Loss pathways of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in turfgrass soils

NDMA and NDMA precursor attenuation in environmental buffers prior to groundwater recharge for potable reuse

Natural attenuation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and NDMA precursors was evaluated in infiltration basins, a riverbed filtration system, and constructed wetlands operated as part of a managed aquifer recharge system. Initial NDMA concentrations up to 9.0 ng/L in infiltration basins (advanced purified, recycled water) before sunrise declined to non-detect (<1.5 ng/L) by 10:00 A.M due to natural photolysis (half-life of 33 to 86 min dependent on solar irradiance). NDMA fortified controls adjacent to the infiltration basin showed similar results, while concentrations in dark controls did not change over the basin's hydraulic retention time. NDMA precursor concentrations did not change significantly in the basin containing advanced-treated water from a potable reuse treatment plant, indicating that photolysis did not remove NDMA precursors nor did photolysis produce a significant amount of precursors. For the other environmental buffers evaluated, NDMA removal was variable through laboratory scale soil columns (22 cm height), in full-scale riverbed filtration system that pre-filters water prior to infiltration basin recharge, and in the constructed wetland. Variability in NDMA removal through the wetlands is attributed to high turbidity. In the case of the riverbed filtration system, variability is likely due to short exposure times to sunlight. For the soil columns, limited NDMA removal is attributed to inefficacy of soil aquifer treatment in removing NDMA over short travel times/distances. NDMA precursors were also ineffectively removed in these systems, with effluent concentrations occasionally exceeding influent concentrations. Overall, the removal of NDMA in environmental buffers utilized for planned or de facto indirect potable reuse is dependent on the system's capacity for photolysis, while NDMA precursors are more recalcitrant and unlikely to be removed in such systems without enhancement or sufficient hydraulic residence times.

Relative Importance of Different Water Categories as Sources of N-Nitrosamine Precursors

A comparison of loadings of N-nitrosamines and their precursors from different source water categories is needed to design effective source water blending strategies. Previous research using Formation Potential (FP) chloramination protocols (high dose and prolonged contact times) raised concerns about precursor loadings from various source water categories, but differences in the protocols employed rendered comparisons difficult. In this study, we applied Uniform Formation Condition (UFC) chloramination and ozonation protocols mimicking typical disinfection practice to compare loadings of ambient specific and total N-nitrosamines as well as chloramine-reactive and ozone-reactive precursors in 47 samples, including 6 pristine headwaters, 16 eutrophic waters, 4 agricultural runoff samples, 9 stormwater runoff samples, and 12 municipal wastewater effluents. N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation from UFC and FP chloramination protocols did not correlate, with NDMA FP often being significant in samples where no NDMA formed under UFC conditions. N-Nitrosamines and their precursors were negligible in pristine headwaters. Conventional, and to a lesser degree, nutrient removal wastewater effluents were the dominant source of NDMA and its chloramine- and ozone-reactive precursors. While wastewater effluents were dominant sources of TONO and their precursors, algal blooms, and to a lesser degree agricultural or stormwater runoff, could be important where they affect a major fraction of the water supply.

Comparison of microwave assisted, ultrasonic assisted and Soxhlet extractions of N-nitrosamines and aromatic amines in sewage sludge, soils and sediments

This paper describes a cost-effective and sensitive method for the gas chromatographic determination of 10 aliphatic and aromatic N-nitrosamines and 14 aromatic amines (including aniline, several chloroanilines and 2-nitroaniline) in various soil matrices, after microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) combined with continuous solid-phase extraction. A systematic comparison of MAE with ultrasonic assisted and Soxhlet extraction alternatives showed that MAE provided the highest extraction efficiency (94-96%) with the shortest extraction time (3 min). The method developed provides a linear response throughout the concentration range 0.1-150 ng g(-1) and features low limits of detection (0.03-0.35 ng g(-1)) and good precision. The method was successfully applied to study the occurrence of the analytes in sewage sludge, agricultural soils, and river and pond sediments. Aniline and chloroanilines were the amines most frequently detected (0.4-5.4 ng g(-1)), whereas N-nitrosodimethylamine, N-nitrosodiethylamine and N-nitrosomorpholine were only found in two of the urban sewage sludge samples analyzed (0.4-1.6 ng g(-1)).

Differential microbial transformation of nitrosamines by an inducible propane monooxygenase

The toxicity of N-nitrosamines, their presence in drinking and environmental water supplies, and poorly understood recalcitrance collectively necessitate a better understanding of their potential for bioattenuation. Here, we show that the bacterial strain Rhodococcus jostii RHA1 can biotransform N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine (NDPA), N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR), and possibly N-nitrosomorpholine (NMOR) in addition to N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Growth of cells on propane as the sole carbon source greatly enhanced degradation rates when contrasted with cells grown on complex organics. Propane-induced rates in order of fastest to slowest were NDMA > NDEA > NDPA > NPYR > NMOR at concentrations <2000 μg/L. Removal rates for linear functional groups scaled inversely with mass and cyclic nitrosamines were more recalcitrant than linear nitrosamines. Controls demonstrated significant NDEA and NDPA losses independent of biomass, suggesting abiotic processes may play a role in attenuation of these two compounds under experimental conditions tested here. In contrast to NDMA, a transition from first to zero order kinetics was not observed for the other nitrosamines included in this study over a concentration range of 20-2000 μg/L. A genetic knockout for the propane monooxygenase enzyme (PrMO) confirmed the role of this enzyme in the biotransformation of NDEA and NPYR. This study furthers our understanding of environmental nitrosamine attenuation by revealing an enzymatic mechanism for the biotransformation of multiple nitrosamines, their relative recalcitrance to transformation, and potential for abiotic loss.

Leaching of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in turfgrass soils during recycled water irrigation

An important beneficial reuse of treated wastewater (recycled water) in arid and semiarid regions is landscape irrigation. However, the environmental fate, especially groundwater contamination potential, of trace contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is a significant concern that can hinder the acceptance and adoption of such reuses. In this study, we irrigated mature turfgrass plots with nonspiked tertiary treated wastewater for over 6 mo at 100 or 130% of the reference evapotranspiration rate (ETo) and collected leachate water at the 90-cm depth on a weekly basis. In the recycled water, all 14 target PPCPs were consistently found, and the mean levels of atenolol, gemfibrozil, meprobamate, carbamazepine, and sulfamethoxazole were above 100 ng L. However, only five compounds were detected in the leachate at trace levels. Trimethoprim and primidone were frequently found, whereas the detection of sulfamethoxazole, meprobamate and carbamazepine was less frequent (<50%). When detected, the overall mean concentration in the leachate was 10.2 ng L for trimethoprim, 7.1 ng L for primidone, and 2.9 to 12.4 ng L for carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, and meprobamate. The majority of the target PPCPs were completely removed. Given that the irrigation rates were higher than normal, this study clearly demonstrated the efficacy of turfgrass systems in attenuating PPCPs during recycled water irrigation. However, it is also apparent that some PPCPs are more susceptible to leaching than others, and these PPCPs thus merit further research attention.

Fate of N-nitrosodimethylamine in recycled water after recharge into anaerobic aquifer

Laboratory and field experiments were undertaken to assess the fate of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in aerobic recycled water that was recharged into a deep anaerobic pyritic aquifer, as part of a managed aquifer recharge (MAR) strategy. Laboratory studies demonstrated a high mobility of NDMA in the Leederville aquifer system with a retardation coefficient of 1.1. Anaerobic degradation column and (14)C-NDMA microcosm studies showed that anaerobic conditions of the aquifer provided a suitable environment for the biodegradation of NDMA with first-order kinetics. At microgram per litre concentrations, inhibition of biodegradation was observed with degradation half-lives (260±20 days) up to an order of magnitude greater than at nanogram per litre concentrations (25-150 days), which are more typical of environmental concentrations. No threshold effects were observed at the lower ng L(-1) concentrations with NDMA concentrations reduced from 560 ng L(-1) to <6 ng L(-1) over a 42 day 14C-NDMA aerobic microcosm experiment. Aerobic (14)C-NDMA microcosm studies were also undertaken to assess potential aerobic degradation, likely to occur close to the recharge bore. These microcosm experiments showed a faster degradation rate than anaerobic microcosms, with a degradation half-life of 8±2 days, after a lag period of approximately 10 days. Results from a MAR field trial recharging the Leederville aquifer with aerobic recycled water showed that NDMA concentrations reduced from 2.5±1.0 ng L(-1) to 1.3±0.4 ng L(-1) between the recharge bore and a monitoring location 20 m down gradient (an estimated aquifer residence time of 10 days), consistent with data from the aerobic microcosm experiment. Further down gradient, in the anaerobic zone of the aquifer, NDMA degradation could not be assessed, as NDMA concentrations were too close to their analytical detection limit (<1 ng L(-1)).

Nitrosamines and water

This paper provides an overview of all current issues that are connected to the presence of nitrosamines in water technology. N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is the most frequently detected member of this family. Nitrosamines became the hottest topic in drinking water science when they were identified as disinfection by-products (DBPs) in chloraminated waters. The danger that they pose to consumer health seems to be much higher than that from chlorinated DBPs. This review summarizes our contemporary knowledge of these compounds in water, their occurrence, and precursors of nitrosamines in drinking and wastewaters, in addition to attempts to remove nitrosamines from water. The paper also reviews our knowledge of the mechanisms of nitrosamine formation in water technology. The current, commonly accepted mechanism of NDMA formation during chloramination of drinking waters assumes that dichloramine reacts with dimethylamine, forms unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and further oxidizes to NDMA. The question to answer is which precursors are responsible for delivering the DMA moiety for the reaction since the presence of DMA in water cannot explain the quantities of NDMA that are formed. There are also reports that other oxidants that are commonly used in water technology may generate NDMA. However, the mechanisms of such transformations are unknown. Methods for the removal of nitrosamines from water are described briefly. However, the research that has been undertaken on such methods seems to be at an early stage of development. It is predicted that photolytic methods may have the greatest potential for technological application.

Occurrence and formation potential of N-nitrosodimethylamine in ground water and river water in Tokyo

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a disinfection byproduct of water and wastewater treatment processes, is a potent carcinogen. We investigated its occurrence and the potential for its formation by chlorination (NDMA-FP Cl2) and by chloramination (NDMA-FP NH2Cl) in ground water and river water in Tokyo. To characterize NDMA precursors, we revealed their molecular weight distributions in ground water and river water. We collected 23 ground water and 18 river water samples and analyzed NDMA by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. NDMA-FP Cl2 was evaluated by chlorinating water samples with free chlorine for 24 h at pH 7.0 while residual free chlorine was kept at 1.0-2.0 mg Cl(2)/L. NDMA-FP NH2Cl was evaluated by dosing water samples with monochloramine at 140 mg Cl(2)/L for 10 days at pH 6.8. NDMA precursors and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were fractionated by filtration through 30-, 3-, and 0.5 kDa membranes. NDMA concentrations were <0.5-5.2 ng/L (median: 0.9 ng/L) in ground water and <0.5-3.4 ng/L (2.2 ng/L) in river water. NDMA concentrations in ground water were slightly lower than or comparable to those in river water. Concentrations of NDMA-FP Cl2 were not much higher than concentrations of NDMA except in samples containing high concentrations of NH(3) and NDMA precursors. The increased NDMA was possibly caused by reactions between NDMA precursors and monochloramine unintentionally formed by the reaction between free chlorine and NH(3) in the samples. NDMA precursors ranged from 4 to 84 ng-NDMA eq./L in ground water and from 11 to 185 ng-NDMA eq./L in river water. Those in ground water were significantly lower than those in river water, suggesting that NDMA precursors were biodegraded, adsorbed, or volatilized during infiltration. The molecular weight of NDMA precursors in river water was dominant in the <0.5 kDa fraction, followed by 0.5-3 kDa. However, their distribution was inconsistent in ground water: one was dominant in the <0.5 kDa fraction, and the other in 0.5-3 kDa. Molecular weight distributions of NDMA precursors were very different from those of DOC. This is the first study to reveal the widespread occurrence and characterization of NDMA precursors in ground water.

Fate characterization of a novel herbicide ZJ0273 in aerobic soils using multi-position 14C labeling

ZJ0273, propyl 4-(2-(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yloxy)benzylamino)benzoate, is a novel herbicide being developed for use on rape crops. The environmental behavior and fate of ZJ0273, however, are not well understood. In this study, multi-position (14)C-labeled compounds (B-ZJ0273 and C-ZJ0273) were used to investigate the fate of ZJ0273 in aerobic soils, and compare their differences in extractable residues (ER), bound residues (BR), and mineralization. ER for both (14)C labels followed a similar dissipation trend in the same soil, and results showed a strong effect of soil pH, with the ER level being significantly higher in acidic soils than neutral or alkaline soils. The disappearance of parent compound followed first-order dynamics for both labels in the same soils. No difference in BR was observed between the two (14)C-labels. BR increased with time and reached 17.5-35.3% of applied (14)C in the three soils after 100-d incubation, which is much smaller than the non-accumulative criteria (70%) as stated in the directives by the Commission of the European Communities. Mineralization to CO(2) also depended closely on the soil type, with the cumulative mineralized fraction being substantially greater in the neutral and alkaline soils than in the acidic soil. Results also showed that cumulative mineralization rates of the two labels in the acidic soil were much smaller than those in the neutral and alkaline soils. Mineralization of C-ZJ0273 (1.2-9.9%) was found to be more extensive than that of B-ZJ0273 (0.5-6.6%), suggesting that benzyl ring was more susceptible to cleavage than pyrimidine ring. The use of multi-position labeling proved to be valuable; it served the purpose of validating the rigorousness of experimental protocols, and provided insights into the behavior and fate of the different molecular fragments.

Field evidence of biodegradation of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in groundwater with incidental and active recycled water recharge

Biodegradation of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) has been found through laboratory incubation in unsaturated and saturated soil samples under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. However, direct field evidence of in situ biodegradation in groundwater is very limited. This research aimed to evaluate biodegradation of NDMA in a large-scale groundwater system receiving recycled water as incidental and active recharge. NDMA concentrations in 32 monitoring and production wells with different screen intervals were monitored over a period of seven years. Groundwater monitoring was used to characterize changes in the magnitude and extent of NDMA in groundwater in response to seasonal hydrogeologic conditions and, more importantly, to significant concentration variations in effluent from water reclamation plants (associated with treatment-process changes). Extensive monitoring of NDMA concentrations and flow rates at effluent discharge locations and surface-water stations was also conducted to reasonably estimate mass loading through unlined river reaches to underlying groundwater. Monitoring results indicate that significant biodegradation of NDMA occurred in groundwater, accounting for an estimated 90% mass reduction over the seven-year monitoring period. In addition, a discrete effluent-discharge and groundwater-extraction event was extensively monitored in a well-characterized, localized groundwater subsystem for 626 days. Analysis of the associated NDMA fate and transport in the subsystem indicated that an estimated 80% of the recharged mass was biodegraded. The observed field evidence of NDMA biodegradation is supported by groundwater transport modeling accounting for various dilution mechanisms and first-order decay for biodegradation, and by a previous laboratory study on soil samples collected from the study site [Bradley, P.M., Carr, S.A., Baird, R.B., Chapelle, F.H., 2005. Biodegradation of N-Nitrosodimethylamine in soil from a water reclamation facility. Bioremediat. J. 9 (2), 115-120.].

Leaching risk of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in soil receiving reclaimed wastewater

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a potential carcinogen frequently found in treated wastewater as a byproduct of chlorination. The potential for NDMA to contaminate the groundwater is a significant concern. A solute fate and transport model, Hydrus-1D, was used to evaluate the leaching potential of NDMA under different irrigation practices and soil properties. The results indicate that the risk of NDMA to reach the ground water is slim, when the reclaimed wastewater is applied under the customary conditions for landscape irrigation. The NDMA disappears in the reclaimed wastewater receiving soils rapidly through the microbial degradation and the volatilization processes. The factors that enhance the leaching risk are the soil hydraulic conductivity, the NDMA adsorption constants, and the irrigation intensity. When the hydraulic conductivity of soil is high, the NDMA adsorption constant of soil is low and/or the irrigation intensity is high, the NDMA leaching risk may dramatically increase. To reduce the NDMA leaching risk, it is imperative that the fields be irrigated at the proper volume and frequency and attention be paid to fields with soils having high-hydraulic conductivities and/or low-NDMA adsorption constants.

Uptake of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from water by phreatophytes in the absence and presence of perchlorate as a co-contaminant

The uptake and fate of the emerging contaminants N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and perchlorate in phreatophytes was studied in a hydroponics system under greenhouse conditions. NDMA is a potent carcinogen, and perchlorate disrupts the functioning ofthe human thyroid gland. The rate of removal of NDMA from solution by rooted cuttings of black willow (Salix nigra) and hybrid poplar (Populus deltoides x nigra, DN34) trees varied seasonally, with faster removal in summer months when transpiration rates were highest. A linear correlation between the volume of water transpired and mass of NDMA removed from the root zone was observed, especially at higher NDMA concentrations. In bioreactors dosed with both NDMA (0.7-1.0 mg L(-1)) and perchlorate (27 mg L(-1)), no competitive uptake of NDMA and perchlorate was observed. While NDMA was primarily removed from solution by plant uptake, perchlorate was predominantly removed by rhizodegradation. In the presence of NDMA, a slower rate of rhizodegradation of perchlorate was observed, but still significantly faster than the rate of NDMA uptake. For experiments conducted with radiolabeled NDMA, 46.4 +/- 1.1% of the total 14C-activity was recovered in the plant tissues and 47.5% was phytovolatilized. The 46.4 +/- 1.1% recovered in the plants was distributed as follows: 18.8 +/- 1.4% in leaves, 15.9 +/- 5.9% in stems, 7.6 +/- 3.2% in branches, and 3.5 +/- 3.3% in roots. The poor extractability of NDMA with methanol-water (1:1 v/v) from stem and leaf tissues suggested that some fraction of NDMA was assimilated. The calculated transpiration stream concentration factor (TSCF) of 0.28 +/- 0.06 suggests that NDMA is passively taken up by phreatophytes, and mainly phytovolatilized.

Leaching of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in turfgrass soils during wastewater irrigation

N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a carcinogenic by-product of chlorination that is frequently found in municipal wastewater effluent. NDMA is miscible in water and negligibly adsorbed to soil, and therefore may pose a threat to ground water when treated wastewater is used for landscape irrigation. A field study was performed in the summer months under arid Southern California weather conditions to evaluate the leaching potential of NDMA in turfgrass soils during wastewater irrigation. Wastewater was used to irrigate multiple turfgrass plots at 110 to 160% evapotranspiration rate for about 4 mo, and leachate was continuously collected and analyzed for NDMA. The treated wastewater contained relatively high levels of NDMA (114-1820 ng L(-1); mean 930 ng L(-1)). NDMA was detected infrequently in the leachate regardless of the soil type or irrigation schedule. At a method detection limit of 2 ng L(-1), NDMA was only detected in 9 out of 400 leachate samples and when it was detected, the NDMA concentration was less than 5 ng L(-1). NDMA was relatively persistent in the turfgrass soils during laboratory incubation, indicating that mechanisms other than biotransformation, likely volatilization and/or plant uptake, contributed to the rapid dissipation. Under conditions typical of turfgrass irrigation with wastewater effluent it is unlikely that NDMA will contaminate ground water.