Maternal depression as a risk factor for family homelessness

Predicting homelessness: Housing risk insights from latent class analysis

Millions of families with children in the U.S. struggle to afford adequate housing. Housing cost burden places families at risk for homelessness, and prevention efforts are hindered by limited understanding of insecure housing experiences at the margins. The present study investigated variation in housing insecurity experiences in a sample of mothers, as well as which risk profiles were most strongly associated with subsequent homelessness. Latent class analysis identified four distinct subgroups of housing insecurity: "Stable," "Unstable," "Rent-Focused," and "Strategic Bill-Paying." Classes differed on whether they made rent or utility payments on time, experienced utility shutoffs, or were evicted. Mothers who missed rent payments were significantly more likely to experience subsequent homelessness, whereas those who prioritized rent were more likely to have their utilities shut off but remain housed. Policy efforts should emphasize increased wages, rent control, changes to zoning laws and tax codes to prioritize affordable housing, and benefits that help mothers maintain their incomes such as comprehensive healthcare, paid maternity leave, and subsidized childcare.

Risk factors for homelessness and housing instability in the first episode of mental illness: Initial findings from the AMONT study

AIM

People living with mental illness are more likely than the general population to experience adverse housing outcomes, including homelessness. The aim of the current study is to examine residential status when participants have their first contact with mental health services, and the correlates of residential status at that moment.

METHODS

First-time mental health service users were recruited from seven clinical sites across Québec. Data on residential status at entry in the project, as well as demographic, clinical and social variables, were collected using self-report and interviewer-rated questionnaires. Participants were classified as 'Homeless', 'At risk of homelessness' and 'Stably Housed', and correlates of residential status were identified through multivariate logistic regression and unbiased recursive partitioning.

RESULTS

Among the 478 participants, 206 (43.1%) were in stable housing, 171 (35.8%) were at risk of homelessness and 101 (21.1%) were classified as homeless. Placement in a youth protection facility was strongly associated with adverse housing outcomes, while having a high school diploma and more social support were associated with more stable housing situations.

CONCLUSIONS

First-time mental health service users are likely to experience a range of adverse housing situations, indicating the potential for clinical sites to implement homelessness primary prevention strategies. Factors related to family, foster care and schooling seem to be particularly salient in understanding risk of homelessness in first-time mental health service users, calling for intersectoral action to prevent adverse psychosocial outcomes in this population.

Navigating Homelessness Assistance While Pregnant: A Rapid Qualitative Research-to-Policy Collaboration in Washington, DC

Background

Homelessness during pregnancy contributes to adverse pregnancy and infant outcomes from birth through early childhood. Washington, DC, a microcosm of structural inequities in the United States, has persistent racial disparities in perinatal outcomes and housing insecurity.

Methods

Grounded in a reproductive justice framework, we explored the lived experience of navigating homelessness assistance while pregnant to inform recommendations for a collaborative policy and practice change effort. We conducted 20 individual interviews with DC residents who experienced homelessness during pregnancy. We analyzed the data using thematic analysis and an action-oriented approach.

Results

Our analysis resulted in three main recommendation areas for policy and practice change: (1) timely and meaningful access to safe and stable housing in pregnancy; (2) care coordination for services and referrals that support physical, mental, and social well-being; and (3) access to a living wage and affordable housing.

Discussion

Access to stable housing is critical to ensure that pregnant and parenting people can have and raise children in a safe and sustainable environment-key tenets of reproductive justice. Housing support must be meaningfully accessible, including service delivery that accommodates the complex social histories and competing demands that accompany housing insecurity.

Health Equity Implications

This study informed the development of strategic recommendations, catalyzed a new model for multisector collaboration, and influenced a system-wide practice change to expand access to robust housing supports for pregnant people. Policy and practice change require sustained leveraging of political will to promote economic justice and ensure that residents can achieve safe, sustainable, and affordable housing.

A Qualitative Investigation of the Experiences of Women with Perinatal Depression and Anxiety during the COVID-19 Pandemic

OBJECTIVES

The COVID-19 pandemic has had significant impacts on maternal mental health. We explored the lived experiences of women with perinatal depression and anxiety to elucidate their perceptions of how the pandemic influenced their mental health and access to care.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative descriptive study using semi-structured interviews. From March to October 2021, purposive sampling was used to recruit a socio-demographically diverse sample of women with self-reported perinatal depression or anxiety who were pregnant or within one year postpartum between March 2020 and October 2021. Interviews were conducted remotely and thematically analyzed.

RESULTS

Fourteen women were interviewed. Three major themes arose. Theme 1, Negative impacts of COVID-19 on symptoms of depression and anxiety, described how the pandemic magnified underlying symptoms of depression and anxiety, increased social isolation, generated anxiety due to fears of COVID-19 infection, and caused economic stress. In theme 2, Negative impacts of COVID-19 on access to and quality of health care, women described stressful and isolating delivery experiences, negative psychological impact of partners not being able to participate in their perinatal health care, interruptions and barriers to mental health treatment, and challenges in using telehealth services for mental health care. Theme 3, Positive impacts of COVID-19 on mental health, identified advantages of increased telehealth access and ability to work and study from home.

CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE

The COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected women with perinatal depression and anxiety by magnifying underlying symptoms, increasing stress and social isolation, and disrupting access to mental health care. Findings provide support for policies and interventions to prevent and address social isolation, as well as optimization of telehealth services to prevent and address gaps in perinatal mental health treatment.

Intimate partner violence victimization during pregnancy increases risk of postpartum depression among urban adolescent mothers in South Africa

BACKGROUND

It is estimated that 38.8% of mothers develop postpartum depression (PPD) in South Africa. While empirical evidence documents an association between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization in pregnancy and PPD among adult women, the association has been underexamined among adolescent mothers (< 19 years). The study's purpose is to examine whether IPV victimization during pregnancy is associated with PPD among adolescent mothers.

METHODS

Adolescent mothers (14-19 years) were recruited at a regional hospital's maternity ward in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa between July 2017-April 2018. Participants completed behavioral assessments at two visits (n = 90): baseline (up to 4 weeks postpartum) and follow-up (6-9 weeks postpartum, when PPD is typically assessed). The WHO modified conflict tactics scale was used to create a binary measure of any physical and/or psychological IPV victimization that occurred during pregnancy. Participants with scores ≥ 13 on the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) were classified as having symptoms of PPD. We used a modified Poisson regression with robust standard errors to assess PPD in association with IPV victimization during pregnancy, controlling for relevant covariates.

RESULTS

Nearly one-half (47%) of adolescent mothers reported symptoms of PPD by 6-9 weeks post-delivery. Further, IPV victimization during pregnancy was highly prevalent (40%). Adolescent mothers who reported IPV victimization during pregnancy had marginally higher risk of PPD at follow-up (RR: 1.50, 95 CI: 0.97-2.31; p = 0.07). The association was strengthened and significant in covariate-adjusted analysis (RR: 1.62, 95 CI: 1.06-2.49; p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Poor mental health was common among adolescent mothers, and IPV victimization during pregnancy was associated with PPD risk among adolescent mothers. Implementing IPV and PPD routine screenings during the perinatal period may aid in identifying adolescent mothers for IPV and PPD interventions and treatment. With the high prevalence of IPV and PPD in this vulnerable population and the potential negative impact on maternal and infant outcomes, interventions to reduce IPV and PPD are needed to improve adolescent mothers' well-being and their baby's health.

Socioeconomic Stability Buffers Racial Discrimination Effect on Depression in a Marginalized Community

Depression disproportionately burdens poverty-affected minority communities. Racism and racial discrimination are well-known determinants of depression among members of marginalized minority communities. Less is known about potential buffers of the discrimination effects on depression, particularly those that could serve as targets for efficient community-based policies and interventions. Our secondary analysis of data from a community needs assessment survey (N = 677) in an urban minority neighborhood of low socio-economic status revealed that high school completion and current employment significantly weakened the association between discrimination and depression. Our findings frame community-level efforts to foster high school completion and employment as potential strategies to reduce the footprint of racism on the mental health of marginalized community members. Implications for future research and policy are discussed.

Maternal depression and economic well-being: A quasi-experimental approach

Maternal depression is associated with adverse impacts on the health of women and their children. However, further evidence is needed on the extent to which maternal depression influences women's economic well-being and how unmeasured confounders affect estimates of this relationship. In this study, we aimed to measure the association between maternal depression and economic outcomes (income, employment, and material hardship) over a 15-year time horizon. We conducted longitudinal analyses using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, an urban birth cohort study in the United States. We assessed the potential contribution of time-invariant unmeasured confounders using a quasi-experimental approach and also investigated the role of persistent versus transient depressive symptoms on economic outcomes up to 15 years after childbirth. In models that adjusted for time-invariant unmeasured confounders, maternal depression was associated with not being employed (an adjusted risk difference of 3 percentage points (95% CI 0.01 to 0.05)) and experiencing any material hardship (an adjusted risk difference of 14 percentage points (95% CI 0.12 to 0.16)), as well as with reductions in the ratio of household income to poverty by 0.10 units (95% CI -0.16 to -0.04) and annual household income by $2114 (95% CI -$3379 to -$850). Impacts at year 15 were strongest for those who experienced persistent depression. Results of our study strengthen the case for viewing mental health support services as interventions that may also foster economic well-being, and highlight the importance of including economic impacts in assessments of the cost-effectiveness of mental health interventions.

Acute care utilization and housing hardships in American children

Millions of families in the United States are economically vulnerable: one shock can lead to hardship. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine the association between acute healthcare utilization - emergency room visits or hospitalizations - and subsequent housing hardships, such as being evicted for financial reasons. Further, we explore whether this association differs by who in the family utilized the care and whether perceived social support protects against hardship when these experiences occur. Using lagged dependent variable regression models, we find that families that visited the emergency room or were hospitalized, regardless if it was a child or parent with this experience, were five percentage points more likely to experience any housing hardship than families that did not use acute care. Among families in which a child utilized acute care, perceived social support buffered the impact of using acute care. That perceived social support is associated with a lower likelihood of housing hardship among families that experienced acute care utilization for a child, but not parent, suggests that social support may be able to offset the challenges arising from children's, but not adults', use of acute care. In the face of economic precarity, informal safety nets may be insufficient to reduce the impact of acute care utilization on housing hardships.

Examining contextual influences on the service needs of homeless and unstably housed domestic violence survivors

Domestic violence (DV) is a leading cause of homelessness for women, yet many DV agencies are just beginning to focus on helping clients stabilize their housing situations. The purpose of this study was to better understand the contexts and service needs of unstably housed and homeless DV survivors, to promote more efficient and successful service matching from DV agencies. We examined whether DV survivors could be grouped by particular features, histories, and contextual factors, and how these group differences impacted what they needed from DV agencies. The sample included 406 homeless and unstably housed DV survivors who had recently sought DV services. Latent class analysis supported the identification of four distinct classes: (1) highest disadvantages service seeker, (2) moderate disadvantages-criminal legal system service seeker, (3) moderate disadvantages service seeker, and (4) lower disadvantages service seeker. Additionally, we were able to profile each class, and test the types of services survivors in each class needed from agencies.

Mental Health in Obstetric Patients and Providers During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Psychiatric morbidity is the most common childbirth complication with 1 in 5 women experiencing a perinatal mood or anxiety disorder. The cost of this psychiatric morbidity is pervasive, contributing to devastating maternal health, child developmental, and economic consequences. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and associated changes to perinatal experiences, resulted in profound psychological reactions including increased anxiety, depression, stress disorders, and sleep disturbance, further impacting obstetric patients. Providers' mental health has been challenged by moral injury and shared trauma. This article reviews mental health outcomes in regard to the COVID-19 pandemic for obstetric patients and their providers.

Depression in the Postpartum Year and Life Course Economic Trajectories

INTRODUCTION

Perinatal depression affects 13% of childbearing individuals in the U.S. and has been linked to an increased risk of household economic insecurity in the short term. This study aims to assess the relationship between perinatal depression and long-term economic outcomes.

METHODS

This was a longitudinal analysis of a cohort of mothers from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study starting at delivery in 1998-2000 and followed until 2014-2017. Analysis was conducted in 2021. Maternal depression was assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form 1 year after childbirth, and the outcomes included measures of material hardship, household poverty, and employment. Associations between maternal depression and outcomes were analyzed using logistic regression and group-based trajectory modeling.

RESULTS

In total, 12.2% of the sample met the criteria for a major depressive episode 1 year after delivery. Maternal depression had a strong and sustained positive association with material hardship and not working for pay in Years 3, 5, 9, and 15 after delivery. Maternal depression also had a significant positive association with household poverty across Years 3-9 and with unemployment in Year 3. Trajectory modeling established that maternal depression was associated with an increased probability of being in a persistently high-risk trajectory for material hardship, a high-risk trajectory for household poverty, and a high-declining risk trajectory for unemployment.

CONCLUSIONS

Supporting perinatal mental health is crucial for strengthening the economic well-being of childbearing individuals and reducing the impact of maternal depression on intergenerational transmission of adversity.

Housing Instability and Depression among US Mothers Following a Nonmarital Birth

Mothers who had a nonmarital birth experience multiple risk factors for depression, including housing instability. Yet, important questions remain about the extent of long-term housing instability and its association with future depression among at-risk mothers. Using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study data, we examine cumulative housing instability over a 15-year period following nonmarital birth and its association with maternal depression. Based on a sample of 2279 mothers who had a nonmarital birth in 20 major US cities between 1998–2000, we examined their 15-year residential moves and housing arrangements. Then, we tested the associations between the cumulative residential moves and major depressive episodes (MDE) in Year 15 using logistic regression analysis. One in every four mothers had six or more residential moves in 15 years following a nonmarital birth. For each additional move, mothers reported up to 27.9% higher odds of having a past-year MDE in Year 15, translating into the prevalence increases from 6.0% (zero move) to 20.6% (10 moves). Our findings suggest that greater attention should be paid to housing needs among mothers following a nonmarital birth, including temporary housing assistance and more fundamental programs to reduce housing instability as preventive mental health services.

More Than Shelter: Housing for Urban Maternal and Infant Health

Housing quality, stability, and affordability have a direct relationship to socioemotional and physical health. Both city planning and public health have long recognized the role of housing in health, but the complexity of this relationship in regard to infant and maternal health is less understood. Focusing on literature specifically relevant to U.S. metropolitan areas, I conduct a multidisciplinary literature review to understand the influence of housing factors and interventions that impact infant and maternal health. The paper seeks to achieve three primary goals. First, to identify the primary "pathways" by which housing influences infant and maternal health. Second, the review focuses on the role and influence of historical housing discrimination on maternal health outcomes. Third, the review identifies emergent practice-based housing interventions in planning and public health practice to support infant and maternal health. The literature suggests that the impact of housing on infant health is complex, multifaceted, and intergenerational. Historical housing discrimination also directly impacts contemporary infant and maternal health outcomes. Policy interventions to support infant health through housing are just emerging but demonstrate promising outcomes. Structural barriers to housing affordability in the United States will require new resources to foster greater collaboration between the housing and the health sectors.

Tackling inequality in maternal health: Beyond the postpartum

Healthcare systems prioritise antenatal and intrapartum care over the postpartum period. This is reflected in clinical resource allocation and in research agendas. But from metabolic disease to mental health, many pregnancy-associated conditions significantly affect patients' lifelong health. Women from black and ethnic minority backgrounds and lower socioeconomic groups are at greater risk of physical and psychiatric complications of pregnancy compared to white British women. Without sufficiently tailored and accessible education about risk factors, and robust mechanisms for follow-up beyond the traditional 6-week postpartum period, these inequalities are further entrenched. Identifying approaches to address the needs of these patient populations is not only the responsibility of obstetricians and midwives; improvement requires cooperation from healthcare professionals from a wide range of specialties. Healthcare systems must encourage data collection on the long-term effects of metabolic and psychiatric conditions after the postpartum, and s support research that results in evidence-based care for the neglected field of women's postpartum health.

Food Insecurity and Housing Instability Partially Mediate the Association Between Maternal Depression and Child Problem Behavior

Maternal depression is a risk factor for the development of problem behavior in children. Although food insecurity and housing instability are associated with adult depression and child behavior, how these economic factors mediate or moderate the relationship between maternal depression and child problem behavior is not understood. The purpose of this study was to determine whether food insecurity and housing instability are mediators and/or moderators of the relationship between maternal depression when children are age 3 and children's problem behaviors at age 9 and to determine whether these mechanisms differ by race/ethnicity. We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Food insecurity and housing instability at age 5 were tested as potential mediators and moderators of the relationship between maternal depression status at age 3 and problem behavior at age 9. A path analysis confirmed our hypothesis that food insecurity and housing instability partially mediate the relationship between maternal depression when children are age 3 and problem behavior at age 9. However, housing instability was only a mediator for externalizing problem behavior and not internalizing problem behavior or overall problem behavior. Results of the moderation analysis suggest that neither food insecurity nor housing instability were moderators. None of the mechanisms explored differed by race/ethnicity. While our findings stress the continued need for interventions that address child food insecurity, they emphasize the importance of interventions that address maternal mental health throughout a child's life. Given the central role of maternal health in child development, additional efforts should be made to target maternal depression.

Consequences of maternal postpartum depression: A systematic review of maternal and infant outcomes

Introduction:

The postpartum period represents the time of risk for the emergence of maternal postpartum depression. There are no systematic reviews of the overall maternal outcomes of maternal postpartum depression. The aim of this study was to evaluate both the infant and the maternal consequences of untreated maternal postpartum depression.

Methods:

We searched for studies published between 1 January 2005 and 17 August 2016, using the following databases: MEDLINE via Ovid, PsycINFO, and the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group trials registry.

Results:

A total of 122 studies (out of 3712 references retrieved from bibliographic databases) were included in this systematic review. The results of the studies were synthetized into three categories: (a) the maternal consequences of postpartum depression, including physical health, psychological health, relationship, and risky behaviors; (b) the infant consequences of postpartum depression, including anthropometry, physical health, sleep, and motor, cognitive, language, emotional, social, and behavioral development; and (c) mother–child interactions, including bonding, breastfeeding, and the maternal role.

Discussion:

The results suggest that postpartum depression creates an environment that is not conducive to the personal development of mothers or the optimal development of a child. It therefore seems important to detect and treat depression during the postnatal period as early as possible to avoid harmful consequences.

Delivering perinatal depression care in a rural obstetric setting: a mixed methods study of feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness

OBJECTIVES

Universal screening for depression during pregnancy and postpartum is recommended, yet mental health treatment and follow-up rates among screen-positive women in rural settings are low. We studied the feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness of perinatal depression treatment integrated into a rural obstetric setting.

METHODS

We conducted an open treatment study of a screening and intervention program modified from the Depression Attention for Women Now (DAWN) Collaborative Care model in a rural obstetric clinic. Depression screen-positive pregnant and postpartum women received problem-solving therapy (PST) with or without antidepressants. A care manager coordinated communication between patient, obstetrician and psychiatric consultant. We measured change in the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9) score. We used surveys and focus groups to measure patient and provider satisfaction and analyzed focus groups using qualitative analysis.

RESULTS

The intervention was well accepted by providers and patients, based on survey and focus group data. Feasibility was also evidenced by recruitment (87.1%) and retention (92.6%) rates and depression outcomes (64% with >50% improvement in PHQ 9) which were comparable to clinical trials in similar urban populations. Conclusions for practice: DAWN Collaborative Care modified for treatment of perinatal depression in a rural obstetric setting is feasible and acceptable. Behavioral health services integrated into rural obstetric settings could improve care for perinatal depression.

Timing of housing crises: Impacts on maternal depression

Housing problems threaten maternal mental health, but the nature of the relationship between housing and depression across time is not fully understood. Drawing upon the literatures of household shocks and depressive illness, the present study leveraged longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study to probe the relationship between a housingrelated crisis and depression among at-risk mothers (N = 2,503). Binary logistic regression tested whether a housing crisis predicted an episode of depression across up to one-, three-, and seven-year time lags. The sample was then balanced on key predictors of housing crises using greedy matching with propensity scores; regression models were replicated on the new matched samples. Results showed a housing crisis significantly elevated risk for depression within one year, but effects were attenuated across three and seven years; findings were consistent in the matched samples. Implications include the need to develop new conceptualizations of depression in the context of housing instability. Brief interventions may be most effective for addressing distress associated with housing crises and improving treatment access. Policies and programs addressing the lack of affordable housing in the United States may be effective means of reducing the burden of mental disorder on families with children.

A Theory of Mental Health and Optimal Service Delivery for Homeless Children

Homeless children are a vulnerable group with high risk for developing mental health disorders. The pathways to disorders among homeless children have not been fully elucidated, with significant logistical and measurement issues challenging accurate and thorough assessment of need. The environments of homeless children are uniquely chaotic, marked by frequent moves, family structure changes, household and neighborhood disorder, parenting distress, and lack of continuous services. Despite high rates of service use, mental health outcomes remain poor. This paper reviews the literature on homeless children's mental health, as well as prior theoretical explorations. Finally, the paper proposes a theoretical model that explains elevated rates of mental health problems among homeless children as consequences of harmful stress reactions triggered by chronic household instability along with repeated service disruptions. This model draws upon existing conceptual frameworks of child development, family poverty, health services utilization, and the biology of stress to clarify the role of environmental chaos in the development of child emotional and behavioral problems. Potential strategies to mitigate the risk for mental health disorders among homeless children and future research directions are discussed.

Depression Treatment by Non-Mental-Health Providers: Incremental Evidence for the Effectiveness of Listening Visits

Maternal depression is a prevalent public health problem, particularly for low-income mothers of young children. Intervention development efforts, which often focus on surmounting instrumental barriers to care, have not successfully engaged and retained women in treatment. Task-sharing approaches like Listening Visits (LV) could overcome key instrumental and psychological barriers by leveraging the access of trusted, community caregivers to deliver treatment. A recent randomized controlled trial (RCT) demonstrated the efficacy of LV delivered by non-mental-health providers as compared to usual care. The present report presents results from a follow-up phase of that RCT during which participants who had completed LV were followed for an additional 8 weeks and completed measures of depression and quality of life. In addition, participants who were initially randomized to the wait-list control group received LV and were assessed. Treatment gains previously observed in participants completing LV were enhanced during the 8-week follow-up period. Participants receiving LV during the follow-up period experienced significant improvement in depressive symptoms. Results demonstrate the sustainability of LV delivered by non-mental-health providers, and provide preliminary evidence for the replicability of this approach in a sample of predominately low-income pregnant women and mothers of young children.

The association between maternal and partner experienced racial discrimination and prenatal perceived stress, prenatal and postnatal depression: findings from the growing up in New Zealand cohort study

BACKGROUND

A growing number of studies document the association between maternal experiences of racial discrimination and adverse children's outcomes, but our understanding of how experiences of racial discrimination are associated with pre- and post-natal maternal mental health, is limited. In addition, existent literature rarely takes into consideration racial discrimination experienced by the partner.

METHODS

We analysed data from the Growing Up in New Zealand study to examine the burden of lifetime and past year experiences of racial discrimination on prenatal and postnatal mental health among Māori, Pacific, and Asian women in New Zealand (NZ), and to study the individual and joint contribution of mother's and partner's experiences of lifetime and past year racial discrimination to women's prenatal and postnatal mental health.

RESULTS

Our findings show strong associations between lifetime and past year experiences of ethnically-motivated interpersonal attacks and unfair treatment on mother's mental health. Māori, Pacific, and Asian women who had experienced unfair treatment by a health professional in their lifetime were 66 % more likely to suffer from postnatal depression, compared to women who did not report these experiences. We found a cumulative effect of lifetime experiences of ethnically-motivated personal attacks on poor maternal mental health if both the mother and the partner had experienced a racist attack.

CONCLUSIONS

Experiences of racial discrimination have severe direct consequences for the mother's mental health. Given the importance of mother's mental health for the basic human needs of a healthy child, racism and racial discrimination should be addressed.

Effects of maternal depression on family food insecurity

We use data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort to estimate the effects of maternal depression, a condition that is fairly common and can be severe, on food insecurity, a hardship that has increased substantially in the U.S. Using various model specifications, we find convincing evidence that severe maternal depression increases the likelihood that young children experience food insecurity by 23-79%, with estimates depending on model specification and measures of depression and food insecurity. For household food insecurity, the corresponding estimates are 11-69%. We also find that maternal depression increases reliance on several types of public programs, suggesting that the programs play a buffering role.

Depressive symptoms among patients at a clinic in the Red Light District of Tijuana, Mexico

Little is known about depression among structurally vulnerable groups living in Tijuana (e.g., migrants, deportees, substance users, sex workers, homeless) who may be at high risk for poor mental health. This study investigates the prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms among vulnerable patients receiving services at a free clinic in Tijuana, Mexico. A convenience sample of 584 adult Mexican patients completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire in English or Spanish that included the 8-item NIH PROMIS depression short form and measures of individual, social, and structural factors affecting health. The prevalence of clinically significant depressive symptoms in our sample was 55%. In the multivariate analysis, female gender, poor/fair self-rated health, recent illicit drug use (past six months), feeling rejected (past six months), history of forced sex, and history of violence were independently associated with increased odds of experiencing depressive symptoms. When stratified by gender, we found important differences in significant factors, including recent illicit drug use in men and deportation in women. Among study participants, prevalence of depressive symptoms exceeds prevalence rates reported elsewhere in the U.S.-Mexico border region. These findings suggest that public health efforts to support mental health services in the border region are needed.

Maternal depression as a risk factor for children's inadequate housing conditions

Depression among mothers with young children is an important public health issue that not only has implications for their own well-being, but can also potentially affect their children's health and developmental trajectories. This study explored the extent to which maternal depression is a risk factor for inadequate housing conditions related to utilities, a noteworthy risk factor for poor child health. Using data on 2965 mothers and children from a national urban cohort of U.S. births in 1998-2000, we estimated multivariate logistic regression models of associations between maternal depression during the postpartum year and a U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) measure of severely inadequate housing due to heating issues, as well as a broader measure of energy insecurity that encompasses various types of utility problems. We also considered outcomes that incorporated housing instability and food insecurity in conjunction with housing inadequacy. Mothers who experienced depression had about 60% higher odds of experiencing severely inadequate housing due to heat (OR: 1.57) and 70% higher odds of experiencing energy insecurity (OR: 1.69) compared to mothers who did not experience depression. Maternal depression was even more strongly associated with multiple hardships in the forms of housing inadequacy plus housing instability and/or food insecurity than it was with housing inadequacy. This study provides robust evidence that maternal depression is a risk factor for inadequate housing and multiple hardships during a critical period of children's development. The findings suggest that policy efforts should not occur in mental health, housing, and food security silos.

Maternal depression as a risk factor for children's inadequate housing conditions

Depression among mothers with young children is an important public health issue that not only has implications for their own well-being, but can also potentially affect their children's health and developmental trajectories. This study explored the extent to which maternal depression is a risk factor for inadequate housing conditions related to utilities, a noteworthy risk factor for poor child health. Using data on 2965 mothers and children from a national urban cohort of U.S. births in 1998-2000, we estimated multivariate logistic regression models of associations between maternal depression during the postpartum year and a U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) measure of severely inadequate housing due to heating issues, as well as a broader measure of energy insecurity that encompasses various types of utility problems. We also considered outcomes that incorporated housing instability and food insecurity in conjunction with housing inadequacy. Mothers who experienced depression had about 60% higher odds of experiencing severely inadequate housing due to heat (OR: 1.57) and 70% higher odds of experiencing energy insecurity (OR: 1.69) compared to mothers who did not experience depression. Maternal depression was even more strongly associated with multiple hardships in the forms of housing inadequacy plus housing instability and/or food insecurity than it was with housing inadequacy. This study provides robust evidence that maternal depression is a risk factor for inadequate housing and multiple hardships during a critical period of children's development. The findings suggest that policy efforts should not occur in mental health, housing, and food security silos.