common brain tumor in adults. Despite the great advances in anti-glioma treatments which have led to significant improvement in clinical outcomes, tumor recurrence remains the major cause of mortality. Increased cancer cell stemness and invasiveness are correlated with glioma progression. By searching the Cancer Genome Atlas, we showed that the expression of miR-7156-3p is significantly decreased in glioma tissues compared to the normal brain, and the decreased level of miR-7156-3p is closely correlated with glioma grade and patient survival. Clinical study consistently confirmed that miR-7156-3p is negatively correlated with glioma grade. Cell culture and animal experiments revealed that inhibition of miR-7156-3p effectively stimulates glioma cell stemness, invasion, and growth. In contrast, the augmentation of miR-7156-3p inhibits these phenotypes. Using Next-generation sequencing combined with target prediction approach, Homeobox D13 (HOXD13) is identified as the target gene of miR-7156-3p and further validated by luciferase reporter assay and cell transfection experiments. Additional in vitro and animal experiments demonstrated that miR-7156-3p regulates glioma cell stemness, invasion, and growth by mediating HOXD13. In conclusion, our findings provide new insight into the regulation of glioma stemness and invasiveness and may propose a potential strategy for anti-glioma treatment. Moreover, miR-7156-3p may serve as a candidate biomarker for predicting glioma progression in clinical practice.

miR-504 modulates the stemness and mesenchymal transition of glioma stem cells and their interaction with microglia via delivery by extracellular vesicles

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly aggressive tumor with poor prognosis. A small subpopulation of glioma stem cells (GSCs) has been implicated in radiation resistance and tumor recurrence. In this study we analyzed the expression of miRNAs associated with the functions of GSCs using miRNA microarray analysis of these cells compared with human neural stem cells. These analyses identified gene clusters associated with glioma cell invasiveness, axonal guidance, and TGF-β signaling. miR-504 was significantly downregulated in GSCs compared with NSCs, its expression was lower in GBM compared with normal brain specimens and further decreased in the mesenchymal glioma subtype. Overexpression of miR-504 in GSCs inhibited their self-renewal, migration and the expression of mesenchymal markers. The inhibitory effect of miR-504 was mediated by targeting Grb10 expression which acts as an oncogene in GSCs and GBM. Overexpression of exogenous miR-504 resulted also in its delivery to cocultured microglia by GSC-secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) and in the abrogation of the GSC-induced polarization of microglia to M2 subtype. Finally, miR-504 overexpression prolonged the survival of mice harboring GSC-derived xenografts and decreased tumor growth. In summary, we identified miRNAs and potential target networks that play a role in the stemness and mesenchymal transition of GSCs and the miR-504/Grb10 pathway as an important regulator of this process. Overexpression of miR-504 exerted antitumor effects in GSCs as well as bystander effects on the polarization of microglia via delivery by EVs.

Deciphering the vascular labyrinth: role of microRNAs and candidate gene SNPs in brain AVM development - literature review

Background: Brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are a relatively infrequent vascular pathology of unknown etiology that, despite their rarity, cause the highest number of hemorrhagic strokes under the age of 30 years. They pose a challenge to all forms of treatment due to their variable morphology, location, size, and, last but not least, evolving nature. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNA strands that may suppress the expression of target genes by binding completely or partially to their complementary sequences. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as the name implies, are variations in a single nucleotide in the DNA, usually found in the non-coding segments. Although the majority of SNPs are harmless, some located in the proximity of candidate genes may result in altered expression or function of these genes and cause diseases or affect how different pathologies react to treatment. The roles miRNAs and certain SNPs play in the development and growth of AVMs are currently uncertain, yet progress in deciphering the minutiae of this pathology is already visible. Methods and Results: We performed an electronic Medline (PubMed, PubMed Central) and Google Academic exploration using permutations of the terms: "arteriovenous malformations," "single nucleotide polymorphisms," "microRNA," "non-coding RNA," and "genetic mutations." The findings were then divided into two categories, namely the miRNAs and the candidate gene SNPs associated with AVMs respectively. 6 miRNAs and 12 candidate gene SNPs were identified and discussed. Conclusions: The following literature review focuses on the discoveries made in ascertaining the different implications of miRNAs and candidate gene SNPs in the formation and evolution of brain AVMs, as well as highlighting the possible directions of future research and biological treatment. Abbreviations: ACVRL1/ALK1: activin receptor-like kinase 1; Akt: protein kinase B; ANGPTL4: angiopoietin-like 4; ANRIL: antisense noncoding RNA in the INK4 locus; AVM: arteriovenous malformation; AVM-BEC: arteriovenous malformation brain endothelial cell; BRCA1: breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein; CCS: case-control study; CDKN2A/B: cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A/B; CLTC: clathrin heavy chain; DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; GPR124: probable G-protein coupled receptor 124; GWAS: genome-wide association study; HHT: hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia; HIF1A: hypoxia-inducible factor 1A; IA: intracranial aneurysm; ICH: intracranial hemorrhage; Id-1: inhibitor of DNA-binding protein A; IL-17: interleukin 17; MAP4K3: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase kinase 3; miRNA: microRNA; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; NFkB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain of activated B cells; NOTCH: neurogenic locus notch homolog; p38MAPK: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; RBBP8: retinoblastoma-binding protein 8; RNA: ribonucleic acid; SNAI1: Snail Family Transcriptional Repressor 1; SNP: single nucleotide polymorphism; SOX-17: SRY-related HMG-box; TGF-β: transformation growth factor β; TGFR: transformation growth factor receptor; TIMP-4, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 4; TSP-1: thrombospondin-1; UTR: untranslated region; VEGF: Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor; VSMC: vascular smooth muscle cell; Wnt1: Wnt family member 1.

miR-137: A Novel Therapeutic Target for Human Glioma

MicroRNA (miR)-137 is highly expressed in the brain and plays a crucial role in the development and prognosis of glioma. In this review, we aim to summarize the latest findings regarding miR-137 in glioma cell apoptosis, proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, drug resistance, and cancer treatment. In addition, we focus on the identified miR-137 targets and pathways in the occurrence and development of glioma. Finally, future implications for the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of miR-137 in glioma were discussed.

Abuhamad A, Syahir A. Understanding Glioblastoma Biomarkers: Knocking a Mountain with a Hammer

Gliomas are the most frequent and deadly form of human primary brain tumors. Among them, the most common and aggressive type is the high-grade glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), which rapidly grows and renders patients a very poor prognosis. Meanwhile, cancer stem cells (CSCs) have been determined in gliomas and play vital roles in driving tumor growth due to their competency in self-renewal and proliferation. Studies of gliomas have recognized CSCs via specific markers. This review comprehensively examines the current knowledge of the most significant CSCs markers in gliomas in general and in glioblastoma in particular and specifically focuses on their outlook and importance in gliomas CSCs research. We suggest that CSCs should be the superior therapeutic approach by directly targeting the markers. In addition, we highlight the association of these markers with each other in relation to their cascading pathways, and interactions with functional miRNAs, providing the role of the networks axes in glioblastoma signaling pathways.

Sevoflurane modulates the cancer stem cell-like properties and mitochondrial membrane potential of glioma via Ca2+-dependent CaMKII/JNK cascade

AIMS

Gliomas are responsible for the majority of deaths from primary brain tumours. Sevoflurane showed inhibition effects on the tumor progression in vitro. However, whether sevoflurane could affect the stemness of glioma stem cells (GSCs) and the potential molecular mechanism have not been well elucidated.

MAIN METHODS

Effects of sevoflurane on cell viability, proliferation and invasion ability of glioma cells as well as tumor growth in vivo were assessed. Sphere formation assay was performed to evaluate the effect of sevoflurane on the stemness of GSCs. Effects of sevoflurane on mitochondrial function was evaluated by intracellular/mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and mitochondrial membrane potential. Expression levels of proliferation-related proteins, stemness markers and proteins in CaMKII/JNK cascade were measured by Western blot.

KEY FINDINGS

Sevoflurane inhibited the viability, proliferation and invasion ability of glioma cells (U87MG and U373MG). Western blot showed that sevoflurane decreased the expression levels of proliferation and invasion-related proteins. Sphere formation ability of GSCs, expression levels of stemness markers and mitochondrial function were significantly suppressed by sevoflurane. Moreover, sevoflurane treatment significantly increased the Ca²⁺ concentration and stimulated phosphorylation of CaMKII, JNK and IRS1. Ca²⁺ chelator BAPTA-AM combined with sevoflurane synergistically inhibited colony forming ability and the expression levels of proliferation-related proteins and stemness markers. In addition, the in vivo study further confirmed that sevoflurane inhibited tumor growth via Ca²⁺-dependent CaMKII/JNK cascade.

SIGNIFICANCE

The present study demonstrated that sevoflurane inhibited glioma tumorigenesis and modulated the cancer stem cell-like properties and mitochondrial membrane potential via activation of Ca²⁺-dependent CaMKII/JNK cascade.

Emerging Roles and Potential Applications of Non-Coding RNAs in Glioblastoma

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) comprise a diversity of RNA species, which do not have the potential to encode proteins. Non-coding RNAs include two classes of RNAs, namely: short regulatory ncRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). The short regulatory RNAs, containing up to 200 nucleotides, include small RNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNA), short interfering RNAs (siRNAs), piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), and small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). The lncRNAs include long antisense RNAs and long intergenic RNAs (lincRNAs). Non-coding RNAs have been implicated as master regulators of several biological processes, their expression being strictly regulated under physiological conditions. In recent years, particularly in the last decade, substantial effort has been made to investigate the function of ncRNAs in several human diseases, including cancer. Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive type of brain cancer in adults, with deregulated expression of small and long ncRNAs having been implicated in onset, progression, invasiveness, and recurrence of this tumor. The aim of this review is to guide the reader through important aspects of miRNA and lncRNA biology, focusing on the molecular mechanism associated with the progression of this highly malignant cancer type.

FRAT1 Enhances the Proliferation and Tumorigenesis of CD133+Nestin+ Glioma Stem Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Glioma stem cells (GSCs) are considered the source for development, recurrence, and poor prognosis of glioma, so treatment targeted GSCs is of great interest. The frequently rearranged in advanced T cell lymphomas-1 (FRAT1) gene is an important member of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling transduction pathway, and aberrantly activation of Wnt signaling has been identified to contribute to the tumorigenesis, proliferation, invasion of a variety kinds of cancer stem cells. However, correlations between FRAT1 and GSCs and the specific mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of FRAT1 on GSCs proliferation, colony formation, sphere formation and tumorigenesity in vitro and in vivo and its underlying mechanism. Lentiviral transfection was used to construct GSCs with low FRAT1 expression. The expression of FRAT1 on GSCs proliferation in vitro was assessed by cell counting kit-8(CCK-8). Colony formation and sphere formation assays were conducted to assess the colony and sphere formation ability of GSCs. Then, an intracranial glioma nude mouse model was built to measure the effect of low FRAT1 expression on GSCs proliferation and tumorigenesity in vivo. Real-time PCR, Western blot, and Immunohistochemistry were processed to detect the mRNA and protein expressions of FRAT1, β-catenin in the glioma tissue of xenograft mice to study their correlations. The functional assays verifed that low FRAT1 expression inhibited CD133⁺Nestin⁺ GSCs proliferation, colony formation, sphere formation ability in vitro. In vivo GSCs xenograft mice model showed that low FRAT1 expression suppressed the proliferation and tumorigenesity of CD133⁺Nestin⁺ GSCs and reduced β-catenin mRNA and protein expression. Furthermore, the expression of FRAT1 and β-catenin were positively correlated. Altogether, results indicate that FRAT1 enhances the proliferation, colony formation, sphere formation and tumorigenesity of CD133⁺Nestin⁺ glioma stem cells in vitro and in vivo as well as the expression of β-catenin. Therefore, inhibiting proliferation of GSCs and FRAT1 may be a molecular target to GSCs in treating human glioma in the future.

Over-expression of long noncoding RNA HOTAIRM1 promotes cell proliferation and invasion in human glioblastoma by up-regulating SP1 via sponging miR-137

Glioblastoma is the most aggressive malignant brain tumor in adults. Long noncoding RNA HOTAIRM1 (HOX antisense intergenic RNA myeloid 1) has been reported to participate in the progression of various cancers. However, the role of HOTAIRM1 in glioblastoma and its underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. The relative expression levels of HOTAIRM1, miR-137 and specificity protein 1 were detected by quantitative real-time PCR or western blot. The effects of HOTAIRM1 on cell proliferation and invasion were evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8 assay and Transwell assay, respectively. The interactions among HOTAIRM1, miR-137 and specificity protein 1 were predicted by online softwares and confirmed by luciferase reporter assay and RNA immunoprecipitation assay. The levels of HOTAIRM1 and specificity protein 1 were significantly increased while miR-137 was significantly decreased in glioblastoma tissues and cells. Knockdown of HOTAIRM1 suppressed proliferation and invasion in glioblastoma cells. Moreover, miR-137 was bound to HOTAIRM1, and specificity protein 1 was identified as a target of miR-137. The protein level of specificity protein 1 was repressed by silencing the expression of HOTAIRM1, whereas the effect was restored by inhibiting the expression of miR-137. Downregulation of HOTAIRM1 expression suppressed the proliferation and invasion of glioblastoma cells by down-regulating specificity protein 1 expression via sponging miR-137, indicating a promising strategy for glioblastoma treatment.

The effects of altered neurogenic microRNA levels and their involvement in the aggressiveness of periventricular glioblastoma

INTRODUCTION

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common primary brain tumour, with the least favourable prognosis. Despite numerous studies and medical advances, it continues to be lethal, with an average life expectancy of 15 months after chemo-radiotherapy.

DEVELOPMENT

Recent research has addressed several factors associated with the diagnosis and prognosis of glioblastoma; one significant factor is tumour localisation, particularly the subventricular zone, which represents one of the most active neurogenic niches of the adult human brain. Glioblastomas in this area are generally more aggressive, resulting in unfavourable prognosis and a shorter life expectancy. Currently, the research into microRNAs (miRNA) has intensified, revealing different expression patterns under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. It has been reported that the expression levels of certain miRNAs, mainly those related to neurogenic processes, are dysregulated in oncogenic events, thus favouring gliomagenesis and greater tumour aggressiveness. This review discusses some of the most important miRNAs involved in subventricular neurogenic processes and their association with glioblastoma aggressiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

MiRNA regulation and function play an important role in the development and progression of glioblastoma; understanding the alterations of certain miRNAs involved in both differentiation and neural and glial maturation could help us to better understand the malignant characteristics of glioblastoma.

NCK1-AS1 Increases Drug Resistance of Glioma Cells to Temozolomide by Modulating miR-137/TRIM24

Background: Glioma is a common malignant tumor. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect and molecular mechanism of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) NCK1-AS1 on the drug resistance of temozolomide (TMZ) in glioma cells. Methods: The fresh and recurrent glioma tissues and peritumoral brain edema (PTBE) were collected from the same patient. U251 and A172 cells were treated with TMZ to screen TMZ-resistant cells. The expression levels of NCK1-AS1, miR-137, or TRIM24 were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), Western blotting, in situ hybridization (ISH), or RNA pull-down assay. Cell viability was measured by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazoliumbromide (MTT) assay. In addition, the relationship between NCK1-AS1 and miR-137 or TRIM24 and miR-137 was confirmed by dual luciferase activity assay. Results: NCK1-AS1 expression was increased in regular and recurrent glioma tissues and TMZ-resistant cells. Cell viability was increased in TMZ-resistant cells, and the IC50 of TMZ also increased in TMZ resistant cells. However, knockdown of NCK1-AS1 inhibited these increases. Moreover, suppression of NCK1-AS1 increased miR-137 expression, whereas overexpression of miR-137 decreased TRIM24 expression. Then, expression of miR-137 alleviated the NCK1-AS1 overexpression-induced increased expression of TRIM24. In addition, the decreases of cell viability and IC50 induced by NCK1-AS1 knockdown were reversed after adding TRIM24 in U251/TMZ and A172/TMZ cells. Conclusion: NCK1-AS1 could increase drug resistance of glioma cells to TMZ by modulating miR-137/TRIM24 pathway.

The Differential DNA Hypermethylation Patterns of microRNA-137 and microRNA-342 Locus in Early Colorectal Lesions and Tumours

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide, representing 13% of all cancers. The role of epigenetics in cancer diagnosis and prognosis is well established. MicroRNAs in particular influence numerous cancer associated processes including apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, cell-cycle controls, migration/invasion and metabolism. MiRNAs-137 and 342 are exon- and intron-embedded, respectively, acting as tumour-suppressive microRNA via hypermethylation events. Levels of miRNAs 137 and 342 have been investigated here as potential prognostic markers for colorectal cancer patients. The methylation status of miRNA-137 and miRNA-342 was evaluated using methylation-specific (MSP) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on freshly frozen tissue derived from 51 polyps, 8 tumours and 14 normal colon mucosa specimens. Methylation status of miRNA-137 and miRNA-342 was significantly higher in tumour lesions compared to normal adjacent mucosa. Surprisingly, the methylation frequency of miR-342 (76.3%) among colorectal cancer patients was significantly higher compared to miR-137 (18.6%). Furthermore, normal tissues, adjacent to the lesions (N-Cs), displayed no observable methylation for miRNA-137, whereas 27.2% of these N-Cs showed miRNA-342 hypermethylation. MiRNA-137 hypermethylation was significantly higher in male patients and miR-342 hypermethylation correlated with patient age. Methylation status of miRNA-137 and miRNA-342 has both diagnostic and prognostic value in CRC prediction and prevention.

MicroRNA Signature in Human Normal and Tumoral Neural Stem Cells

MicroRNAs, also called miRNAs or simply miR-, represent a unique class of non-coding RNAs that have gained exponential interest during recent years because of their determinant involvement in regulating the expression of several genes. Despite the increasing number of mature miRNAs recognized in the human species, only a limited proportion is engaged in the ontogeny of the central nervous system (CNS). miRNAs also play a pivotal role during the transition of normal neural stem cells (NSCs) into tumor-forming NSCs. More specifically, extensive studies have identified some shared miRNAs between NSCs and neural cancer stem cells (CSCs), namely miR-7, -124, -125, -181 and miR-9, -10, -130. In the context of NSCs, miRNAs are intercalated from embryonic stages throughout the differentiation pathway in order to achieve mature neuronal lineages. Within CSCs, under a different cellular context, miRNAs perform tumor suppressive or oncogenic functions that govern the homeostasis of brain tumors. This review will draw attention to the most characterizing studies dealing with miRNAs engaged in neurogenesis and in the tumoral neural stem cell context, offering the reader insight into the power of next generation miRNA-targeted therapies against brain malignances.

Antagonism between the RNA-binding protein Musashi1 and miR-137 and its potential impact on neurogenesis and glioblastoma development

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and miRNAs are critical gene expression regulators that interact with one another in cooperative and antagonistic fashions. We identified Musashi1 (Msi1) and miR-137 as regulators of a molecular switch between self-renewal and differentiation. Msi1 and miR-137 have opposite expression patterns and functions, and Msi1 is repressed by miR-137. Msi1 is a stem-cell protein implicated in self-renewal while miR-137 functions as a proneuronal differentiation miRNA. In gliomas, miR-137 functions as a tumor suppressor while Msi1 is a prooncogenic factor. We suggest that the balance between Msi1 and miR-137 is a key determinant in cell fate decisions and disruption of this balance could contribute to neurodegenerative diseases and glioma development. Genomic analyses revealed that Msi1 and miR-137 share 141 target genes associated with differentiation, development, and morphogenesis. Initial results pointed out that these two regulators have an opposite impact on the expression of their target genes. Therefore, we propose an antagonistic model in which this network of shared targets could be either repressed by miR-137 or activated by Msi1, leading to different outcomes (self-renewal, proliferation, tumorigenesis).

Role of Klotho Protein in Tumor Genesis, Cancer Progression, and Prognosis in Patients with High-Grade Glioma

BACKGROUND

Klotho, a single-pass transmembrane protein associated with premature aging, acts as a tumor suppressor gene by inhibiting insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1 and fibroblast growth factor pathways. Downregulated Klotho expression is reported in melanoma, mesothelioma, bladder, breast, gastric, cervix, lung, and kidney cancers and is associated with a poor prognosis. Klotho expression and Klotho promoter hypermethylation are predictive factors for patient prognosis.

METHODS

To investigate the potential role of Klotho in glioblastoma-multiforme (GBM), 22 GBM samples were collected from the Sheba Tumor Bank and examined.

RESULTS

We found that increased Klotho messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) expression predicted longer survival (P = 0.03) of GBM patients. Methylation analysis was performed on bisulfite-treated deoxyribonucleic acid from the GBM patient samples using ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry according to the Sequenom EpiTYPER protocols. Klotho promoter hypermethylation was detected in 65% of the GBM samples and correlated significantly with improved survival (P < 0.04). We found 3 major Klotho promotor hypermethylation sites located 585-579 bp, 540-533 bp, and 537-534 bp upstream of the transcription start site. Methylated deoxyribonucleic acid immunoprecipitation studies confirmed these results. Notably, the messenger RNA expression in these GBM samples revealed an unexpected linear correlation with methylation of these 3 hypermethylation sites identified in the Klotho promotor. Thus Klotho expression and methylation could predict prognosis in patients with GBM.

CONCLUSIONS

Epigenetic regulation in GBM appears to be complicated. Specific CpG islands affect genes or micro RNAs that interact to control Klotho expression. The diverse effects of these islands may be due to unique factors of GBM.

miR‑379 inhibits cell proliferation and epithelial‑mesenchymal transition by targeting CHUK through the NF‑κB pathway in non‑small cell lung cancer

An increasing body of evidence has demonstrated that microRNA (miR) deregulation serves pivotal roles in tumor progression and metastasis. However, the function of miR‑379 in lung cancer remains understudied, particularly in non‑small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Bioinformatics and luciferase reporter analyses confirmed that conserved helix‑loop‑helix ubiquitous kinase (CHUK) is a target of miR‑379, which may directly bind to the 3'‑untranslated region of CHUK and significantly downregulate its expression in NSCLC cells. Transwell assays were used to evaluate the role of miR‑379 in cell migration and invasion, and western blotting was used to address the association between miR‑379 and epithelial‑mesenchymal markers, including E‑cadherin, cytokeratin and Vimentin. In the present study, miR‑379 expression in NSCLC tissues and cell lines was downregulated, which may be associated with the poor survival of patients with NSCLC. miR‑379 may act as a tumor suppressor in NSCLC, potentially by suppressing cell growth and proliferation, delaying G1‑S transition, enhancing cell apoptosis and suppressing NSCLC cell migration and invasion. Furthermore, it was also observed that CHUK may function as an oncogene, and downregulation of CHUK induced by miR‑379 may partially rescue the malignant characteristics of tumors, indicating that miR‑379 may be suppressed in tumorigenesis. The overexpression of miR‑379 may prevent the growth of NSCLC tumors via CHUK suppression and the downstream nuclear factor‑κB pathway. The results of the present study demonstrated that miR‑379 may act as a tumor suppressor, and may constitute a potential biomarker and a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment for NSCLC.

The functions of microRNA-124 on bladder cancer

Background: To detect the expression of miR-124 in bladder cancer (BC) cell lines and tissue specimens and to analyze its association with the growth of the BC cells.

Methods: Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was applied to examine the expression of miR-124 in BC cell lines and tissues. The function of miR-124 in modulating cell proliferation was assessed in BC cells with miRNA-124 overexpression; the cell viability was identified by Cell Count Kit-8; flow cytometry was employed to detect the cell cycle; the expressions of E2F3, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), Ki-67 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were tested by qPCR and Western blot; angiogenesis experiment was performed to analysis changes in angiogenesis rate; and bioinformatics prediction and dual luciferase reporter system were employed to identify the target of miR-124.

Results: Survival curve data showed that the expression of MicroRNA-124 was positively correlated with survival. MicroRNA-124 expression was significantly decreased in BC cell lines and tissues. Bioinformatics prediction and dual luciferase reporter system verified CDK4 as a direct target of miR-124, which regulated the proliferation of BC cells by directly inhibiting CDK4. BC cells over-expressing miR-124 showed significantly inhibited cell viability, decreased angiogenesis rate, prevented cell proliferation and diminished the expression of E2F3, CDK4, Ki-67 and VEGF. All of these changes were reversed by over-expressing CDK4.

Conclusion: MicroRNA-124 suppressed the proliferation of CRC cells by directly targeting CDK4, which provides a target for improving the therapeutic effect of BC.

Oligonucleotide Therapeutics as a New Class of Drugs for Malignant Brain Tumors: Targeting mRNAs, Regulatory RNAs, Mutations, Combinations, and Beyond

Malignant brain tumors are rapidly progressive and often fatal owing to resistance to therapies and based on their complex biology, heterogeneity, and isolation from systemic circulation. Glioblastoma is the most common and most aggressive primary brain tumor, has high mortality, and affects both children and adults. Despite significant advances in understanding the pathology, multiple clinical trials employing various treatment strategies have failed. With much expanded knowledge of the GBM genome, epigenome, and transcriptome, the field of neuro-oncology is getting closer to achieve breakthrough-targeted molecular therapies. Current developments of oligonucleotide chemistries for CNS applications make this new class of drugs very attractive for targeting molecular pathways dysregulated in brain tumors and are anticipated to vastly expand the spectrum of currently targetable molecules. In this chapter, we will overview the molecular landscape of malignant gliomas and explore the most prominent molecular targets (mRNAs, miRNAs, lncRNAs, and genomic mutations) that provide opportunities for the development of oligonucleotide therapeutics for this class of neurologic diseases. Because malignant brain tumors focally disrupt the blood-brain barrier, this class of diseases might be also more susceptible to systemic treatments with oligonucleotides than other neurologic disorders and, thus, present an entry point for the oligonucleotide therapeutics to the CNS. Nevertheless, delivery of oligonucleotides remains a crucial part of the treatment strategy. Finally, synthetic gRNAs guiding CRISPR-Cas9 editing technologies have a tremendous potential to further expand the applications of oligonucleotide therapeutics and take them beyond RNA targeting.

Construction of Potential Glioblastoma Multiforme-Related miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network

Background: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most common and aggressive human malignant brain tumor, is notorious for its limited treatment options and poor prognosis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are found to be involved in tumorigenesis of GBM. However, a comprehensive miRNA-mRNA regulatory network has still not been established.

Methods: A miRNA microarray dataset (GSE90603) was obtained from GEO database. Then, we employed GEO2R tool to perform differential expression analysis. Potential transcription factors and target genes of screened differentially expressed miRNAs (DE-miRNAs) were predicted. The GBM mRNA dataset were downloaded from TCGA database for identifying differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Next, GO annotation and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis was conducted. PPI network was then established, and hub genes were identified via Cytoscape software. The expression and prognostic roles of hub genes was further evaluated.

Results: Total 33 DE-miRNAs, consisting of 10 upregulated DE-miRNAs and 23 downregulated DE-miRNAs, were screened. SP1 was predicted to potentially regulate most of screened DE-miRNAs. Three thousand and twenty seven and 3,879 predicted target genes were obtained for upregulated and downregulated DE-miRNAs, respectively. Subsequently, 1,715 upregulated DEGs and 1,259 downregulated DEGs were identified. Then, 149 and 295 potential downregulated and upregulated genes commonly appeared in target genes of DE-miRNAs and DEGs were selected for GO annotation and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis. The downregulated genes were significantly enriched in cGMP-PKG signaling pathway and calcium signaling pathway whereas the upregulated genes were enriched in pathways in cancer and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Construction and analysis of PPI network showed that STXBP1 and TP53 were recognized as hub genes with the highest connectivity degrees. Expression analytic result of the top 20 hub genes in GBM using GEPIA database was generally identical with previous differential expression analysis for TCGA data. EGFR, PPP3CB, and MYO5A expression was significantly associated with patients' OS.

Conclusions: In this study, we established a potential GBM-related miRNA-mRNA regulatory network, which explores a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms and provides key clues in seeking novel therapeutic targets for GBM. In the future, more experiments need to be performed to validate our current findings.

MicroRNA regulating stanniocalcin-1 is a metastasis and dissemination promoting factor in glioblastoma

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs (miRs) regulate many biological processes, such as invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Glioblastoma (GBM) patients with metastasis/metastatic dissemination have a very poor prognosis; therefore, inhibiting metastasis/metastatic dissemination has become an important therapeutic strategy for GBM treatment.

METHODS

Using 76 GBM tissues, we examined the expression levels of 23 GBM-related miRs and compared the miRs' expression levels between GBMs with metastasis/metastatic dissemination and GBMs without metastasis/metastatic dissemination. Using the bioinformatics web site, we searched the target genes of miRs. To analyze the function of target gene, several biological assays and survival analysis by the Kaplan-Meier method were performed.

RESULTS

We found that eight miRs were significantly decreased in GBM with metastasis/metastatic dissemination. By the bioinformatics analysis, we identified stanniocalcin-1 (STC1) as the most probable target gene against the combination of these miRs. Four miRs (miR-29B, miR-34a, miR-101, and miR-137) have predictive binding sites in STC1 mRNA, and mRNA expression of STC1 was downregulated by mimics of these miRs. Also, mimics of these miRs and knockdown of STC1 by siRNA suppressed invasion in GBM cells. GBM with metastasis/metastatic dissemination had significantly higher levels of STC1 than GBM without metastasis/metastatic dissemination. Finally, Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated that GBMs with high STC1 level had significantly shorter survival than GBMs with low STC1 level.

CONCLUSIONS

STC1 may be a novel metastasis/metastatic dissemination promoting factor regulated by several miRs in GBM. Because STC1 is a secreted glycoprotein and functions via the autocrine/paracrine signals, inhibiting STC1 signal may become a novel therapeutic strategy for GBM.

sPIF promotes myoblast differentiation and utrophin expression while inhibiting fibrosis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy via the H19/miR-675/let-7 and miR-21 pathways

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive, lethal, X-linked disease of skeletal and cardiac muscles caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene. Loss of dystrophin leads to muscle fiber damage and impairment of satellite cell asymmetric division, which are essential for muscle regeneration. These processes ultimately result in muscle wasting and the replacement of the degenerating muscles by fibrogenic cells, a process that leads to the generation of fibrotic tissues. Preimplantation factor (PIF) is an evolutionary conserved 15-amino acid peptide secreted by viable mammalian embryos. Synthetic PIF (sPIF) reproduces the protective/regenerative effects of the endogenous peptide in immune disorders and transplantation models. In this study, we demonstrated that sPIF treatment promoted mouse and human myoblast differentiation and inhibited the expression of collagen 1A1, collagen 1A2, and TGF-β in DMD patient-derived myoblasts. Additionally, sPIF increased the expression of utrophin, a homolog of dystrophin protein. sPIF effects were mediated via the upregulation of lncRNA H19 and miR-675 and downregulation of let-7. sPIF also inhibited the expression of miR-21, a major fibrosis regulator. The administration of sPIF in mdx mice significantly decreased serum creatine kinase and collagen I and collagen IV expression in the diaphragm, whereas it increased utrophin expression in the diaphragm, heart and quadriceps muscles. In conclusion, sPIF promoted the differentiation of DMD myoblasts, increased utrophin expression via the H19/miRNA-675/let-7 pathway, and reduced muscle fibrosis possibly via the upregulation of miR-675 and inhibition of miR-21 expression. These findings strongly support pursuing sPIF as a potential therapeutic agent for DMD. Moreover, the completion of an sPIF phase I safety trial will further promote the use of sPIF for the treatment of muscular dystrophies.

MicroRNA-144 attenuates cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury by targeting FOXO1

Cardiovascular ischemic disease refers to a large class of conditions that are harmful to human health. A number of previous studies have demonstrated that microRNAs (miRs) have notable roles in regulating cardiac injury. miR-144 is influential in the differentiation, growth, and metastatic processes of cells; however, the impact of miR-144 in cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury has not been thoroughly elucidated to date. In the present study, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to evaluate RNA expression. In addition, TTC staining was performed to detect the infarct area of the ischemic myocardia and a terminal deoxynucleotidyl-transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay was utilized to detect the apoptosis of the myocardia. It was observed that miR-144 expression is downregulated in an I/R model in rats and that overexpression of miR-144 significantly reduced myocardial ischemic injury and apoptosis. Consistent with this result, similar findings were demonstrated in H9c2 cells subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation. Bioinformatic analysis using MiRanda and TargetScan, and luciferase assays confirmed that forkhead box protein O1was the target of miR-144. These findings suggest that miR-144 may be exploited as a novel molecular marker or therapeutic target for myocardial I/R injury.

A microRNA profile of pediatric glioblastoma: The role of NUCKS1 upregulation

MicroRNAs (miRNAs/miRs) are a novel class of gene regulators that may be involved in tumor chemoresistance. Recently, specific miRNA expression profiles have been identified in adult glioblastoma (aGBM), but there are only limited data available on the role of miRNAs in pediatric GBM (pGBM). In the present study, the expression profile of miRNAs was examined in seven pGBMs and three human GBM cell lines (U87MG, A172 and T98G), compared with a non-tumoral pool of pediatric cerebral cortex samples by microarray analysis. A set of differentially expressed miRNAs was identified, including miR-490, miR-876-3p, miR-876-5p, miR-448 and miR-137 (downregulated), as well as miR-501-3p (upregulated). Through bioinformatics analysis, a series of target genes was predicted. In addition, similar gene expression patterns in pGBMs and cell lines was confirmed. Of note, drug resistant T98G cells had upregulated nuclear casein kinase and cyclin-dependent kinase substrate 1 (NUCKS1) expression, a protein overexpressed in many tumors that serves an important role in cell proliferation and progression. On the basis of the present preliminary report, it could be intriguing to further investigate the relationship between each of the identified differentially expressed miRNAs and NUCKS1, in order to clarify their involvement in the multi-drug resistance mechanism of pGBMs.

Inhibition of sonic hedgehog and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways cooperate in suppressing survival, self-renewal and tumorigenic potential of glioblastoma-initiating cells

Since PI3K/Akt/mTOR and sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathways are highly activated in glioblastoma-initiating cells (GICs), we examined the effects of inhibiting these pathways on GIC characteristics and tumor growth in mice. NVP-LDE-225 (inhibitor of Smoothened) inhibited the expression of Gli1, Gli2, Smoothened, Patched1, and Patched2, and induced the expression of SuFu, whereas NVP-BEZ-235 (dual inhibitor of PI3K and mTOR) inhibited the expression of p-PI3K, p-Akt, p-mTOR, and p-p70S6K. NVP-LDE-225 co-operated with NVP-BEZ-235 in inhibiting the self-renewal capacity of GICs, expression of pluripotency maintaining factors (Nanog, c-Myc, Oct4, and Sox2), Musashi1, cyclin D1, and Bcl-2, and transcription and expression of Gli, and in inducing the expression of cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP and Bim. Additionally, NVP-LDE-225 co-operated with NVP-BEZ-235 in inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Finally, the combination of NVP-LDE-225 and NVP-BEZ-235 was superior in inhibiting tumor growth, regulating the expression of pluripotency promoting factors, stem cell markers, cell cycle, and cell proliferation, and modulating EMT compared to single agent alone. In conclusion, the combined inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR and SHH pathways was superior to single pathway inhibition in suppressing glioblastoma growth by targeting GICs.

Aberrant miRNAs Regulate the Biological Hallmarks of Glioblastoma

GBM is the highest incidence in primary intracranial malignancy, and it remains poor prognosis even though the patient is gave standard treatment. Despite decades of intense research, the complex biology of GBM remains elusive. In view of eight hallmarks of cancer which were proposed in 2011, studies related to the eight biological capabilities in GBM have made great progress. From these studies, it can be inferred that miRs, as a mode of post-transcriptional regulation, are involved in regulating these malignant biological hallmarks of GBM. Herein, we discuss state-of-the-art research on how aberrant miRs modulate the eight hallmarks of GBM. The upregulation of 'oncomiRs' or the genetic loss of tumor suppressor miRs is associated with these eight biological capabilities acquired during GBM formation. Furthermore, we also discuss the applicable clinical potential of these research results. MiRs may aid in the diagnosis and prognosis of GBM. Moreover, miRs are also therapeutic targets of GBM. These studies will develop and improve precision medicine for GBM in the future.

The novel long non-coding RNA TALNEC2, regulates tumor cell growth and the stemness and radiation response of glioma stem cells

Despite advances in novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM), the median survival of 12-14 months has not changed significantly. Therefore, there is an imperative need to identify molecular mechanisms that play a role in patient survival. Here, we analyzed the expression and functions of a novel lncRNA, TALNEC2 that was identified using RNA seq of E2F1-regulated lncRNAs. TALNEC2 was localized to the cytosol and its expression was E2F1-regulated and cell-cycle dependent. TALNEC2 was highly expressed in GBM with poor prognosis, in GBM specimens derived from short-term survivors and in glioma cells and glioma stem cells (GSCs). Silencing of TALNEC2 inhibited cell proliferation and arrested the cells in the G1\S phase of the cell cycle in various cancer cell lines. In addition, silencing of TALNEC2 decreased the self-renewal and mesenchymal transformation of GSCs, increased sensitivity of these cells to radiation and prolonged survival of mice bearing GSC-derived xenografts. Using miRNA array analysis, we identified specific miRNAs that were altered in the silenced cells that were associated with cell-cycle progression, proliferation and mesenchymal transformation. Two of the downregulated miRNAs, miR-21 and miR-191, mediated some of TALNEC2 effects on the stemness and mesenchymal transformation of GSCs. In conclusion, we identified a novel E2F1-regulated lncRNA that is highly expressed in GBM and in tumors from patients of short-term survival. The expression of TALNEC2 is associated with the increased tumorigenic potential of GSCs and their resistance to radiation. We conclude that TALNEC2 is an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of GBM.