Combined Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy and Immunotherapy for Cancer Treatment: A Review

Advances in localized prostate cancer: A special focus on photothermal therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a high prevalence disease, per 10000 habitants, that tends to increase with age. This pathology is difficult to detect at an early stage due to the absence of symptoms, hence the importance of monitoring signs for early detection. This disease can be detected by various methods, including plasmatic levels of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and rectal touch, with biopsy being necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Patients affected by prostate cancer can have localized or advanced disease. There are conventional approaches that have been used as a reference in localized cancer, such as active surveillance, surgery, or radiotherapy. However, the adverse effects might vary and, sometimes, they can be permanent. An overview about the innovative therapeutic approaches to improve outcomes in terms of both tumor remission and side effects for localized PCa is presented. In case of emerging light-based treatment strategies, they aimed at ablating tumor tissue by inducing an external light are non-invasive, localized and, considerably, they are able to reduce lesions in peripheral tissues. One is photodynamic therapy (PDT) and it involves the photooxidation of molecules culminating in the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), inducing cell death. On the other hand, photothermal therapy (PTT) is based on inducing hyperthermia in cancer cells by irradiating them with beams of light at a specific wavelength. To improve the heat generated, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have those desirable characteristics that have drawn attention to PTT. Various studies point to AuNPs as efficient nanomaterials in PTT for the treatment of tumors, including prostate cancer. This review includes the most representative advances in this research field, dated from 1998 to 2023. It is noticed that several advances have been made and the way to find the effective treatment without impacting adverse side effects is shorter.

The Implication of Photodynamic Therapy Applied to the Level of Tumor Resection on Postoperative Cerebral Edema and Intracranial Pressure Changes in Gliomas

AIM

The aim of our study was to explore the factors influencing cerebral edema and intracranial pressure in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) patients who undergo photodynamic therapy (PDT) after resection.

APPROACH

This was a retrospective controlled study of GBM patients treated with PDT-assisted resections of varying scope from May 2021 to August 2023. The baseline clinical data, cerebral edema volumes, intracranial pressure values, and imaging data of the GBM patients were collected for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 56 GBM patients were included. Thirty of the patients underwent gross total resection (GTR), and the other 26 patients underwent subtotal resection (STR). We found that the cerebral edema volume and the mean intracranial pressure in patients who underwent GTR were lower than those in patients who underwent STR. Moreover, univariate analysis showed that the scope of tumor resection was an independent factor affecting cerebral edema and intracranial pressure after PDT.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with STR, PDT combined with GTR significantly reduced postoperative brain edema volume and intracranial pressure in GBM patients.

Naphthalene Diimide-Based Polycyclic Conjugated Molecule Composite CoFe2O4 Nanohybrids for Photoacoustic Imaging-Mediated Photo-/Sonic Therapy

The complex and harsh tumor microenvironment imped the efficacy of single-modality tumor therapy. With the advantages of biosafety, organic/inorganic nanohybrids have attracted more and more interest of researchers, and it is critical to investigate the development of highly efficient nanohybrids for multimodality combination therapy of cancers. Herein, a naphthalene diimide-based polycyclic conjugated molecule (NDI-S) is designed and synthesized, which has broader light absorption in the near infrared (NIR) region, outstanding photothermal conversion ability, and excellent photostability. Inorganic CoFe2O4 is synthesized via a solvothermal technique, which can produce much more reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a sonosensitizer when activated by ultrasonic (US). NDI-S and CoFe2O4 are then nanoprecipitated to create the organic/inorganic nanohybrids, NDI-S@CoFe2O4. According to the results of in vitro and in vivo experiments, NDI-S@CoFe2O4 can serve as a multifunctional nanoplatform for multimodal treatment of tumors in combination with photothermal/photodynamic/sonodynamic- therapy under the guidance of photoacoustic imaging, which provides a new vision of the development of organic/inorganic nanohybrids for cancer theranostics.

Applicability of Quantum Dots in Breast Cancer Diagnostic and Therapeutic Modalities-A State-of-the-Art Review

The increasing incidence of breast cancers (BCs) in the world population and their complexity and high metastatic ability are serious concerns for healthcare systems. Despite the significant progress in medicine made in recent decades, the efficient treatment of invasive cancers still remains challenging. Chemotherapy, a fundamental systemic treatment method, is burdened with severe adverse effects, with efficacy limited by resistance development and risk of disease recurrence. Also, current diagnostic methods have certain drawbacks, attracting attention to the idea of developing novel, more sensitive detection and therapeutic modalities. It seems the solution for these issues can be provided by nanotechnology. Particularly, quantum dots (QDs) have been extensively evaluated as potential targeted drug delivery vehicles and, simultaneously, sensing and bioimaging probes. These fluorescent nanoparticles offer unlimited possibilities of surface modifications, allowing for the attachment of biomolecules, such as antibodies or proteins, and drug molecules, among others. In this work, we discuss the potential applicability of QDs in breast cancer diagnostics and treatment in light of the current knowledge. We begin with introducing the molecular and histopathological features of BCs, standard therapeutic regimens, and current diagnostic methods. Further, the features of QDs, along with their uptake, biodistribution patterns, and cytotoxicity, are described. Based on the reports published in recent years, we present the progress in research on possible QD use in improving BC diagnostics and treatment efficacy as chemotherapeutic delivery vehicles and photosensitizing agents, along with the stages of their development. We also address limitations and open questions regarding this topic.

A Simple Binary Supramolecular Co-Assembly Platform for Enhanced Tumor Imaging and Therapy

The primary challenges in tumor imaging and therapy revolve around improving targeting efficiency, enhancing probe/drug delivery efficacy, and minimizing off-target signals and toxicity. Although various carriers have been developed, many are difficult to synthesize, costly, and not universally applicable. Furthermore, numerous carriers exhibit limited delivery rates in solid tumors, particularly larger nanocarriers. To address these challenges, a simple binary co-assembly drug delivery platform has been designed using the readily synthesized small molecule Cys(SEt)-Lys-CBT (CKCBT) as the self-assembly building block. CKCBT can effectively penetrate tumor cells due to its positively charged Lys side chain and small size. Upon glutathione reduction, CKCBT co-assembles with Nile red or Chlorin e6 to form nanofibers inside tumor cells. This enables their specific accumulation in tumor cells rather than normal cells and extends their exposure time, resulting in precise and enhanced tumor imaging and treatment. Hence, this uncomplicated and highly efficient binary co-assembly drug delivery platform can be easily adapted to a broad spectrum of probes and drugs, presenting a novel approach for advancing clinical diagnosis and therapy.

A dual-prodrug nanogel combining Vorinostat and Pyropheophorbide a for a high efficient photochemotherapy

The challenges posed by intractable relapse and metastasis in cancer treatment have led to the development of various forms of photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, traditional drug delivery systems, such as virus vectors, liposomes, and polymers, often suffer from issues like desynchronized drug release, carrier instability, and drug leakage during circulation. To address these problems, we have developed a dual-prodrug nanogel (PVBN) consisting of Pyro (Pyropheophorbide a) and SAHA (Vorinostat) bound to BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin), which facilitates synchronous and spontaneous drug release in situ within the lysosome. Detailed results indicate that PVBN-treated tumor cells exhibit elevated levels of ROS and Acetyl-H3, leading to necrosis, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest, with PDT playing a dominant role in the synergistic therapeutic effect. Furthermore, the anti-tumor efficacy of PVBN was validated in melanoma-bearing mice, where it significantly inhibited tumor growth and pulmonary metastasis. Overall, our dual-prodrug nanogel, formed by the binding of SAHA and Pyro to BSA and releasing drugs within the lysosome, represents a novel and promising strategy for enhancing the clinical efficacy of photochemotherapy.

Cyanine dyes in the mitochondria-targeting photodynamic and photothermal therapy

Mitochondrial dysregulation plays a significant role in the carcinogenesis. On the other hand, its destabilization strongly represses the viability and metastatic potential of cancer cells. Photodynamic and photothermal therapies (PDT and PTT) target mitochondria effectively, providing innovative and non-invasive anticancer therapeutic modalities. Cyanine dyes, with strong mitochondrial selectivity, show significant potential in enhancing PDT and PTT. The potential and limitations of cyanine dyes for mitochondrial PDT and PTT are discussed, along with their applications in combination therapies, theranostic techniques, and optimal delivery systems. Additionally, novel approaches for sonodynamic therapy using photoactive cyanine dyes are presented, highlighting advances in cancer treatment.

Recent Progress in Photothermal, Photodynamic and Sonodynamic Cancer Therapy: Through the cGAS-STING Pathway to Efficacy-Enhancing Strategies

Photothermal, photodynamic and sonodynamic cancer therapies offer opportunities for precise tumor ablation and reduce side effects. The cyclic guanylate adenylate synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway has been considered a potential target to stimulate the immune system in patients and achieve a sustained immune response. Combining photothermal, photodynamic and sonodynamic therapies with cGAS-STING agonists represents a newly developed cancer treatment demonstrating noticeable innovation in its impact on the immune system. Recent reviews have concentrated on diverse materials and their function in cancer therapy. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanism of photothermal, photodynamic and sonodynamic cancer therapies and the connected role of cGAS-STING agonists in treating cancer.

Nanoparticle-mediated thermal Cancer therapies: Strategies to improve clinical translatability

Despite significant advances, cancer remains a leading global cause of death. Current therapies often fail due to incomplete tumor removal and nonspecific targeting, spurring interest in alternative treatments. Hyperthermia, which uses elevated temperatures to kill cancer cells or boost their sensitivity to radio/chemotherapy, has emerged as a promising alternative. Recent advancements employ nanoparticles (NPs) as heat mediators for selective cancer cell destruction, minimizing damage to healthy tissues. This approach, known as NP hyperthermia, falls into two categories: photothermal therapies (PTT) and magnetothermal therapies (MTT). PTT utilizes NPs that convert light to heat, while MTT uses magnetic NPs activated by alternating magnetic fields (AMF), both achieving localized tumor damage. These methods offer advantages like precise targeting, minimal invasiveness, and reduced systemic toxicity. However, the efficacy of NP hyperthermia depends on many factors, in particular, the NP properties, the tumor microenvironment (TME), and TME-NP interactions. Optimizing this treatment requires accurate heat monitoring strategies, such as nanothermometry and biologically relevant screening models that can better mimic the physiological features of the tumor in the human body. This review explores the state-of-the-art in NP-mediated cancer hyperthermia, discussing available nanomaterials, their strengths and weaknesses, characterization methods, and future directions. Our particular focus lies in preclinical NP screening techniques, providing an updated perspective on their efficacy and relevance in the journey towards clinical trials.

Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as an Ideal Platform for Cancer Immunotherapy: Recent Advances and Future Directions

Cancer immunotherapy recently transforms the traditional approaches against various cancer malignancies. Immunotherapy includes systemic and local treatments to enhance immune responses against cancer and involves strategies such as immune checkpoints, cancer vaccines, immune modulatory agents, mimetic antigen-presenting cells, and adoptive cell therapy. Despite promising results, these approaches still suffer from several limitations including lack of precise delivery of immune-modulatory agents to the target cells and off-target toxicity, among others, that can be overcome using nanotechnology. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are investigated to improve various aspects of cancer immunotherapy attributed to the advantageous structural features of this nanomaterial. MSNs can be engineered to alter their properties such as size, shape, porosity, surface functionality, and adjuvanticity. This review explores the immunological properties of MSNs and the use of MSNs as delivery vehicles for immune-adjuvants, vaccines, and mimetic antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The review also details the current strategies to remodel the tumor microenvironment to positively reciprocate toward the anti-tumor immune cells and the use of MSNs for immunotherapy in combination with other anti-tumor therapies including photodynamic/thermal therapies to enhance the therapeutic effect against cancer. Last, the present demands and future scenarios for the use of MSNs for cancer immunotherapy are discussed.

An Asymmetric NIR-II Organic Fluorophore with an Ultra-Large Stokes Shift for Imaging-Guided and Targeted Phototherapy

NIR-II imaging-guided phototherapy is an attractive, yet challenging, tumor treatment strategy. By monitoring the accumulation of phototherapy reagents at the tumor site through imaging and determining the appropriate therapy window, the therapeutic effect could be significantly improved. Probes with NIR-II (1000-1700 nm) fluorescence emission and a large Stokes shift hold great promise for fluorescence imaging with deep penetration, minimized self-quenching, and high spatiotemporal resolution. However, due to the lack of a suitable molecular framework, the design of a simple small-molecule dye with a large Stokes shift and NIR-II fluorescence emission has rarely been reported. Herein, we prepare an asymmetric D-π-A type NIR-II fluorescence probe (TBy). The probe is incapsulated in an amphiphilic polymer and modified with a fibronectin targeting peptide CREKA, which could recognize the fibrin-fibronectin complex overexpressed in multiple malignant tumors. The nanoparticles thus constructed (TByC-NPs) have maximum fluorescence emission at 1037 nm with a large Stokes shift of 426 nm, which is the largest Stokes shift among organic NIR-II fluorescent dyes reported in the literature. The TByC-NPs exhibit a good NIR-II imaging performance, active tumor targeting, and good photothermal and photodynamic capabilities. In vitro and in vivo studies verify that the TByC nanoplatform shows outstanding biocompatibility for NIR-II imaging-guided phototherapy and provides an excellent antitumor effect.

Harnessing the potential of hydrogels for advanced therapeutic applications: current achievements and future directions

The applications of hydrogels have expanded significantly due to their versatile, highly tunable properties and breakthroughs in biomaterial technologies. In this review, we cover the major achievements and the potential of hydrogels in therapeutic applications, focusing primarily on two areas: emerging cell-based therapies and promising non-cell therapeutic modalities. Within the context of cell therapy, we discuss the capacity of hydrogels to overcome the existing translational challenges faced by mainstream cell therapy paradigms, provide a detailed discussion on the advantages and principal design considerations of hydrogels for boosting the efficacy of cell therapy, as well as list specific examples of their applications in different disease scenarios. We then explore the potential of hydrogels in drug delivery, physical intervention therapies, and other non-cell therapeutic areas (e.g., bioadhesives, artificial tissues, and biosensors), emphasizing their utility beyond mere delivery vehicles. Additionally, we complement our discussion on the latest progress and challenges in the clinical application of hydrogels and outline future research directions, particularly in terms of integration with advanced biomanufacturing technologies. This review aims to present a comprehensive view and critical insights into the design and selection of hydrogels for both cell therapy and non-cell therapies, tailored to meet the therapeutic requirements of diverse diseases and situations.

Accelerated clinical response achieved by combining short-term tumor-directed photodynamic therapy with immunotherapy-based systemic therapies in synchronous colorectal cancer with MSI-H and POLE mutation: a case report

Genetic sequencing has revolutionized immunotherapy in colorectal cancer (CRC). Recent clinical trials have revealed a positive response to immunotherapy-based systemic therapies in CRC patient subgroups with microsatellite instability (MSI)-High or DNA polymerase epsilon (POLE) mutation. However, the unsatisfactory response rates was the major limitation in real-world practice of the precision immunotherapy in CRC. Adding photodynamic therapy (PDT) to systemic immunotherapy has showed synergetic anti-tumor effect by modulating tumor microenvironment, while the eligible patient's subgroups which would benefit from this combination remained equivocal. Here we reported a synchronous colorectal cancer patient with MSI-High and POLE mutation who had accelerated response in less than 2 cycles (42 days) of immunotherapy-based systemic therapies after tumor-directed PDT and has remained progression-free by far. This case enlightened the synergetic effect of PDT in immunotherapy-treated CRC patients, with the MSI and POLE-mutation status as predictors of survival benefits.

Shifting cold to hot tumors by nanoparticle-loaded drugs and products

Cold tumors lack antitumor immunity and are resistant to therapy, representing a major challenge in cancer medicine. Because of the immunosuppressive spirit of the tumor microenvironment (TME), this form of tumor has a low response to immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and also chemotherapy. Cold tumors have low infiltration of immune cells and a high expression of co-inhibitory molecules, such as immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive molecules. Therefore, targeting TME and remodeling immunity in cold tumors can improve the chance of tumor repression after therapy. However, tumor stroma prevents the infiltration of inflammatory cells and hinders the penetration of diverse molecules and drugs. Nanoparticles are an intriguing tool for the delivery of immune modulatory agents and shifting cold to hot tumors. In this review article, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the ability of nanoparticles loaded with different drugs and products to modulate TME and enhance immune cell infiltration. We also focus on newest progresses in the design and development of nanoparticle-based strategies for changing cold to hot tumors. These include the use of nanoparticles for targeted delivery of immunomodulatory agents, such as cytokines, small molecules, and checkpoint inhibitors, and for co-delivery of chemotherapy drugs and immunomodulatory agents. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of nanoparticles for enhancing the efficacy of cancer vaccines and cell therapy for overcoming resistance to treatment.

Tumor Cell-Targeting and Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Nanoplatforms for the Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photodynamic/Photothermal/Chemodynamic Treatment of Cervical Cancer

Purpose

Phototherapy, known for its high selectivity, few side effects, strong controllability, and synergistic enhancement of combined treatments, is widely used in treating diseases like cervical cancer.

Methods

In this study, hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide was used as a carrier to construct positively charged, poly(allylamine hydrochloride)-modified nanoparticles (NPs). The NP was efficiently loaded with the photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) via the addition of hydrogen phosphate ions to produce a counterion aggregation effect. HeLa cell membrane encapsulation was performed to achieve the final M-HMnO2@ICG NP. In this structure, the HMnO2 carrier responsively degrades to release ICG in the tumor microenvironment, self-generates O2 for sensitization to ICG-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT), and consumes GSH to expand the oxidative stress therapeutic effect [chemodynamic therapy (CDT) + PDT]. The ICG accumulated in tumor tissues exerts a synergistic PDT/photothermal therapy (PTT) effect through single laser irradiation, improving efficiency and reducing side effects. The cell membrane encapsulation increases nanomedicine accumulation in tumor tissues and confers an immune evasion ability. In addition, high local temperatures induced by PTT can enhance CDT. These properties of the NP enable full achievement of PTT/PDT/CDT and targeted effects.

Results

Mn2+ can serve as a magnetic resonance imaging agent to guide therapy, and ICG can be used for photothermal and fluorescence imaging. After its intravenous injection, M-HMnO2@ICG accumulated effectively at mouse tumor sites; the optimal timing of in-vivo laser treatment could be verified by near-infrared fluorescence, magnetic resonance, and photothermal imaging. The M-HMnO2@ICG NPs had the best antitumor effects among treatment groups under near-infrared light conditions, and showed good biocompatibility.

Conclusion

In this study, we designed a nano-biomimetic delivery system that improves hypoxia, responds to the tumor microenvironment, and efficiently loads ICG. It provides a new economical and convenient strategy for synergistic phototherapy and CDT for cervical cancer.

Targeted nanotherapy platform mediated tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cell immune function effects for collaborative anti-tumor photothermal immunotherapy for cervical cancer

Photothermal immunotherapy is an innovative approach to cancer treatment. It combines immunomodulators and photothermal agents, both targeted to the tumor site. This therapy harnesses the heat generated by photothermal conversion to damage tumor cells while simultaneously releasing tumor-associated antigens. This process enhances the anti-tumor immune response of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Photothermal immunotherapy is gaining prominence as a new method for cancer treatment. It is a current focal point in research due to its targeted efficacy, minimal systemic side effects, and reduced risk of treatment resistance. This study employed a thin-film dispersion method to fabricate liposomes (LIPO) as composite drug carriers. Indocyanine green (ICG) for clinical use was utilized as a photothermal agent (PTA), and folate (FA) was employed as a targeting agent for the nano-composite material. We encapsulated the immunoadjuvant CpG ODN within the FA@LIPO@ICG nano-system, resulting in the formation of targeted nanoparticles (NPs) for photothermal immunotherapy (FA@LIPO@ICG@CpG), and assessed the drug encapsulation rate. FA@LIPO@ICG@CpG NPs demonstrated excellent water solubility with an average size ranging from 100 to 200 nm. Furthermore, we investigated the photothermal properties of FA@LIPO@ICG@CpG NPs. Under 808 nm laser irradiation, the photothermal conversion efficiency of FA@LIPO@ICG@CpG NPs reached 39.05%. Subsequently, under 808 nm laser excitation, we conducted an analysis of lymphocyte subpopulations and their functional changes in U14 tumor-bearing mice by using flow cytometry. This treatment approach demonstrated remarkable anti-tumor efficacy. Consequently, FA@LIPO@ICG@CpG NPs hold substantial promise as a novel and promising strategy in cancer therapy.

Strategies and Recent Advances on Improving Efficient Antitumor of Lenvatinib Based on Nanoparticle Delivery System

Lenvatinib (LVN) is a potentially effective multiple-targeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor approved for treating hepatocellular carcinoma, metastatic renal cell carcinoma and thyroid cancer. Nonetheless, poor pharmacokinetic properties including poor water solubility and rapid metabolic, complex tumor microenvironment, and drug resistance have impeded its satisfactory therapeutic efficacy. This article comprehensively reviews the uses of nanotechnology in LVN to improve antitumor effects. With the characteristic of high modifiability and loading capacity of the nano-drug delivery system, an active targeting approach, controllable drug release, and biomimetic strategies have been devised to deliver LVN to target tumors in sequence, compensating for the lack of passive targeting. The existing applications and advances of LVN in improving therapeutic efficacy include improving longer-term efficiency, achieving higher efficiency, combination therapy, tracking and diagnosing application and reducing toxicity. Therefore, using multiple strategies combined with photothermal, photodynamic, and immunoregulatory therapies potentially overcomes multi-drug resistance, regulates unfavorable tumor microenvironment, and yields higher synergistic antitumor effects. In brief, the nano-LVN delivery system has brought light to the war against cancer while at the same time improving the antitumor effect. More intelligent and multifunctional nanoparticles should be investigated and further converted into clinical applications in the future.

ICG-labeled PD-L1-antagonistic affibody dimer for tumor imaging and enhancement of tumor photothermal-immunotherapy

In clinical practice, tumor-targeting diagnosis and immunotherapy against programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) have a significant impact. In this research, a PD-L1-antagonistic affibody dimer (ZPD-L1) was successfully prepared through Escherichia coli expression system, and conjugated with the photosensitizer of ICG via N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester to develop a novel tumor-targeting agent (ICG-ZPD-L1) for both tumor imaging diagnosis and photothermal-immunotherapy simultaneously. In vitro, ZPD-L1 could specifically bind to PD-L1-positive LLC and MC38 tumor cells, and ICG-ZPD-L1-mediated photothermal therapy (PTT) also showed excellent phototoxicity to these tumor cells. In vivo, ICG-ZPD-L1 selectively enriched into the PD-L1-positive MC38 tumor tissues, and the high-contrast optical imaging of tumors was obtained. ICG-ZPD-L1-mediated PTT exhibited a potent anti-tumor effect in vivo due to its remarkable photothermal properties. Furthermore, ICG-ZPD-L1-mediated PTT significantly induced the immunogenic cell death (ICD) of primary tumors, promoted maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), up-regulated anti-tumor immune response, enhanced immunotherapy, and superiorly inhibited the growth of metastatic tumors. In addition, ICG-ZPD-L1 showed favorable biosafety throughout the brief duration of treatment. In summary, these results suggest that ICG-ZPD-L1 is a multifunctional tumor-targeting drug integrating tumor imaging diagnosis and photothermal-immunotherapy, and has great guiding significance for the diagnosis and treatment of clinical PD-L1-positive tumor patients.

MXenes-polymer nanocomposites for biomedical applications: fundamentals and future perspectives

The article discusses the promising synergy between MXenes and polymers in developing advanced nanocomposites with diverse applications in biomedicine domains. MXenes, possessing exceptional properties, are integrated into polymer matrices through various synthesis and fabrication methods. These nanocomposites find applications in drug delivery, imaging, diagnostics, and environmental remediation. They offer improved therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects in drug delivery, enhanced sensitivity and specificity in imaging and diagnostics, and effectiveness in water purification and pollutant removal. The perspective also addresses challenges like biocompatibility and toxicity, while suggesting future research directions. In totality, it highlights the transformative potential of MXenes-polymer nanocomposites in addressing critical issues across various fields.

Review of NIR-responsive ''Smart'' carriers for photothermal chemotherapy

This review focuses on the versatile applications of near-infrared (NIR)-responsive smart carriers in biomedical applications, particularly drug delivery and photothermal chemotherapy. These carriers demonstrate multi-responsive theranostics capabilities, including pH-dependent drug release, targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics, heat-mediated drug release, and photothermal tumor damage. Biological samples are transparent to NIR light with a suitable wavelength, and therefore, NIR light is advantageous for deep-tissue penetration. It also generates sufficient heat in tissue samples, which is beneficial for on-demand NIR-responsive drug delivery in vivo systems. The development of biocompatible materials with sufficient NIR light absorption properties and drug-carrying functionality has shown tremendous growth in the last five years. Thus, this review offers insights into the current research development of NIR-responsive materials with therapeutic potential and prospects aimed at overcoming challenges to improve the therapeutic efficacy and safety in the dynamic field of NIR-responsive drug delivery.

Noble Metal Nanoparticle-Based Photothermal Therapy: Development and Application in Effective Cancer Therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer therapy modality with significant advantages such as precise targeting, convenient drug delivery, better efficacy, and minimal adverse effects. Photothermal therapy effectively absorbs the photothermal transducers in the near-infrared region (NIR), which induces the photothermal effect to work. Although PTT has a better role in tumor therapy, it also suffers from low photothermal conversion efficiency, biosafety, and incomplete tumor elimination. Therefore, the use of nanomaterials themselves as photosensitizers, the targeted modification of nanomaterials to improve targeting efficiency, or the combined use of nanomaterials with other therapies can improve the therapeutic effects and reduce side effects. Notably, noble metal nanomaterials have attracted much attention in PTT because they have strong surface plasmon resonance and an effective absorbance light at specific near-infrared wavelengths. Therefore, they can be used as excellent photosensitizers to mediate photothermal conversion and improve its efficiency. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the key role played by noble metal nanomaterials in tumor photothermal therapy. It also describes the major challenges encountered during the implementation of photothermal therapy.

Combined Ferritin Nanocarriers with ICG for Effective Phototherapy Against Breast Cancer

Introduction

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) is a promising, minimally invasive treatment for cancer with high immunostimulatory potential, no reported drug resistance, and reduced side effects. Indocyanine Green (ICG) has been used as a photosensitizer (PS) for PDT, although its poor stability and low tumor-target specificity strongly limit its efficacy. To overcome these limitations, ICG can be formulated as a tumor-targeting nanoparticle (NP).

Methods

We nanoformulated ICG into recombinant heavy-ferritin nanocages (HFn-ICG). HFn has a specific interaction with transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), which is overexpressed in most tumors, thus increasing HFn tumor tropism. First, we tested the properties of HFn-ICG as a PS upon irradiation with a continuous-wave diode laser. Then, we evaluated PDT efficacy in two breast cancer (BC) cell lines with different TfR1 expression levels. Finally, we measured the levels of intracellular endogenous heavy ferritin (H-Fn) after PDT treatment. In fact, it is known that cells undergoing ROS-induced autophagy, as in PDT, tend to increase their ferritin levels as a defence mechanism. By measuring intracellular H-Fn, we verified whether this interplay between internalized HFn and endogenous H-Fn could be used to maximize HFn uptake and PDT efficacy.

Results

We previously demonstrated that HFn-ICG stabilized ICG molecules and increased their delivery to the target site in vitro and in vivo for fluorescence guided surgery. Here, with the aim of using HFn-ICG for PDT, we showed that HFn-ICG improved treatment efficacy in BC cells, depending on their TfR1 expression. Our data revealed that endogenous H-Fn levels were increased after PDT treatment, suggesting that this defence reaction against oxidative stress could be used to enhance HFn-ICG uptake in cells, increasing treatment efficacy.

Conclusion

The strong PDT efficacy and peculiar Trojan horse-like mechanism, that we revealed for the first time in literature, confirmed the promising application of HFn-ICG in PDT.

Nanoparticle-mediated immunogenic cell death for cancer immunotherapy

The field of cancer therapy is witnessing the emergence of immunotherapy, an innovative approach that activates the body own immune system to combat cancer. Immunogenic cell death (ICD) has emerged as a prominent research focus in the field of cancer immunotherapy, attracting significant attention in recent years. The activation of ICD can induce the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), such as calreticulin (CRT), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), high mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1), and heat shock proteins (HSP). Subsequently, this process promotes the maturation of innate immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs), thereby triggering a T cell-mediated anti-tumor immune response. The activation of the ICD ultimately leads to the development of long-lasting immune responses against tumors. Studies have demonstrated that partial therapeutic approaches, such as chemotherapy with doxorubicin, specific forms of radiotherapy, and phototherapy, can induce the generation of ICD. The main focus of this article is to discuss and review the therapeutic methods triggered by nanoparticles for ICD, while briefly outlining their anti-tumor mechanism. The objective is to provide a comprehensive reference for the widespread application of ICD.

A novel treatment modality for rheumatoid arthritis: Inflammation-targeted multifunctional metal-organic frameworks with synergistic phototherapy and chemotherapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease with complex pathogenesis. Single chemotherapy struggles to eliminate the disease permanently and reduce the pain owing to drug resistance and inadequate delivery to target cells. This study developed hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified and methotrexate (MTX)-load metal-organic frameworks (denoted as FT-HA-MTX NPs), combining photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and chemotherapy to inhibit the progression of RA. In vitro experiments proved that the obtained NPs exhibited good biocompatibility and commendable photothermal conversion efficiency of 36.3 %. Additionally, they promoted ∙OH and O2 production via the Fenton reaction, which dramatically alleviated hypoxia and enhanced ROS generation, and induced substantial mortality in activated RAW 264.7 cells, with cell viability of 31.72 %. Cellular uptake and in vivo imaging confirmed that the modification of HA enabled the NPs to specifically target activated macrophage, ensured prolonged retention of NPs in inflamed synovial tissues, and reduced systemic toxicity. In vivo, after FT-HA-MTX NPs treatment with laser irradiation, the levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in the synovial tissue were reduced by approximately 50 % compared to those in the inflamed synovium, demonstrating a significant enhancement in the anti-inflammatory effect (p < 0.001). In conclusion, FT-HA-MTX NPs are promising inflammation-targeted multifunctional nanoparticles that combine PTT, PDT, and chemotherapy, thereby significantly inhibiting the progression of RA while reducing systemic toxicity.

Mechanism and potentialities of photothermal and photodynamic therapy of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) against cancer

The ultimate goal of nanoparticle-based phototherapy is to suppress tumor growth. Photothermal therapy (PTT) and photothermal photodynamic therapy (PDT) are two types of physicochemical therapy that use light radiation with multiple wavelength ranges in the near-infrared to treat cancer. When a laser is pointed at tissue, photons are taken in the intercellular and intracellular regions, converting photon energy to heat. It has attracted much interest and research in recent years. The advent of transition materials dichalcogenides (TMDCs) is a revolutionary step in PDT/PTT-based cancer therapy. The TMDCs is a multilayer 2D nano-composite. TMDCs contain three atomic layers in which two chalcogens squash in the transition metal. The chalcogen atoms are highly reactive, and the surface characteristics of TMDCs help them to target deep cancer cells. They absorb Near Infrared (NIR), which kills deep cancer cells. In this review, we have discussed the history and mechanism of PDT/PTT and the use of TMDCs and nanoparticle-based systems, which have been practiced for theranostics purposes. We have also discussed PDT/PTT combined with immunotherapy, in which the cancer cell apoptosis is done by activating the immune cells, such as CD8+.

Vaporization phosphorization-mediated synthesis of phosphorus-doped TiO2 nanocomposites for combined photodynamic and photothermal therapy of renal cell carcinoma

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a disease with high incidence and poor prognosis. The conventional treatment involves radiotherapy and chemotherapy, but chemotherapeutic agents are often associated with side effects, i.e., cytotoxicity to nontumor cells. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of novel therapeutic strategies for ccRCC. We synthesized spherical P/TiO2 nanoparticles (P/TiO2 NPs) by vaporization phosphorization (VP). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and ultraviolet-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS) analyses confirmed that the anatase TiO2 surface was successfully doped with phosphorus and produced a large number of oxygen vacancies (OV). Serving as a photosensitizer, P/TiO2 NPs not only extended the photoresponse range to the near-infrared II region (NIR II) but also introduced a donor energy level lower than the TiO2 conduction band, narrowing the band gap, which could facilitate the migration of photogenerated charges and trigger the synergistic treatment of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). During NIR irradiation in vitro, the P/TiO2 NPs generated local heat and various oxygen radicals, including 1O2, ˙O2-, H2O2, and ˙OH, which damaged the ccRCC cells. In vivo, administration of the P/TiO2 NPs + NIR reduced the tumor volume by 80%, and had the potential to inhibit tumor metastasis by suppressing intratumor neoangiogenesis. The P/TiO2 NPs showed superior safety and efficacy relative to the conventional chemotherapeutic agent used in ccRCC treatment. This study introduced an innovative paradigm for renal cancer treatment, highlighting the potential of P/TiO2 NPs as safe and effective nanomaterials and presenting a compelling new option for clinical applications in anticancer therapy.

Biomimetic MDSCs membrane coated black phosphorus nanosheets system for photothermal therapy/photodynamic therapy synergized chemotherapy of cancer

Photothermal therapy is favored by cancer researchers due to its advantages such as controllable initiation, direct killing and immune promotion. However, the low enrichment efficiency of photosensitizer in tumor site and the limited effect of single use limits the further development of photothermal therapy. Herein, a photo-responsive multifunctional nanosystem was designed for cancer therapy, in which myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) membrane vesicle encapsulated decitabine-loaded black phosphorous (BP) nanosheets (BP@ Decitabine @MDSCs, named BDM). The BDM demonstrated excellent biosafety and biochemical characteristics, providing a suitable microenvironment for cancer cell killing. First, the BDM achieves the ability to be highly enriched at tumor sites by inheriting the ability of MDSCs to actively target tumor microenvironment. And then, BP nanosheets achieves hyperthermia and induces mitochondrial damage by its photothermal and photodynamic properties, which enhancing anti-tumor immunity mediated by immunogenic cell death (ICD). Meanwhile, intra-tumoral release of decitabine induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, further promoting tumor cell apoptosis. In vivo, the BMD showed significant inhibition of tumor growth with down-regulation of PCNA expression and increased expression of high mobility group B1 (HMGB1), calreticulin (CRT) and caspase 3. Flow cytometry revealed significantly decreased infiltration of MDSCs and M2-macrophages along with an increased proportion of CD4+, CD8+ T cells as well as CD103+ DCs, suggesting a potentiated anti-tumor immune response. In summary, BDM realizes photothermal therapy/photodynamic therapy synergized chemotherapy for cancer.

Advances of Layered Double Hydroxide-Based Materials for Tumor Imaging and Therapy

Layered double hydroxides (LDH) are a class of functional anionic clays that typically consist of orthorhombic arrays of metal hydroxides with anions sandwiched between the layers. Due to their unique properties, including high chemical stability, good biocompatibility, controlled drug loading, and enhanced drug bioavailability, LDHs have many potential applications in the medical field. Especially in the fields of bioimaging and tumor therapy. This paper reviews the research progress of LDHs and their nanocomposites in the field of tumor imaging and therapy. First, the structure and advantages of LDH are discussed. Then, several commonly used methods for the preparation of LDH are presented, including co-precipitation, hydrothermal and ion exchange methods. Subsequently, recent advances in layered hydroxides and their nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy are highlighted. Finally, based on current research, we summaries the prospects and challenges of layered hydroxides and nanocomposites for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Supramolecular prodrug-like nanotheranostics with dynamic and activatable nature for synergistic photothermal immunotherapy of metastatic cancer

Synergistic photothermal immunotherapy has attracted widespread attention due to the mutually reinforcing therapeutic effects on primary and metastatic tumors. However, the lack of clinical approval nanomedicines for spatial, temporal, and dosage control of drug co-administration underscores the challenges facing this field. Here, a photothermal agent (Cy7-TCF) and an immune checkpoint blocker (NLG919) are conjugated via disulfide bond to construct a tumor-specific small molecule prodrug (Cy7-TCF-SS-NLG), which self-assembles into prodrug-like nano-assemblies (PNAs) that are self-delivering and self-formulating. In tumor cells, over-produced GSH cleaves disulfide bonds to release Cy7-TCF-OH, which re-assembles into nanoparticles to enhance photothermal conversion while generate reactive oxygen species (ROSs) upon laser irradiation, and then binds to endogenous albumin to activate near-infrared fluorescence, enabling multimodal imaging-guided phototherapy for primary tumor ablation and subsequent release of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). These TAAs, in combination with the co-released NLG919, effectively activated effector T cells and suppressed Tregs, thereby boosting antitumor immunity to prevent tumor metastasis. This work provides a simple yet effective strategy that integrates the supramolecular dynamics and reversibility with stimuli-responsive covalent bonding to design a simple small molecule with synergistic multimodal imaging-guided phototherapy and immunotherapy cascades for cancer treatment with high clinical value.

The future of plant based green carbon dots as cancer Nanomedicine: From current progress to future Perspectives and beyond

BACKGROUND

The emergence of carbon dots (CDs) as anticancer agents had sparked a transformation in cancer research and treatment strategies. These fluorescent CDs, initially introduced in the early 2000 s, possess exceptional biocompatibility, tunable fluorescence, and surface modification capabilities, positioning them as promising tools in biomedical applications.

AIM OF REVIEW

The review encapsulates the transformative trajectory of green CDs as future anticancer nanomedicine, poised to redefine the strategies employed in the ongoing fight against cancer.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

The versatility of CDs was rooted in their various synthesis approaches and sustainable strategies, enabling their adaptability for diverse therapeutic uses. In vitro studies had showcased CDs' selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells while sparing healthy counterparts, forming the basis for targeted therapeutic potential. This selectivity had been attributed to the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which opened avenues for targeted interventions. The role of CDs in combination therapies, synergizing with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted approaches was then investigated to heighten their anticancer efficacy. Notably, in vivo studies highlight CDs' remarkable biocompatibility and minimal side effects, endorsing their translational promise. Integration with conventional cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy amplified the versatility and effectiveness of CDs. The exploration of CDs' applications in photo-induced treatments further solidified their significance, positioning them as photosensitizers (PS) in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal agents (PA) in photothermal therapy (PTT). In PDT, CDs triggered the generation of ROS upon light exposure, facilitating cancer cell elimination, while in PTT, they induced localized hyperthermia within cancer cells, enhancing therapeutic outcomes. In vitro and in vivo investigations validated CDs' efficacy in PDT and PTT, affirming their potential for integration into combination therapies. Looking ahead, the future of CDs in anticancer treatment encompasses bioavailability, biocompatibility, synergistic treatments, tumor targeting, artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics integration, personalized medicine, and clinical translation. This transformative odyssey of CDs as future anticancer agents is poised to redefine the paradigm of cancer treatment strategies.

Hydrogel design to overcome thermal resistance and ROS detoxification in photothermal and photodynamic therapy of cancer

Responsive heat resistance (by heat shock protein upregulation) and spontaneous reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification have been regarded as the major obstacles for photothermal/photodynamic therapy of cancer. To overcome the thermal resistance and improve ROS susceptibility in breast cancer therapy, Au ion-crosslinked hydrogels including indocyanine green (ICG) and polyphenol are devised. Au ion has been introduced for gel crosslinking (by catechol-Au3+ coordination), cellular glutathione depletion, and O2 production from cellular H2O2. ICG can generate singlet oxygen from O2 (for photodynamic therapy) and induce hyperthermia (for photothermal therapy) under the near-infrared laser exposure. (-)-Epigallocatechin gallate downregulates heat shock protein to overcome heat resistance during hyperthermia and exerts multiple anticancer functions in spite of its ironical antioxidant features. Those molecules are concinnously engaged in the hydrogel structure to offer fast gel transformation, syringe injection, self-restoration, and rheological tuning for augmented photo/chemotherapy of cancer. Intratumoral injection of multifunctional hydrogel efficiently suppressed the growth of primary breast cancer and completely eliminated the residual tumor mass. Proposed hydrogel system can be applied to tumor size reduction prior to surgery of breast cancer and the complete remission after its surgery.

Biological Applications of Thermoplasmonics

Thermoplasmonics has emerged as an extraordinarily versatile tool with profound applications across various biological domains ranging from medical science to cell biology and biophysics. The key feature of nanoscale plasmonic heating involves remote activation of heating by applying laser irradiation to plasmonic nanostructures that are designed to optimally convert light into heat. This unique capability paves the way for a diverse array of applications, facilitating the exploration of critical biological processes such as cell differentiation, repair, signaling, and protein functionality, and the advancement of biosensing techniques. Of particular significance is the rapid heat cycling that can be achieved through thermoplasmonics, which has ushered in remarkable technical innovations such as accelerated amplification of DNA through quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Finally, medical applications of photothermal therapy have recently completed clinical trials with remarkable results in prostate cancer, which will inevitably lead to the implementation of photothermal therapy for a number of diseases in the future. Within this review, we offer a survey of the latest advancements in the burgeoning field of thermoplasmonics, with a keen emphasis on its transformative applications within the realm of biosciences.

Versatile Design of Organic Polymeric Nanoparticles for Photodynamic Therapy of Prostate Cancer

Radical prostatectomy is a primary treatment option for localized prostate cancer (PCa), although high rates of recurrence are commonly observed postsurgery. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has demonstrated efficacy in treating nonmetastatic localized PCa with a low incidence of adverse events. However, its limited efficacy remains a concern. To address these issues, various organic polymeric nanoparticles (OPNPs) loaded with photosensitizers (PSs) that target prostate cancer have been developed. However, further optimization of the OPNP design is necessary to maximize the effectiveness of PDT and improve its clinical applicability. This Review provides an overview of the design, preparation, methodology, and oncological aspects of OPNP-based PDT for the treatment of PCa.

Chitosan-functionalized bioplatforms and hydrogels in breast cancer: immunotherapy, phototherapy and clinical perspectives

Breast cancer is the most common and malignant tumor among women. Chitosan (CS)-based nanoparticles have been introduced into breast cancer therapy as a way to increase the targeted delivery of drugs and genes to the tumor site. CS nanostructures suppress tumorigenesis by enhancing both the targeted delivery of cargo (drug and gene) and its accumulation in tumor cells. The tumor cells internalize CS-based nanoparticles through endocytosis. Moreover, chitosan nanocarriers can also induce phototherapy-mediated tumor ablation. Smart and multifunctional types of CS nanoparticles, including pH-, light- and redox-responsive nanoparticles, can be used to improve the potential for breast cancer removal. In addition, the acceleration of immunotherapy by CS nanoparticles has also been achieved, and there is potential to develop CS-nanoparticle hydrogels that can be used to suppress tumorigenesis.

Dual-wavelength responsive CuS@COF nanosheets for high-performance photothermal/photodynamic combination treatments

Photothermal therapy (PTT) makes it difficult to achieve good performance on tumor treatments due to insufficient photothermal conversion efficiency, etc. Combining PTT with photodynamic therapy (PDT) and other therapeutic tools can significantly enhance the tumor-killing ability and has been widely used in the development of therapeutic platforms. Copper sulfide nanoparticle (CuS NP) photothermal reagents have the advantages of low toxicity and simple synthesis; therefore, combining CuS NPs with PDT photosensitizers is an effective strategy to construct a PTT/PDT combination therapeutic platform. However, PDT photosensitizers and photothermal agents generally assembled through hydrophobic interaction, suffer from low coating efficiency or the risk of drug leakage, thus seriously restricting their applications. To address these challenges, CuS NPs with excellent photothermal conversion performance were selected as the core material to prepare CuS@COF nanosheets through a dual-ligand assistant strategy with 4,7-bis(4-aminophenyl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BTD) and 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzene-1,3,5-tricarbaldehyde (TP). As a PTT/PDT combination therapeutic platform, CuS@COF nanosheets possess a porous TP-BDT-based COF shell, and it can sufficiently contact oxygen to provide high singlet oxygen (1O2) yield under 505 nm laser irradiation. Upon illumination with a 1064 nm laser, CuS@COF nanosheets can effectively convert the photon energy into thermal energy with a photothermal conversion efficiency of 63.4%. The results of the CCK8 experiment showed that the phototoxicity of the PTT/PDT combination treatment reached 85.1%, which was much higher than the effect of a single treatment. It was also confirmed in vivo that the tumor inhibition effect of the PDT/PTT combination treatment group was much greater than that of the single treatment group.

Injectable hydrogels for personalized cancer immunotherapies

The field of cancer immunotherapy has shown significant growth, and researchers are now focusing on effective strategies to enhance and prolong local immunomodulation. Injectable hydrogels (IHs) have emerged as versatile platforms for encapsulating and controlling the release of small molecules and cells, drawing significant attention for their potential to enhance antitumor immune responses while inhibiting metastasis and recurrence. IHs delivering natural killer (NK) cells, T cells, and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) offer a viable method for treating cancer. Indeed, it can bypass the extracellular matrix and gradually release small molecules or cells into the tumor microenvironment, thereby boosting immune responses against cancer cells. This review provides an overview of the recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy using IHs for delivering NK cells, T cells, APCs, chemoimmunotherapy, radio-immunotherapy, and photothermal-immunotherapy. First, we introduce IHs as a delivery matrix, then summarize their applications for the local delivery of small molecules and immune cells to elicit robust anticancer immune responses. Additionally, we discuss recent progress in IHs systems used for local combination therapy, including chemoimmunotherapy, radio-immunotherapy, photothermal-immunotherapy, photodynamic-immunotherapy, and gene-immunotherapy. By comprehensively examining the utilization of IHs in cancer immunotherapy, this review aims to highlight the potential of IHs as effective carriers for immunotherapy delivery, facilitating the development of innovative strategies for cancer treatment. In addition, we demonstrate that using hydrogel-based platforms for the targeted delivery of immune cells, such as NK cells, T cells, and dendritic cells (DCs), has remarkable potential in cancer therapy. These innovative approaches have yielded substantial reductions in tumor growth, showcasing the ability of hydrogels to enhance the efficacy of immune-based treatments. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: As cancer immunotherapy continues to expand, the mode of therapeutic agent delivery becomes increasingly critical. This review spotlights the forward-looking progress of IHs, emphasizing their potential to revolutionize localized immunotherapy delivery. By efficiently encapsulating and controlling the release of essential immune components such as T cells, NK cells, APCs, and various therapeutic agents, IHs offer a pioneering pathway to amplify immune reactions, moderate metastasis, and reduce recurrence. Their adaptability further shines when considering their role in emerging combination therapies, including chemoimmunotherapy, radio-immunotherapy, and photothermal-immunotherapy. Understanding IHs' significance in cancer therapy is essential, suggesting a shift in cancer treatment dynamics and heralding a novel period of focused, enduring, and powerful therapeutic strategies.

[Research progress of new multifunctional bone cement in bone tumor therapy]

Objective

The research progress of new multifunctional bone cement in bone tumor therapy in recent years was reviewed, in order to provide help for the future research of anti-tumor bone cement.

Methods

The related literature on the treatment of bone tumors with new multifunctional bone cement at home and abroad in recent years was extensively reviewed and summarized.

Results

The new multifunctional bone cements include those with the functions of photothermotherapy, magnetic thermotherapy, chemoradiotherapy, and antibacterial after operation, which are discussed from the aspects of anti-tumor, drug controlled release, and cytotoxicity. Controlled drug release has been achieved in multifunctional bone cements by adjusting heat and pH or incorporating particles such as chitosan oligosaccharides and γ-cyclodextrin. At present, multifunctional bone cement with hyperthermia, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy has effectively inhibited the local recurrence and distant metastasis of bone tumors. Broadening the application of bone cement for photothermal and magnetic thermal therapy to deeper bone tumors, investigating more precise controlled release of drug-loaded bone cement, and introducing nanoparticles with both thermal conversion and intrinsic enzymatic activities into bone cement for synergistic anti-tumor therapy are promising research directions.

Conclusion

The new multifunctional bone cement inhibits bone tumor cells, promotes new bone formation in bone defects, and prevents incision infection after tumor resection. Certain progress has been made in anti-tumor, antibacterial, drug-controlled release, and reduction of cytotoxicity. Expanding the deeper application range of the new multifunctional bone cement, verifying the safety in clinical application, and focusing on the individualized treatment of the new multifunctional bone cement are the problems that need to be solved in the future.

Glucose oxidase and metal catalysts combined tumor synergistic therapy: mechanism, advance and nanodelivery system

Cancer has always posed a significant threat to human health, prompting extensive research into new treatment strategies due to the limitations of traditional therapies. Starvation therapy (ST) has garnered considerable attention by targeting the primary energy source, glucose, utilized by cancer cells for proliferation. Glucose oxidase (GOx), a catalyst facilitating glucose consumption, has emerged as a critical therapeutic agent for ST. However, mono ST alone struggles to completely suppress tumor growth, necessitating the development of synergistic therapy approaches. Metal catalysts possess enzyme-like functions and can serve as carriers, capable of combining with GOx to achieve diverse tumor treatments. However, ensuring enzyme activity preservation in normal tissue and activation specifically within tumors presents a crucial challenge. Nanodelivery systems offer the potential to enhance therapy effectiveness by improving the stability of therapeutic agents and enabling controlled release. This review primarily focuses on recent advances in the mechanism of GOx combined with metal catalysts for synergistic tumor therapy. Furthermore, it discusses various nanoparticles (NPs) constructs designed for synergistic therapy in different carrier categories. Finally, this review provides a summary of GOx-metal catalyst-based NPs (G-M) and offers insights into the challenges associated with G-M therapy, delivery design, and oxygen (O2) supply.

Ferroptosis as a promising therapeutic strategy for melanoma

Malignant melanoma (MM) is the most common and deadliest type of skin cancer and is associated with high mortality rates across all races and ethnicities. Although present treatment options combined with surgery provide short-term clinical benefit in patients and early diagnosis of non-metastatic MM significantly increases the probability of survival, no efficacious treatments are available for MM. The etiology and pathogenesis of MM are complex. Acquired drug resistance is associated with a pool prognosis in patients with advanced-stage MM. Thus, these patients require new therapeutic strategies to improve their treatment response and prognosis. Multiple studies have revealed that ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic form of regulated cell death (RCD) characterized by iron dependant lipid peroxidation, can prevent the development of MM. Recent studies have indicated that targeting ferroptosis is a promising treatment strategy for MM. This review article summarizes the core mechanisms underlying the development of ferroptosis in MM cells and its potential role as a therapeutic target in MM. We emphasize the emerging types of small molecules inducing ferroptosis pathways by boosting the antitumor activity of BRAFi and immunotherapy and uncover their beneficial effects to treat MM. We also summarize the application of nanosensitizer-mediated unique dynamic therapeutic strategies and ferroptosis-based nanodrug targeting strategies as therapeutic options for MM. This review suggests that pharmacological induction of ferroptosis may be a potential therapeutic target for MM.

Effectiveness of Gold Nanorods of Different Sizes in Photothermal Therapy to Eliminate Melanoma and Glioblastoma Cells

Gold nanorods are the most commonly used nanoparticles in photothermal therapy for cancer treatment due to their high efficiency in converting light into heat. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of gold nanorods of different sizes (large and small) in eliminating two types of cancer cell: melanoma and glioblastoma cells. After establishing the optimal concentration of nanoparticles and determining the appropriate time and power of laser irradiation, photothermal therapy was applied to melanoma and glioblastoma cells, resulting in the highly efficient elimination of both cell types. The efficiency of the PTT was evaluated using several methods, including biochemical analysis, fluorescence microscopy, and flow cytometry. The dehydrogenase activity, as well as calcein-propidium iodide and Annexin V staining, were employed to determine the cell viability and the type of cell death triggered by the PTT. The melanoma cells exhibited greater resistance to photothermal therapy, but this resistance was overcome by irradiating cells at physiological temperatures. Our findings revealed that the predominant cell-death pathway activated by the photothermal therapy mediated by gold nanorods was apoptosis. This is advantageous as the presence of apoptotic cells can stimulate antitumoral immunity in vivo. Considering the high efficacy of these gold nanorods in photothermal therapy, large nanoparticles could be useful for biofunctionalization purposes. Large nanorods offer a greater surface area for attaching biomolecules, thereby promoting high sensitivity and specificity in recognizing target cancer cells. Additionally, large nanoparticles could also be beneficial for theranostic applications, involving both therapy and diagnosis, due to their superior detection sensitivity.

Combinations of Photodynamic Therapy with Other Minimally Invasive Therapeutic Technologies against Cancer and Microbial Infections

The rapid rise in research and development following the discovery of photodynamic therapy to establish novel photosensitizers and overcome the limitations of the technology soon after its clinical translation has given rise to a few significant milestones. These include several novel generations of photosensitizers, the widening of the scope of applications, leveraging of the offerings of nanotechnology for greater efficacy, selectivity for the disease over host tissue and cells, the advent of combination therapies with other similarly minimally invasive therapeutic technologies, the use of stimulus-responsive delivery and disease targeting, and greater penetration depth of the activation energy. Brought together, all these milestones have contributed to the significant enhancement of what is still arguably a novel technology. Yet the major applications of photodynamic therapy still remain firmly located in neoplasms, from where most of the new innovations appear to launch to other areas, such as microbial, fungal, viral, acne, wet age-related macular degeneration, atherosclerosis, psoriasis, environmental sanitization, pest control, and dermatology. Three main value propositions of combinations of photodynamic therapy include the synergistic and additive enhancement of efficacy, the relatively low emergence of resistance and its rapid development as a targeted and high-precision therapy. Combinations with established methods such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy and demonstrated applications in mop-up surgery promise to enhance these top three clinical tools. From published in vitro and preclinical studies, clinical trials and applications, and postclinical case studies, seven combinations with photodynamic therapy have become prominent research interests because they are potentially easily applied, showing enhanced efficacy, and are rapidly translating to the clinic. These include combinations with chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, magnetic hyperthermia, cold plasma therapy, sonodynamic therapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy. Photochemical internalization is a critical mechanism for some combinations.

Targeting the Interplay of Independent Cellular Pathways and Immunity: A Challenge in Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a cancer treatment that exploits the capacity of the body's immune system to prevent, control, and remove cancer. Immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment and significantly improved patient outcomes for several tumor types. However, most patients have not benefited from such therapies yet. Within the field of cancer immunotherapy, an expansion of the combination strategy that targets independent cellular pathways that can work synergistically is predicted. Here, we review some consequences of tumor cell death and increased immune system engagement in the modulation of oxidative stress and ubiquitin ligase pathways. We also indicate combinations of cancer immunotherapies and immunomodulatory targets. Additionally, we discuss imaging techniques, which are crucial for monitoring tumor responses during treatment and the immunotherapy side effects. Finally, the major outstanding questions are also presented, and directions for future research are described.

Therapeutic applications of nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, as a novel and more specialized branch of science, has provided a number of nanostructures such as nanoparticles, by utilizing the methods, techniques, and protocols of other branches of science. Due to the unique features and physiobiological characteristics, these nanostructures or nanocarriers have provided vast methods and therapeutic techniques, against microbial infections and cancers and for tissue regeneration, tissue engineering, and immunotherapies, and for gene therapies, through drug delivery systems. However, reduced carrying capacity, abrupt and non-targeted delivery, and solubility of therapeutic agents, can affect the therapeutic applications of these biotechnological products. In this article, we explored and discussed the prominent nanobiotechnological methods and products such as nanocarriers, highlighted the features and challenges associated with these products, and attempted to conclude if available nanostructures offer any scope of improvement or enhancement. We aimed to identify and emphasize the nanobiotechnological methods and products, with greater prospect and capacity for therapeutic improvements and enhancements. We found that novel nanocarriers and nanostructures, such as nanocomposites, micelles, hydrogels, microneedles, and artificial cells, can address the associated challenges and inherited drawbacks, with help of conjugations, sustained and stimuli-responsive release, ligand binding, and targeted delivery. We recommend that nanobiotechnology, despite having few challenges and drawbacks, offers immense opportunities that can be harnessed in delivering quality therapeutics with precision and prediction. We also recommend that, by exploring the branched domains more rigorously, bottlenecks and obstacles can also be addressed and resolved in return.

Synergistic Nanomedicine: Photodynamic, Photothermal and Photoimmune Therapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Fulfilling the Myth of Prometheus?

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer, with high morbidity and mortality, which seriously threatens the health and life expectancy of patients. The traditional methods of treatment by surgical ablation, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and more recently immunotherapy have not given the expected results in HCC. New integrative combined therapies, such as photothermal, photodynamic, photoimmune therapy (PTT, PDT, PIT), and smart multifunctional platforms loaded with nanodrugs were studied in this review as viable solutions in the synergistic nanomedicine of the future. The main aim was to reveal the latest findings and open additional avenues for accelerating the adoption of innovative approaches for the multi-target management of HCC. High-tech experimental medical applications in the molecular and cellular research of photosensitizers, novel light and laser energy delivery systems and the features of photomedicine integration via PDT, PTT and PIT in immuno-oncology, from bench to bedside, were introspected. Near-infrared PIT as a treatment of HCC has been developed over the past decade based on novel targeted molecules to selectively suppress cancer cells, overcome immune blocking barriers, initiate a cascade of helpful immune responses, and generate distant autoimmune responses that inhibit metastasis and recurrences, through high-tech and intelligent real-time monitoring. The process of putting into effect new targeted molecules and the intelligent, multifunctional solutions for therapy will bring patients new hope for a longer life or even a cure, and the fulfillment of the myth of Prometheus.

Recent Advances in Hydrogel-Based Phototherapy for Tumor Treatment

Phototherapeutic agent-based phototherapies activated by light have proven to be safe modalities for the treatment of various malignant tumor indications. The two main modalities of phototherapies include photothermal therapy, which causes localized thermal damage to target lesions, and photodynamic therapy, which causes localized chemical damage by generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). Conventional phototherapies suffer a major shortcoming in their clinical application due to their phototoxicity, which primarily arises from the uncontrolled distribution of phototherapeutic agents in vivo. For successful antitumor phototherapy, it is essential to ensure the generation of heat or ROS specifically occurs at the tumor site. To minimize the reverse side effects of phototherapy while improving its therapeutic performance, extensive research has focused on developing hydrogel-based phototherapy for tumor treatment. The utilization of hydrogels as drug carriers allows for the sustained delivery of phototherapeutic agents to tumor sites, thereby limiting their adverse effects. Herein, we summarize the recent advancements in the design of hydrogels for antitumor phototherapy, offer a comprehensive overview of the latest advances in hydrogel-based phototherapy and its combination with other therapeutic modalities for tumor treatment, and discuss the current clinical status of hydrogel-based antitumor phototherapy.

Friends against the Foe: Synergistic Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapy against Bacterial Infections

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria are rapidly emerging, coupled with the failure of current antibiotic therapy; thus, new alternatives for effectively treating infections caused by MDR bacteria are required. Hyperthermia-mediated photothermal therapy (PTT) and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) have attracted extensive attention as antibacterial therapies owing to advantages such as low invasiveness, low toxicity, and low likelihood of causing bacterial resistance. However, both strategies have notable drawbacks, including the high temperature requirements of PTT and the weak ability of PDT-derived ROS to penetrate target cells. To overcome these limitations, a combination of PTT and PDT has been used against MDR bacteria. In this review, we discuss the unique benefits and limitations of PTT and PDT against MDR bacteria. The mechanisms underlying the synergistic effects of the PTT–PDT combination are also discussed. Furthermore, we introduced advancements in antibacterial methods using nano-based PTT and PDT agents to treat infections caused by MDR bacteria. Finally, we highlight the existing challenges and future perspectives of synergistic PTT–PDT combination therapy against infections caused by MDR bacteria. We believe that this review will encourage synergistic PTT- and PDT-based antibacterial research and can be referenced for future clinical applications.

Hydrogel systems for targeted cancer therapy

When hydrogel materials with excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability are used as excellent new drug carriers in the treatment of cancer, they confer the following three advantages. First, hydrogel materials can be used as a precise and controlled drug release systems, which can continuously and sequentially release chemotherapeutic drugs, radionuclides, immunosuppressants, hyperthermia agents, phototherapy agents and other substances and are widely used in the treatment of cancer through radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, hyperthermia, photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy. Second, hydrogel materials have multiple sizes and multiple delivery routes, which can be targeted to different locations and types of cancer. This greatly improves the targeting of drugs, thereby reducing the dose of drugs and improving treatment effectiveness. Finally, hydrogel can intelligently respond to environmental changes according to internal and external environmental stimuli so that anti-cancer active substances can be remotely controlled and released on demand. Combining the abovementioned advantages, hydrogel materials have transformed into a hit in the field of cancer treatment, bringing hope to further increase the survival rate and quality of life of patients with cancer.