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Serra M, Simola N, Pollack AE, Costa G. Brain dysfunctions and neurotoxicity induced by psychostimulants in experimental models and humans: an overview of recent findings. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1908-1918. [PMID: 38227515 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.390971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that psychostimulants, in addition to having abuse potential, may elicit brain dysfunctions and/or neurotoxic effects. Central toxicity induced by psychostimulants may pose serious health risks since the recreational use of these substances is on the rise among young people and adults. The present review provides an overview of recent research, conducted between 2018 and 2023, focusing on brain dysfunctions and neurotoxic effects elicited in experimental models and humans by amphetamine, cocaine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylphenidate, caffeine, and nicotine. Detailed elucidation of factors and mechanisms that underlie psychostimulant-induced brain dysfunction and neurotoxicity is crucial for understanding the acute and enduring noxious brain effects that may occur in individuals who use psychostimulants for recreational and/or therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Serra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Alexia E Pollack
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts-Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Giulia Costa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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van de Blaak FL, Dumont GJH. Serotonin transporter availability, neurocognitive function and their correlation in abstinent 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine users. Hum Psychopharmacol 2022; 37:e2811. [PMID: 34506649 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE MDMA or Ecstasy has made a resurgence in popularity and the majority of users consist of teenagers and adolescents. Therefore, it is important to determine whether MDMA causes long-term damage and what this damage entails. There is an ongoing debate about possible neurocognitive changes in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) users related to MDMA's neurotoxic potential. Multiple neuroimaging studies have shown that Ecstasy use leads to lower serotonin transporter (SERT) availability in multiple brain regions. This may express itself in a loss of cognitive functions like memory, attention and executive function. However, there is increasing evidence reporting that MDMA's induced serotonergic adaptations are reversible over time. The question we thus address is whether the recovery of SERT function predicts a recovery of cognitive function. OBJECTIVES This review aims to investigate MDMA's long-term effects on SERT availability and cognitive functioning. METHODS A literature search was performed in PubMed. Studies that investigated the effects of MDMA on both SERT availability and cognitive performance were eligible for inclusion. RESULTS SERT availability positively correlated with time of abstinence, whereas memory performance did not show this correlation, but remained impaired in MDMA users. No significant correlation between SERT availability and memory function was found (r = 0.232, p = 0.581; r = 0.176, p = 0.677). CONCLUSIONS The main findings of this review are that MDMA-use leads to an acute decrease in SERT availability and causes an impairment in cognitive functions, mostly memory. However, SERT availability recovers with sustained abstinence while memory function does not. This suggests that SERT availability is not a biomarker for MDMA-induced cognitive impairment and likely also not for MDMA-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Foke L van de Blaak
- Department of Clinical pharmacology, Amsterdam UMC - Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Glenn J H Dumont
- Department of Clinical pharmacology, Amsterdam UMC - Location AMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Krediet E, Bostoen T, Breeksema J, van Schagen A, Passie T, Vermetten E. Reviewing the Potential of Psychedelics for the Treatment of PTSD. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 23:385-400. [PMID: 32170326 PMCID: PMC7311646 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
There are few medications with demonstrated efficacy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Treatment guidelines have unequivocally designated psychotherapy as a first line treatment for PTSD. Yet, even after psychotherapy, PTSD often remains a chronic illness, with high rates of psychiatric and medical comorbidity. Meanwhile, the search for and development of drugs with new mechanisms of action has stalled. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore not just novel compounds but novel approaches for the treatment of PTSD. A promising new approach involves the use of psychedelic drugs. Within the past few years, 2 psychedelics have received breakthrough designations for psychiatric indications from the US Food and Drug Administration, and several psychedelics are currently being investigated for the treatment of PTSD. This review discusses 4 types of compounds: 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, ketamine, classical psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide), and cannabinoids. We describe the therapeutic rationale, the setting in which they are being administered, and their current state of evidence in the treatment of PTSD. Each compound provides unique qualities for the treatment of PTSD, from their use to rapidly target symptoms to their use as adjuncts to facilitate psychotherapeutic treatments. Several questions are formulated that outline an agenda for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwin Krediet
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Tijmen Bostoen
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost Breeksema
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Torsten Passie
- Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Dr. Senckenberg Institute for the History and Ethics in Medicine, Goethe University Frankfurt/Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, The Netherlands
- Military Mental Health Care, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Riley AL, Nelson KH, To P, López-Arnau R, Xu P, Wang D, Wang Y, Shen HW, Kuhn DM, Angoa-Perez M, Anneken JH, Muskiewicz D, Hall FS. Abuse potential and toxicity of the synthetic cathinones (i.e., “Bath salts”). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 110:150-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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5
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Aguilar MA, García-Pardo MP, Parrott AC. Of mice and men on MDMA: A translational comparison of the neuropsychobiological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy'). Brain Res 2020; 1727:146556. [PMID: 31734398 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
MDMA (3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine), also known as Ecstasy, is a stimulant drug recreationally used by young adults usually in dance clubs and raves. Acute MDMA administration increases serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline by reversing the action of the monoamine transporters. In this work, we review the studies carried out over the last 30 years on the neuropsychobiological effects of MDMA in humans and mice and summarise the current knowledge. The two species differ with respect to the neurochemical consequences of chronic MDMA, since it preferentially induces serotonergic dysfunction in humans and dopaminergic neurotoxicity in mice. However, MDMA alters brain structure and function and induces hormonal, psychomotor, neurocognitive, psychosocial and psychiatric outcomes in both species, as well as physically damaging and teratogen effects. Pharmacological and genetic studies in mice have increased our knowledge of the neurochemical substrate of the multiple effects of MDMA. Future work in this area may contribute to developing pharmacological treatments for MDMA-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Aguilar
- Department of Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, Valencia University, Valencia, Spain.
| | | | - Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
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Shih JH, Chiu CH, Ma KH, Huang YS, Shiue CY, Yeh TY, Kao LT, Lin YY, Li IH. Autophagy inhibition plays a protective role against 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced loss of serotonin transporters and depressive-like behaviors in rats. Pharmacol Res 2019; 142:283-293. [PMID: 30826457 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a popular recreational drug, which ultimately leads to serotonergic (5-HT) neurotoxicity and psychiatric disorders. Previous in vitro studies have consistently demonstrated that MDMA provokes autophagic activation, as well as damage of 5-HT axons and nerve fibers. So far, whether autophagy, a well-conserved cellular process that is critical for cell fate, also participates in MDMA-induced neurotoxicity in vivo remains elusive. Here, we first examined time-course of autophagy-related changes during repeated administration of MDMA (10 mg/kg s.c. twice daily for 4 consecutive days) using immunofluorescent staining for tryptophan hydroxylase and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta in rats. We also evaluated the protective effects of 3-methyadanine (3-MA, an autophagy inhibitor, 15 mg/kg i.p.) against MDMA-induced acute and long-term reductions in serotonin transporters (SERT) density in various brain regions using immunohistochemical staining and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging respectively. Plasma corticosterone measurements and forced swim tests were performed to evaluate the depressive performance. The staining results showed that repeated administration of MDMA increased expression of autophagosome and caused reduction in SERT densities of striatum and frontal cortex, which was ameliorated in the presence of 3-MA. PET imaging data also revealed that 3-MA could ameliorate MDMA-induced long-term decreased SERT availability in various brain regions of rats. Furthermore, immobility time of forced swim tests and plasma corticosterone levels were less in the group of MDMA co-injected with 3-MA compared with that of MDMA group. Together, these findings suggest that autophagy inhibition may confer protection against neurobiological and behavioral changes induced by MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Hu Shih
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chuang-Hsin Chiu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsing Ma
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yuahn-Sieh Huang
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chyng-Yann Shiue
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yin Yeh
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Ting Kao
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Science, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yang-Yi Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsun Li
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Abstract
3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine is taken recreationally by thousands of people, especially the young, across the globe. It is highly associated with electronic music and its use in the UK remains high at around 4.5% of 16-24 year olds. This review discusses both the short- and long-term effects of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine including methods by which some of these adverse effects can be prevented or even reversed to increase the safety of the commonly used drug.
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(±)-MDMA and its enantiomers: potential therapeutic advantages of R(-)-MDMA. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:377-392. [PMID: 29248945 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4812-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The use of (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ((±)-MDMA) as an adjunct to psychotherapy in the treatment of psychiatric and behavioral disorders dates back over 50 years. Only in recent years have controlled and peer-reviewed preclinical and clinical studies lent support to (±)-MDMA's hypothesized clinical utility. However, the clinical utility of (±)-MDMA is potentially mitigated by a range of demonstrated adverse effects. One potential solution could lie in the individual S(+) and R(-) enantiomers that comprise (±)-MDMA. Individual enantiomers of racemic compounds have been employed in psychiatry to improve a drug's therapeutic index. Although no research has explored the individual effects of either S(+)-MDMA or R(-)-MDMA in humans in a controlled manner, preclinical research has examined similarities and differences between the two molecules and the racemic compound. This review addresses information related to the pharmacodynamics, neurotoxicity, physiological effects, and behavioral effects of S(+)-MDMA and R(-)-MDMA that might guide preclinical and clinical research. The current preclinical evidence suggests that R(-)-MDMA may provide an improved therapeutic index, maintaining the therapeutic effects of (±)-MDMA with a reduced side effect profile, and that future investigations should investigate the therapeutic potential of R(-)-MDMA.
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Roberts CA, Quednow BB, Montgomery C, Parrott AC. MDMA and brain activity during neurocognitive performance: An overview of neuroimaging studies with abstinent ‘Ecstasy’ users. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 84:470-482. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Curry DW, Young MB, Tran AN, Daoud GE, Howell LL. Separating the agony from ecstasy: R(-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine has prosocial and therapeutic-like effects without signs of neurotoxicity in mice. Neuropharmacology 2018; 128:196-206. [PMID: 28993129 PMCID: PMC5714650 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
S,R(+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (SR-MDMA) is an amphetamine derivative with prosocial and putative therapeutic effects. Ongoing clinical trials are investigating it as a treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other conditions. However, its potential for adverse effects such as hyperthermia and neurotoxicity may limit its clinical viability. We investigated the hypothesis that one of the two enantiomers of SR-MDMA, R-MDMA, would retain the prosocial and therapeutic effects but with fewer adverse effects. Using male Swiss Webster and C57BL/6 mice, the prosocial effects of R-MDMA were measured using a social interaction test, and the therapeutic-like effects were assessed using a Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction paradigm relevant to PTSD. Locomotor activity and body temperature were tracked after administration, and neurotoxicity was evaluated post-mortem. R-MDMA significantly increased murine social interaction and facilitated extinction of conditioned freezing. Yet, unlike racemic MDMA, it did not increase locomotor activity, produce signs of neurotoxicity, or increase body temperature. A key pharmacological difference between R-MDMA and racemic MDMA is that R-MDMA has much lower potency as a dopamine releaser. Pretreatment with a selective dopamine D1 receptor antagonist prevented SR-MDMA-induced hyperthermia, suggesting that differential dopamine signaling may explain some of the observed differences between the treatments. Together, these results indicate that the prosocial and therapeutic effects of SR-MDMA may be separable from the stimulant, thermogenic, and potential neurotoxic effects. To what extent these findings translate to humans will require further investigation, but these data suggest that R-MDMA could be a more viable therapeutic option for the treatment of PTSD and other disorders for which SR-MDMA is currently being investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Curry
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Matthew B Young
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Andrew N Tran
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Georges E Daoud
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Leonard L Howell
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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11
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Schenk S, Aronsen D. Contribution of Impulsivity and Serotonin Receptor Neuroadaptations to the Development of an MDMA ('Ecstasy') Substance Use Disorder. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 34:17-32. [PMID: 26718587 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2015_421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
As is the case with other drugs of abuse, a proportion of ecstasy users develop symptoms consistent with a substance use disorder (SUD). In this paper, we propose that the pharmacology of MDMA, the primary psychoactive component of ecstasy tablets, changes markedly with repeated exposure and that neuroadaptations in dopamine and serotonin brain systems underlie the shift from MDMA use to MDMA misuse in susceptible subjects. Data from both the human and laboratory animal literature are synthesized to support the idea that (1) MDMA becomes a less efficacious serotonin releaser and a more efficacious dopamine releaser with the development of behaviour consistent with an SUD and (2) that upregulated serotonin receptor mechanisms contribute to the development of the MDMA SUD via dysregulated inhibitory control associated with the trait of impulsivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Schenk
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.
| | - Dane Aronsen
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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Kuypers KPC, Theunissen EL, van Wel JHP, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Linssen A, Sambeth A, Schultz BG, Ramaekers JG. Verbal Memory Impairment in Polydrug Ecstasy Users: A Clinical Perspective. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149438. [PMID: 26907605 PMCID: PMC4764468 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecstasy use has been associated with short-term and long-term memory deficits on a standard Word Learning Task (WLT). The clinical relevance of this has been debated and is currently unknown. The present study aimed at evaluating the clinical relevance of verbal memory impairment in Ecstasy users. To that end, clinical memory impairment was defined as decrement in memory performance that exceeded the cut-off value of 1.5 times the standard deviation of the average score in the healthy control sample. The primary question was whether being an Ecstasy user (E-user) was predictive of having clinically deficient memory performance compared to a healthy control group. METHODS WLT data were pooled from four experimental MDMA studies that compared memory performance during placebo and MDMA intoxication. Control data were taken from healthy volunteers with no drug use history who completed the WLT as part of a placebo-controlled clinical trial. This resulted in a sample size of 65 E-users and 65 age- and gender-matched healthy drug-naïve controls. All participants were recruited by similar means and were tested at the same testing facilities using identical standard operating procedures. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models, Bayes factor, and logistic regressions. RESULTS Findings were that verbal memory performance of placebo-treated E-users did not differ from that of controls, and there was substantial evidence in favor of the null hypothesis. History of use was not predictive of memory impairment. During MDMA intoxication of E-users, verbal memory was impaired. CONCLUSION The combination of the acute and long-term findings demonstrates that, while clinically relevant memory impairment is present during intoxication, it is absent during abstinence. This suggests that use of Ecstasy/MDMA does not lead to clinically deficient memory performance in the long term. Additionally, it has to be investigated whether the current findings apply to more complex cognitive measures in diverse 'user categories' using a combination of genetics, imaging techniques and neuropsychological assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim P. C. Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Eef L. Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Janelle H. P. van Wel
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Anke Linssen
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Anke Sambeth
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin G. Schultz
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology & Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Wagner D, Tkotz S, Koester P, Becker B, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. Learning, Memory, and Executive Function in New MDMA Users: A 2-Year Follow-Up Study. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:445. [PMID: 26696809 PMCID: PMC4672089 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is associated with changes in neurocognitive performance. Recent studies in laboratory animals have provided additional support for the neurodegeneration hypothesis. However, results from animal research need to be applied to humans with caution. Moreover, several of the studies that examine MDMA users suffer from methodological shortcomings. Therefore, a prospective cohort study was designed in order to overcome these previous methodological shortcomings and to assess the relationship between the continuing use of MDMA and cognitive performance in incipient MDMA users. It was hypothesized that, depending on the amount of MDMA taken, the continued use of MDMA over a 2-year period would lead to further decreases in cognitive performance, especially in visual paired association learning tasks. Ninety-six subjects were assessed, at the second follow-up assessment: 31 of these were non-users, 55 moderate-users, and 10 heavy-users. Separate repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted for each cognitive domain, including attention and information processing speed, episodic memory, and executive functioning. Furthermore, possible confounders including age, general intelligence, cannabis use, alcohol use, use of other concomitant substances, recent medical treatment, participation in sports, level of nutrition, sleep patterns, and subjective well-being were assessed. The Repeated measures analysis of variance (rANOVA) revealed that a marginally significant change in immediate and delayed recall test performances of visual paired associates learning had taken place within the follow-up period of 2 years. No further deterioration in continuing MDMA-users was observed in the second follow-up period. No significant differences with the other neuropsychological tests were noted. It seems that MDMA use can impair visual paired associates learning in new users. However, the groups differed in their use of concomitant use of illicit drugs. Therefore, performance differences between the groups cannot completely ascribed to the use of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Wagner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne Cologne, Germany
| | - Simon Tkotz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne Cologne, Germany
| | - Philip Koester
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne Cologne, Germany
| | - Benjamin Becker
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Joerg Daumann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne Cologne, Germany
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García-Cabrerizo R, García-Fuster MJ. Chronic MDMA induces neurochemical changes in the hippocampus of adolescent and young adult rats: Down-regulation of apoptotic markers. Neurotoxicology 2015; 49:104-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2015.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Soleimani Asl S, Saifi B, Sakhaie A, Zargooshnia S, Mehdizadeh M. Attenuation of ecstasy-induced neurotoxicity by N-acetylcysteine. Metab Brain Dis 2015; 30:171-81. [PMID: 25096201 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-014-9598-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Exposure to 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) can lead to spatial memory impairments and hippocampal cell death. Numerous evidence indicates that the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) exerts protective effects in the brain. The present study evaluates the effects of NAC on MDMA-induced neurotoxicity. METHODS We intraperitoneally injected 28 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (200-250 g) with either 0, 10 mg/kg of MDMA, or 10 mg/kg of MDMA plus 100 mg/kg of NAC. Spatial memory was assessed with a Morris Water Maze (MWM). At the end of the study, rats' brains were removed to study the structure and ultrastructure of CA1, and measure Bcl-2 and Bax expressions in the hippocampus. In the MWM, NAC treatment significantly attenuated the MDMA-induced increase in distance traveled (p < 0.05) and escape latency (p < 0.001). The decreased time spent in the target quadrant in MDMA-treated animals was attenuated by NAC (p < 0.01). NAC significantly protected against MDMA-induced apoptosis and the up- and down-regulation of Bax and Bcl-2, respectively. These data have suggested that NAC could protect against behavioral changes and apoptosis in the hippocampus following administration of MDMA. NAC might be useful for the treatment of neurotoxicity in MDMA users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Soleimani Asl
- Research Center for Behavioral Disorders and Substance Abuse, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
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Price JS, Shear P, Lisdahl KM. Ecstasy exposure & gender: examining components of verbal memory functioning. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115645. [PMID: 25545890 PMCID: PMC4278706 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Studies have demonstrated verbal memory deficits associated with past year ecstasy use, although specific underlying components of these deficits are less understood. Further, prior research suggests potential gender differences in ecstasy-induced serotonergic changes. Therefore, the current study investigated whether gender moderated the relationship between ecstasy exposure and components of verbal memory after controlling for polydrug use and confounding variables. METHOD Data were collected from 65 polydrug users with a wide range of ecstasy exposure (ages 18-35; 48 ecstasy and 17 marijuana users; 0-2310 ecstasy tablets). Participants completed a verbal learning and memory task, psychological questionnaires, and a drug use interview. RESULTS Increased past year ecstasy exposure predicted poorer short and long delayed free and cued recalls, retention, and recall discrimination. Male ecstasy users were more susceptible to dose-dependent deficits in retention than female users. CONCLUSION Past year ecstasy consumption was associated with verbal memory retrieval, retention, and discrimination deficits in a dose-dependent manner in a sample of healthy young adult polydrug users. Male ecstasy users were at particular risk for deficits in retention following a long delay. Gender difference may be reflective of different patterns of polydrug use as well as increased hippocampal sensitivity. Future research examining neuronal correlates of verbal memory deficits in ecstasy users are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenessa S. Price
- McLean Hospital – Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Paula Shear
- Department of Psychology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Krista M. Lisdahl
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
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17
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Nyberg F. Structural plasticity of the brain to psychostimulant use. Neuropharmacology 2014; 87:115-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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18
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Olivier B. Serotonin: a never-ending story. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 753:2-18. [PMID: 25446560 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 10/12/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The neurotransmitter serotonin is an evolutionary ancient molecule that has remarkable modulatory effects in almost all central nervous system integrative functions, such as mood, anxiety, stress, aggression, feeding, cognition and sexual behavior. After giving a short outline of the serotonergic system (anatomy, receptors, transporter) the author's contributions over the last 40 years in the role of serotonin in depression, aggression, anxiety, stress and sexual behavior is outlined. Each area delineates the work performed on animal model development, drug discovery and development. Most of the research work described has started from an industrial perspective, aimed at developing animals models for psychiatric diseases and leading to putative new innovative psychotropic drugs, like in the cases of the SSRI fluvoxamine, the serenic eltoprazine and the anxiolytic flesinoxan. Later this research work mainly focused on developing translational animal models for psychiatric diseases and implicating them in the search for mechanisms involved in normal and diseased brains and finding new concepts for appropriate drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berend Olivier
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences & Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, USA
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López-Arnau R, Martínez-Clemente J, Pubill D, Escubedo E, Camarasa J. Serotonergic impairment and memory deficits in adolescent rats after binge exposure of methylone. J Psychopharmacol 2014; 28:1053-63. [PMID: 25237120 DOI: 10.1177/0269881114548439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Methylone is a cathinone derivative that has recently emerged as a designer drug of abuse in Europe and the USA. Studies on the acute and long-term neurotoxicity of cathinones are starting to be conducted. We investigated the neurochemical/enzymatic changes indicative of neurotoxicity after methylone administration (4 × 20 mg/kg, subcutaneously, per day with 3 h intervals) to adolescent rats, to model human recreational use. In addition, we studied the effect of methylone on spatial learning ad memory using the Morris water maze paradigm. Our experiments were carried out at a high ambient temperature to simulate the hot conditions found in dance clubs where the drug is consumed. We observed a hyperthermic response to methylone that reached a peak 30 min after each dose. We determined a serotonergic impairment in methylone-treated rats, especially in the frontal cortex, where it was accompanied by astrogliosis. Some serotonergic alterations were also present in the hippocampus and striatum. No significant neurotoxic effect on the dopaminergic system was identified. Methylone-treated animals only displayed impairments in the probe trial of the Morris water maze, which concerns reference memory, while the spatial learning process seemed to be preserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Martínez-Clemente
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jorge Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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20
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García-García L, Delgado M, Al-Sayed AA, Bascuñana P, Fernández de la Rosa R, Bermejo-Bescós P, Martín-Aragón S, Pozo MA. In Vivo [18F] FDG PET Imaging Reveals that p-Chloroamphetamine Neurotoxicity is Associated with Long-Term Cortical and Hippocampal Hypometabolism. Mol Imaging Biol 2014; 17:239-47. [DOI: 10.1007/s11307-014-0794-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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22
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Booij L, Soucy JP, Young SN, Regoli M, Gravel P, Diksic M, Leyton M, Pihl RO, Benkelfat C. Brain serotonin synthesis in MDMA (ecstasy) polydrug users: an alpha-[11
C]methyl-l
-tryptophan study. J Neurochem 2014; 131:634-44. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Booij
- Department of Psychology; Queen's University; Kingston Ontario Canada
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center; University of Montreal; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Jean-Paul Soucy
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre; Montreal Neurological Institute; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Simon N. Young
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Martine Regoli
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Paul Gravel
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Mirko Diksic
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre; Montreal Neurological Institute; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Marco Leyton
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre; Montreal Neurological Institute; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- Department of Psychology; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Robert O. Pihl
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- Department of Psychology; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
| | - Chawki Benkelfat
- Department of Psychiatry; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- McConnell Brain Imaging Centre; Montreal Neurological Institute; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery; McGill University; Montreal Quebec Canada
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23
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In abstinent MDMA users the cortisol awakening response is off-set but associated with prefrontal serotonin transporter binding as in non-users. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 17:1119-28. [PMID: 24524290 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145714000066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Serotonergic signaling is considered critical for an appropriate adaptation to stress. We have previously observed that in healthy volunteers, prefrontal serotonin transporter (SERT) binding is positively associated with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis output in terms of the cortisol awakening response (CAR). Here, we tested (1) if such a correlation persists in a human model of chronic serotonin depletion, namely in 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or 'Ecstasy') users, and (2) if CAR differed between MDMA users (N = 18) and non-using healthy volunteers (N = 32). Participants underwent SERT brain imaging with [11C]DASB-PET, and performed home-sampling of CAR, defined as the area under curve with respect to cortisol increase from awakening level. When adjusting for age and group, CAR was positively coupled to prefrontal SERT binding (p = 0.006) and MDMA users showed significantly higher CAR than the control group (p = 0.0003). In conclusion, our data confirm the recently described positive association between prefrontal SERT binding and CAR, this time in a human model of serotonin deficiency. Also, we find that CAR was higher in MDMA users relative to non-users. We suggest that the inhibitory control on HPA-axis output is less efficient in the off-balance state established by recent MDMA use, most likely through mechanisms other than those that can be compensated by lowering SERT levels.
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Martínez-Clemente J, López-Arnau R, Abad S, Pubill D, Escubedo E, Camarasa J. Dose and time-dependent selective neurotoxicity induced by mephedrone in mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99002. [PMID: 24892744 PMCID: PMC4043985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is a drug of abuse marketed as 'bath salts". There are discrepancies concerning its long-term effects. We have investigated the neurotoxicity of mephedrone in mice following different exposition schedules. Schedule 1: four doses of 50 mg/kg. Schedule 2: four doses of 25 mg/kg. Schedule 3: three daily doses of 25 mg/kg, for two consecutive days. All schedules induced, in some animals, an aggressive behavior and hyperthermia as well as a decrease in weight gain. Mephedrone (schedule 1) induced dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotoxicity that persisted 7 days after exposition. At a lower dose (schedule 2) only a transient dopaminergic injury was found. In the weekend consumption pattern (schedule 3), mephedrone induced dopamine and serotonin transporter loss that was accompanied by a decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 expression one week after exposition. Also, mephedrone induced a depressive-like behavior, as well as a reduction in striatal D2 density, suggesting higher susceptibility to addictive drugs. In cultured cortical neurons, mephedrone induced a concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect. Using repeated doses for 2 days in an elevated ambient temperature we evidenced a loss of frontal cortex dopaminergic and hippocampal serotoninergic neuronal markers that suggest injuries at nerve endings.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Martínez-Clemente
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sonia Abad
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Jorge Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section) and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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25
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Lopez-Rodriguez AB, Llorente-Berzal A, Garcia-Segura LM, Viveros MP. Sex-dependent long-term effects of adolescent exposure to THC and/or MDMA on neuroinflammation and serotoninergic and cannabinoid systems in rats. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:1435-47. [PMID: 24236988 PMCID: PMC3954483 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Many young people consume ecstasy as a recreational drug and often in combination with cannabis. In this study, we aimed to mimic human consumption patterns and investigated, in male and female animals, the long-term effects of Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on diverse neuroinflammation and neurotoxic markers. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Male and female Wistar rats were chronically treated with increasing doses of THC and/or MDMA during adolescence. The effects of THC and/or MDMA on glial reactivity and on serotoninergic and cannabinoid systems were assessed by immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus and parietal cortex. KEY RESULTS THC increased the area staining for glial fibrilar acidic protein in both sexes. In males, both drugs, either separately or in combination, increased the proportion of reactive microglia cells [ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1)]. In contrast, in females, each drug, administered alone, decreased of this proportion, whereas the combination of both drugs resulted in a 'normalization' to control values. In males, MDMA reduced the number of SERT positive fibres, THC induced the opposite effect and the group receiving both drugs did not significantly differ from the controls. In females, MDMA reduced the number of SERT positive fibres and the combination of both drugs counteracted this effect. THC also reduced immunostaining for CB1 receptors in females and this effect was aggravated by the combination with MDMA. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Adolescent exposure of rats to THC and/or MDMA induced long-term, sex-dependent neurochemical and glial alterations, and revealed interactions between the two drugs. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Cannabinoids 2013. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Belen Lopez-Rodriguez
- Department of Animal Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid – Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC)Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC)Madrid, Spain
| | - Alvaro Llorente-Berzal
- Department of Animal Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid – Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC)Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis M Garcia-Segura
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC)Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria-Paz Viveros
- Department of Animal Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid – Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC)Madrid, Spain
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26
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Parrott AC. MDMA is certainly damaging after 25 years of empirical research: a reply and refutation of Doblin et al. (2014). Hum Psychopharmacol 2014; 29:109-19. [PMID: 24590542 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Human Psychopharmacology recently published my review into the increase in empirical knowledge about the human psychobiology of MDMA over the past 25 years (Parrott, 2013a). Deficits have been demonstrated in retrospective memory, prospective memory, higher cognition, complex visual processing, sleep architecture, sleep apnoea, pain, neurohormonal activity, and psychiatric status. Neuroimaging studies have shown serotonergic deficits, which are associated with lifetime Ecstasy/MDMA usage, and degree of neurocognitive impairment. Basic psychological skills remain intact. Ecstasy/MDMA use by pregnant mothers leads to psychomotor impairments in the children. Hence, the damaging effects of Ecstasy/MDMA were far more widespread than was realized a few years ago. In their critique of my review, Doblin et al. (2014) argued that my review contained misstatements, omitted contrary findings, and recited dated misconceptions. In this reply, I have answered all the points they raised. I have been able to refute each of their criticisms by citing the relevant empirical data, since many of their points were based on inaccurate summaries of the actual research findings. Doblin and colleagues are proponents of the use of MDMA for drug-assisted psychotherapy, and their strongest criticisms were focused on my concerns about this proposal. However, again all the issues I raised were based on sound empirical evidence or theoretical understanding. Indeed I would recommend potentially far safer co-drugs such as D-cycloserine or oxytocin. In summary, MDMA can induce a wide range of neuropsychobiological changes, many of which are damaging to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, South Wales, UK
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27
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Cox BM, Shah MM, Cichon T, Tancer ME, Galloway MP, Thomas DM, Perrine SA. Behavioral and neurochemical effects of repeated MDMA administration during late adolescence in the rat. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 48:229-35. [PMID: 24121061 PMCID: PMC4348097 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Adolescents and young adults disproportionately abuse 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; 'Ecstasy'); however, since most MDMA research has concentrated on adults, the effects of MDMA on the developing brain remain obscure. Therefore, we evaluated place conditioning to MDMA (or saline) during late adolescence and assessed anxiety-like behavior and monoamine levels during abstinence. Rats were conditioned to associate 5 or 10mg/kg MDMA or saline with contextual cues over 4 twice-daily sessions. Five days after conditioning, anxiety-like behavior was examined with the open field test and brain tissue was collected to assess serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the dorsal raphe, amygdala, and hippocampus by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). In a separate group of rats, anxiety-like and avoidant behaviors were measured using the light-dark box test under similar experimental conditions. MDMA conditioning caused a place aversion at 10, but not at 5, mg/kg, as well as increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field and avoidant behavior in light-dark box test at the same dose. Additionally, 10mg/kg MDMA decreased 5-HT in the dorsal raphe, increased 5-HT and 5-HIAA in the amygdala, and did not alter levels in the hippocampus. Overall, we show that repeated high (10mg/kg), but not low (5mg/kg), dose MDMA during late adolescence in rats increases anxiety-like and avoidant behaviors, accompanied by region-specific alterations in 5-HT levels during abstinence. These results suggest that MDMA causes a region-specific dysregulation of the serotonin system during adolescence that may contribute to maladaptive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittney M. Cox
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Mrudang M. Shah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA,Research Service, John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Teri Cichon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Manuel E. Tancer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Matthew P. Galloway
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA,Department of Anesthesiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - David M. Thomas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA,Research Service, John D. Dingell Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Shane A. Perrine
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA,Corresponding author at: Wayne State University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, 2353 Scott Hall, 540 East Canfield, Detroit, MI 48201, USA. Tel.: +1 313 577 9989 (office), +1 313 577 9960 (lab); fax: +1 313 577 9958. (S.A. Perrine)
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Abstract
Ecstasy is a widely used recreational drug that usually consists primarily of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Most ecstasy users consume other substances as well, which complicates the interpretation of research in this field. The positively rated effects of MDMA consumption include euphoria, arousal, enhanced mood, increased sociability, and heightened perceptions; some common adverse reactions are nausea, headache, tachycardia, bruxism, and trismus. Lowering of mood is an aftereffect that is sometimes reported from 2 to 5 days after a session of ecstasy use. The acute effects of MDMA in ecstasy users have been attributed primarily to increased release and inhibited reuptake of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine, along with possible release of the neuropeptide oxytocin. Repeated or high-dose MDMA/ecstasy use has been associated with tolerance, depressive symptomatology, and persisting cognitive deficits, particularly in memory tests. Animal studies have demonstrated that high doses of MDMA can lead to long-term decreases in forebrain 5-HT concentrations, tryptophan hydroxylase activity, serotonin transporter (SERT) expression, and visualization of axons immunoreactive for 5-HT or SERT. These neurotoxic effects may reflect either a drug-induced degeneration of serotonergic fibers or a long-lasting downregulation in 5-HT and SERT biosynthesis. Possible neurotoxicity in heavy ecstasy users has been revealed by neuroimaging studies showing reduced SERT binding and increased 5-HT2A receptor binding in several cortical and/or subcortical areas. MDMA overdose or use with certain other drugs can also cause severe morbidity and even death. Repeated use of MDMA may lead to dose escalation and the development of dependence, although such dependence is usually not as profound as is seen with many other drugs of abuse. MDMA/ecstasy-dependent patients are treated with standard addiction programs, since there are no specific programs for this substance and no proven medications. Finally, even though MDMA is listed as a Schedule I compound by the Drug Enforcement Agency, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for patients with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder is currently under investigation. Initial results show efficacy for this treatment approach, although considerably more research must be performed to confirm such efficacy and to ensure that the benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy outweigh the risks to the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerrold S Meyer
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
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29
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Smirnov A, Najman JM, Hayatbakhsh R, Plotnikova M, Wells H, Legosz M, Kemp R. Young adults' trajectories of Ecstasy use: a population based study. Addict Behav 2013; 38:2667-74. [PMID: 23899430 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Young adults' Ecstasy use trajectories have important implications for individual and population-level consequences of Ecstasy use, but little relevant research has been conducted. This study prospectively examines Ecstasy trajectories in a population-based sample. Data are from the Natural History Study of Drug Use, a retrospective/prospective cohort study conducted in Australia. Population screening identified a probability sample of Ecstasy users aged 19-23 years. Complete data for 30 months of follow-up, comprising 4 time intervals, were available for 297 participants (88.4% of sample). Trajectories were derived using cluster analysis based on recent Ecstasy use at each interval. Trajectory predictors were examined using a generalized ordered logit model and included Ecstasy dependence (World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Instrument), psychological distress (Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale), aggression (Young Adult Self Report) and contextual factors (e.g. attendance at electronic/dance music events). Three Ecstasy trajectories were identified (low, intermediate and high use). At its peak, the high-use trajectory involved 1-2 days Ecstasy use per week. Decreasing frequency of use was observed for intermediate and high-use trajectories from 12 months, independently of market factors. Intermediate and high-use trajectory membership was predicted by past Ecstasy consumption (>70 pills) and attendance at electronic/dance music events. High-use trajectory members were unlikely to have used Ecstasy for more than 3 years and tended to report consistently positive subjective effects at baseline. Given the social context and temporal course of Ecstasy use, Ecstasy trajectories might be better understood in terms of instrumental rather than addictive drug use patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Smirnov
- Queensland Alcohol and Drug Research and Education Centre, School of Population Health, The University of Queensland, Herston Rd, Herston, QLD 4006, Australia.
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30
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Cuyas E, Robledo P, Pizarro N, Farré M, Puerta E, Aguirre N, de la Torre R. 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine induces gene expression changes in rats related to serotonergic and dopaminergic systems, but not to neurotoxicity. Neurotox Res 2013; 25:161-9. [PMID: 23949956 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-013-9416-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) is an amphetamine derivative widely abused by young adults. Although many studies have reported that relatively high doses of MDMA deplete serotonin (5-HT) content and decrease the availability of serotonin transporters (5-HTT), limited evidence is available as to the adaptive mechanisms taking place in gene expression levels in the brain following a dosing regimen of MDMA comparable to human consumption. In order to further clarify this issue, we used quantitative PCR to study the long-term changes induced by acute administration of MDMA (5 mg/kg × 3) in the expression of genes related to serotonergic and dopaminergic systems, as well as those related to cellular toxicity in the cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and brain stem of rats. Seven days after MDMA administration, we found a significantly lower expression of the 5-HTT (Slc6a4) and the vesicular monoamine transporter (Slc18a2) genes in the brain stem area. In the hippocampus, monoamine oxidase B (Maob) and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (Tph2) gene expressions were increased. In the striatum, tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) expression was decreased, and a lower expression of α-synuclein (Snca) was observed in the cortex. In contrast, no significant changes were observed in the genes considered to be biomarkers of toxicity including the glial fibrillary acidic protein (Gfap) and the heat-shock 70 kD protein 1A (Hspa1a) in any of the structures assayed. These results suggest that MDMA promotes adaptive changes in genes related to serotonergic and dopaminergic functionality, but not in genes related to neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabet Cuyas
- Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Recerca Biomèdica de Barcelona, Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
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Parrott AC. Human psychobiology of MDMA or 'Ecstasy': an overview of 25 years of empirical research. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:289-307. [PMID: 23881877 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
AIMS This paper aimed to review how scientific knowledge about the human psychobiology of MDMA has developed over time. METHODS In this paper, the empirical findings from earlier and later studies will be reviewed. RESULTS When MDMA was a 'novel psychoactive substance', it was not seen as a drug of abuse, as it displayed loss of efficacy. However, recreational users display a unique pattern of increasing doses, deteriorating cost-benefit ratios, and voluntary cessation. MDMA increases body temperature and thermal stress, with cortisol levels increased by 800% in dance clubbers. It can be extremely euphoric, although negative moods are also intensified. MDMA causes apoptosis (programmed cell death) and has been investigated for cancer therapy because of its anti-lymphoma properties. Recreational users show deficits in retrospective memory, prospective memory, higher cognition, problem solving, and social intelligence. Basic cognitive skills remain intact. Neuroimaging studies show reduced serotonin transporter levels across the cerebral cortex, which are associated with neurocognitive impairments. Deficits also occur in sleep architecture, sleep apnoea, complex vision, pain, neurohormones, and psychiatric status. Ecstasy/MDMA use during pregnancy leads to psychomotor impairments in the children. CONCLUSIONS The damaging effects of Ecstasy/MDMA are far more widespread than was realized a few years ago, with new neuropsychobiological deficits still emerging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, South Wales, UK.
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Church MW, Zhang JS, Langford MM, Perrine SA. 'Ecstasy' enhances noise-induced hearing loss. Hear Res 2013; 302:96-106. [PMID: 23711768 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
'Ecstasy' or 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (MDMA) is an amphetamine abused for its euphoric, empathogenic, hallucinatory, and stimulant effects. It is also used to treat certain psychiatric disorders. Common settings for Ecstasy use are nightclubs and "rave" parties where participants consume MDMA and dance to loud music. One concern with the club setting is that exposure to loud sounds can cause permanent sensorineural hearing loss. Another concern is that consumption of MDMA may enhance such hearing loss. Whereas this latter possibility has not been investigated, this study tested the hypothesis that MDMA enhances noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) by exposing rats to either MDMA, noise trauma, both MDMA and noise, or neither treatment. MDMA was given in a binge pattern of 5 mg/kg per intraperitoneal injections every 2 h for a total of four injections to animals in the two MDMA-treated groups (MDMA-only and Noise + MDMA). Saline injections were given to the animals in the two non-MDMA groups (Control and Noise-only). Following the final injection, noise trauma was induced by a 10 kHz tone at 120 dB SPL for 1 h to animals in the two noise trauma-treated groups (Noise-only and Noise + MDMA). Hearing loss was assessed by the auditory brainstem response (ABR) and cochlear histology. Results showed that MDMA enhanced NIHL compared to Noise-only and that MDMA alone caused no hearing loss. This implies that "clubbers" and "rave-goers" are exacerbating the amount of NIHL when they consume MDMA and listen to loud sounds. In contrast to earlier reports, the present study found that MDMA by itself caused no changes in the click-evoked ABR's wave latencies or amplitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Church
- Department of Otolaryngology & Head Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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Parrott AC. MDMA, serotonergic neurotoxicity, and the diverse functional deficits of recreational 'Ecstasy' users. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:1466-84. [PMID: 23660456 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Serotonergic neurotoxicity following MDMA is well-established in laboratory animals, and neuroimaging studies have found lower serotonin transporter (SERT) binding in abstinent Ecstasy/MDMA users. Serotonin is a modulator for many different psychobiological functions, and this review will summarize the evidence for equivalent functional deficits in recreational users. Declarative memory, prospective memory, and higher cognitive skills are often impaired. Neurocognitive deficits are associated with reduced SERT in the hippocampus, parietal cortex, and prefrontal cortex. EEG and ERP studies have shown localised reductions in brain activity during neurocognitive performance. Deficits in sleep, mood, vision, pain, psychomotor skill, tremor, neurohormonal activity, and psychiatric status, have also been demonstrated. The children of mothers who take Ecstasy/MDMA during pregnancy have developmental problems. These psychobiological deficits are wide-ranging, and occur in functions known to be modulated by serotonin. They are often related to lifetime dosage, with light users showing slight changes, and heavy users displaying more pronounced problems. In summary, abstinent Ecstasy/MDMA users can show deficits in a wide range of biobehavioral functions with a serotonergic component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Parrott
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, South Wales, United Kingdom; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia.
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Huff C, Bhide N, Schroering A, Yamamoto BK, Gudelsky GA. Effect of repeated exposure to MDMA on the function of the 5-HT transporter as assessed by synaptosomal 5-HT uptake. Brain Res Bull 2013; 91:52-7. [PMID: 23318273 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2013.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 01/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that a preconditioning regimen (i.e., repeated low doses) of MDMA provides protection against the reductions in tissue concentrations of 5-HT and 5-HT transporter (SERT) density and/or expression produced by a subsequent binge regimen of MDMA. In the present study, the effects of preconditioning and binge treatment regimens of MDMA on SERT function were assessed by synaptosomal 5-HT uptake. Synaptosomal 5-HT uptake was reduced by 72% 7 days following the binge regimen (10 mg/kg, i.p. every 2 h for a total of 4 injections). In rats exposed to the preconditioning regimen of MDMA (daily treatment with 10 mg/kg for 4 days), the reduction in synaptosomal 5-HT uptake induced by a subsequent binge regimen was significantly less. Treatment with the preconditioning regimen alone resulted in a transient 46% reduction in 5-HT uptake that was evident 1 day, but not 7 days, following the last injection of MDMA. Furthermore, the preconditioning regimen of MDMA did not alter tissue concentrations of 5-HT, whereas the binge regimen of MDMA resulted in a long-term reduction of 40% of tissue 5-HT concentrations. The distribution of SERT immunoreactivity (ir) in membrane and endosomal fractions of the hippocampus also was evaluated following the preconditioning regimen of MDMA. There was no significant difference in the relative distribution of SERTir between these two compartments in control and preconditioned rats. The results demonstrate that SERT function is transiently reduced in response to a preconditioning regimen of MDMA, while long-term reductions in SERT function occur in response to a binge regimen of MDMA. Moreover, a preconditioning regimen of MDMA provides protection against the long-term reductions in SERT function evoked by a subsequent binge regimen of the drug. It is tempting to speculate that the neuroprotective effect of MDMA preconditioning results from a transient down-regulation in SERT function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Huff
- James Winkle College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Wagner D, Becker B, Koester P, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. A prospective study of learning, memory, and executive function in new MDMA users. Addiction 2013; 108:136-45. [PMID: 22831704 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03977.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Revised: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS It is still unclear if cognitive abnormalities in human 3,4-methylenedioxymeth-amphetamine (MDMA) users existed before the beginning of use or if other confounders could explain the deficits. The present study was conducted in order to assess the relationship between beginning MDMA use and subsequent cognitive performance and to overcome previous methodological shortcomings. DESIGN A prospective cohort study in new MDMA users between 2006 and 2009 with a follow-up duration of 12 months. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Of the 149 almost MDMA-naive subjects examined at the initial assessment, 109 subjects participated again after 1 year. During this period, 43 subjects did not use any other illicit substance apart from cannabis; 23 subjects used more than 10 pills MDMA (mean = 33.6). These groups then were compared by means of multivariate analyses of variance. MEASUREMENTS Change scores between the initial examination and follow-up on a neuropsychological test battery including measures of learning, memory, and frontal executive functions [Auditiv-Verbaler Lerntest (AVLT), Lern- und Gedächtnistest (LGT) 3, digit span test, digit symbol test, Stroop task, Trail-making test]. In addition, a comprehensive number of possibly relevant confounders including age, general intelligence, cannabis use, alcohol use, cigarette use, medical treatment, participation in sports, nutrition, sleep patterns and subjective wellbeing was assessed. FINDINGS Groups did not differ in any of the potential confounders. However, significant effects of immediate and delayed recall of a visual paired associates learning task between MDMA users and controls were found (respectively, F ((1,64)) = 11.43, P = 0.001, η(2) = 0.136 and F ((1,64)) = 11.08, P = 0.002, η(2) = 0.144). No significant differences on the other neuropsychological tests were found. CONCLUSIONS MDMA appears to impair visual paired associates learning in new users, suggesting serotonergic dysfunction in hippocampal regions as a consequence of MDMA use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Wagner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Germany
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Pubill D, Garcia-Ratés S, Camarasa J, Escubedo E. 3,4-Methylenedioxy-methamphetamine induces in vivo regional up-regulation of central nicotinic receptors in rats and potentiates the regulatory effects of nicotine on these receptors. Neurotoxicology 2012; 35:41-9. [PMID: 23261423 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 11/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine (NIC), the main psychostimulant compound of smoked tobacco, exerts its effects through activation of central nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), which become up-regulated after chronic administration. Recent work has demonstrated that the recreational drug 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) has affinity for nAChR and also induces up-regulation of nAChR in PC 12 cells. Tobacco and MDMA are often consumed together. In the present work we studied the in vivo effect of a classic chronic dosing schedule of MDMA in rats, alone or combined with a chronic schedule of NIC, on the density of nAChR and on serotonin reuptake transporters. MDMA induced significant decreases in [(3)H]paroxetine binding in the cortex and hippocampus measured 24h after the last dose and these decreases were not modified by the association with NIC. In the prefrontal cortex, NIC and MDMA each induced significant increases in [(3)H]epibatidine binding (29.5 and 34.6%, respectively) with respect to saline-treated rats, and these increases were significantly potentiated (up to 72.1%) when the two drugs were associated. Also in this area, [(3)H]methyllycaconitine binding was increased a 42.1% with NIC+MDMA but not when they were given alone. In the hippocampus, MDMA potentiated the α7 regulatory effects of NIC (raising a 25.5% increase to 52.5%) but alone was devoid of effect. MDMA had no effect on heteromeric nAChR in striatum and a coronal section of the midbrain containing superior colliculi, geniculate nuclei, substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. Specific immunoprecipitation of solubilised receptors suggests that the up-regulated heteromeric nAChRs contain α4 and β2 subunits. Western blots with specific α4 and α7 antibodies showed no significant differences between the groups, indicating that, as reported for nicotine, up-regulation caused by MDMA is due to post-translational events rather than increased receptor synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Pubill
- Unitat de Farmacologia i Farmacognòsia, Facultat de Farmàcia, Nucli Universitari de Pedralbes, Universitat de Barcelona, Institut de Biomedicina de la UB (IBUB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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Parrott AC. MDMA and 5-HT neurotoxicity: the empirical evidence for its adverse effects in humans - no need for translation. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 166:1518-20; discussion 1521-2. [PMID: 22404300 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01941.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In this issue of the BJP, Green et al. suggest that animal data could not be used to predict the adverse effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans and that MDMA did not produce 5-HT neurotoxicity in the human brain. This proposal was, however, not accompanied by a review of the empirical evidence in humans. The neuroimaging data on 5-HT markers in abstinent recreational ecstasy/MDMA users are extensive and broadly consistent. Reduced levels of the 5-HT transporter (SERT) have been found by research groups worldwide using a variety of assessment measures. These SERT reductions occur across the higher brain regions and remain after controlling for potential confounds. There are also extensive empirical data for impairments in memory and higher cognition, with the neurocognitive deficits correlating with the extent of SERT loss. Hence, MDMA is clearly damaging to humans, with extensive empirical data for both structural and functional deficits.
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