Impact of Dietary Fats on Brain Functions

Modulation of Gut Microbiota Through Dietary Intervention in Neuroinflammation and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammation and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. One of the main modulators of the gut microbiota is the diet, which directly influences host homeostasis and biological processes. Some dietary patterns can affect neurodegenerative diseases' progression through gut microbiota composition, gut permeability, and the synthesis and secretion of microbial-derived neurotrophic factors and neurotransmitters. This comprehensive review critically assesses existing studies investigating the impact of dietary interventions on the modulation of the microbiota in relation to neurodegenerative diseases and neuroinflammation.

RECENT FINDINGS

There are limited studies on the effects of specific diets, such as the ketogenic diet, Mediterranean diet, vegetarian diet, and Western diet, on the progression of neuroinflammation and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases through the gut-brain axis. The ketogenic diet displays promising potential in ameliorating the clinical trajectory of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. However, conflicting outcomes were observed among various studies, highlighting the need to consider diverse types of ketogenic diets and their respective effects on clinical outcomes and gut microbiota composition. Vegetarian and Mediterranean diets, known for their anti-inflammatory properties, can be effective against Parkinson's disease, which is related to inflammation in the gut environment. On the other hand, the westernization of dietary patterns was associated with reduced gut microbial diversity and metabolites, which ultimately contributed to the development of neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment. Various studies examining the impact of dietary interventions on the gut-brain axis with regard to neuroinflammation and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases are thoroughly reviewed in this article. A strong mechanistic explanation is required to fully understand the complex interactions between various dietary patterns, gut microbiota, and microbial metabolites and the effects these interactions have on cognitive function and the progression of these diseases.

Combined Metabolic Activators with Different NAD+ Precursors Improve Metabolic Functions in the Animal Models of Neurodegenerative Diseases

BACKGROUND

Mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic abnormalities are acknowledged as significant factors in the onset of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our research has demonstrated that the use of combined metabolic activators (CMA) may alleviate metabolic dysfunctions and stimulate mitochondrial metabolism. Therefore, the use of CMA could potentially be an effective therapeutic strategy to slow down or halt the progression of PD and AD. CMAs include substances such as the glutathione precursors (L-serine and N-acetyl cysteine), the NAD+ precursor (nicotinamide riboside), and L-carnitine tartrate.

METHODS

Here, we tested the effect of two different formulations, including CMA1 (nicotinamide riboside, L-serine, N-acetyl cysteine, L-carnitine tartrate), and CMA2 (nicotinamide, L-serine, N-acetyl cysteine, L-carnitine tartrate), as well as their individual components, on the animal models of AD and PD. We assessed the brain and liver tissues for pathological changes and immunohistochemical markers. Additionally, in the case of PD, we performed behavioral tests and measured responses to apomorphine-induced rotations.

FINDINGS

Histological analysis showed that the administration of both CMA1 and CMA2 formulations led to improvements in hyperemia, degeneration, and necrosis in neurons for both AD and PD models. Moreover, the administration of CMA2 showed a superior effect compared to CMA1. This was further corroborated by immunohistochemical data, which indicated a reduction in immunoreactivity in the neurons. Additionally, notable metabolic enhancements in liver tissues were observed using both formulations. In PD rat models, the administration of both formulations positively influenced the behavioral functions of the animals.

INTERPRETATION

Our findings suggest that the administration of both CMA1 and CMA2 markedly enhanced metabolic and behavioral outcomes, aligning with neuro-histological observations. These findings underscore the promise of CMA2 administration as an effective therapeutic strategy for enhancing metabolic parameters and cognitive function in AD and PD patients.

Central MOTS-c infusion affects reproductive hormones in obese and non-obese rats

MOTS-c, a mitochondrial-derived peptide, acts as a systemic hormone and MOTS-c level is inversely correlated with markers of obesity. Obesity is a risk factor for male reproductive physiology and is expressed as an important cause of infertility. In this study, we aimed to determine the effects of MOTS-c, which has been proven in the hypothalamus and testicles, on the actors involved in the reproductive axis. In the study, 80 male Wistar-Albino rats were divided into two main groups, obese and non-obese (n = 40). Rats in the first main group were fed with fatty diet feed and obesity was induced. The second main group was fed with normal diet feed. Each main group was divided into 4 subgroups (Control, Sham, 10 and 100 µM MOTS-c). The lateral ventricles of the animals in the treatment groups were infused with 10 and 100 µM MOTS-c (solvent in Sham group) for 14 days. At the end of the experiment, hypothalamic Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) gene expression level, serum testosterone, Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were determined. MOTS-c infusion caused an increase in GnRH mRNA, protein expression levels and serum testosterone, LH and FSH levels in obese and non-obese rats (p < 0.05). MOTS-c administration more significantly upregulated hormone levels in non-obese rats (p < 0.05). MOTS-c administration increases these hormones, suggesting that MOTS-c may stimulate the reproductive axis. Our results reveal that MOTS-c plays a role in the central regulation of reproduction, as well as causes increased LH, FSH and testosterone release.

Mental health in society's margins: poor n-3 PUFA intake and psychological well-being of homeless youth

Dietary intake of long-chain n-3 PUFA (n-3 PUFA), particularly EPA and DHA, has been associated with psychological well-being, but little is known about the n-3 PUFA intake of homeless youth. The current study determined the association between depression and anxiety symptoms and n-3 PUFA intake and erythrocytes status in homeless youth. Totally, 114 homeless youth aged 18-24 years were recruited from a drop-in centre. n-3 PUFA dietary intake was assessed using an FFQ, and erythrocytes status was determined by gas chromatography (GC). Linear regression models were used to determine the relationship between psychological well-being and n-3 PUFA intake and status. The mean intakes of EPA and DHA for all participants (0·06 ± 0·13 g/d and 0·11 ± 0·24 g/d) were well below recommended levels, and mean erythrocytes EPA + DHA (n-3 index) in the cohort (2·42 %) was lower than reported for healthy, housed adolescents and those with clinical depression. There was no association of n-3 PUFA intake and erythrocytes status with either depression or anxiety. However, the relationships of depression with dietary EPA (P = 0·017) and DHA (P = 0·008), as well as erythrocytes DHA (P = 0·007) and n 3-index (P = 0·009), were significantly moderated by sex even after adjusting for confounders. Specifically, among females, as the intake and status of these n-3 PUFA decreased, depression increased. Our findings show poor dietary intake and low erythrocytes status of n-3 PUFA among homeless youth, which is associated with depressive symptoms among females.

Palmitic Acid Induces Posttranslational Modifications of Tau Protein in Alzheimer's Disease-Related Epitopes and Increases Intraneuronal Tau Levels

Metabolic diseases derived from an unhealthy lifestyle have been linked with an increased risk for developing cognitive impairment and even Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although high consumption of saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid (PA) has been associated with the development of obesity and type II diabetes, the mechanisms connecting elevated neuronal PA levels and increased AD marker expression remain unclear. Among other effects, PA induces insulin resistance, increases intracellular calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and reduces the NAD+/NADH ratio, resulting in decreased activity of the deacetylase Sirtuin1 (SIRT1) in neurons. These mechanisms may affect signaling pathways that impact the posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of the tau protein. To analyze the role played by PA in inducing the phosphorylation and acetylation of tau, we examined PTM changes in human tau in differentiated neurons from human neuroblastoma cells. We found changes in the phosphorylation state of several AD-related sites, namely, S199/202 and S214, that were mediated by a mechanism associated with the dysregulated activity of the kinases GSK3β and mTOR. PA also increased the acetylation of residue K280 and elevated total tau level after long exposure time. These findings provide information about the mechanisms by which saturated fatty acids cause tau PTMs that are similar to those observed in association with AD biochemical changes.

Effect of bisphenol A on the neurological system: a review update

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) and one of the most produced synthetic compounds worldwide. BPA can be found in epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics, which are frequently used in food storage and baby bottles. However, BPA can bind mainly to estrogen receptors, interfering with various neurologic functions, its use is a topic of significant concern. Nonetheless, the neurotoxicity of BPA has not been fully understood despite numerous investigations on its disruptive effects. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the most recent studies on the implications of BPA on the neurologic system. Our findings suggest that BPA exposure impairs various structural and molecular brain changes, promoting oxidative stress, changing expression levels of several crucial genes and proteins, destructive effects on neurotransmitters, excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation, damaged blood-brain barrier function, neuronal damage, apoptosis effects, disruption of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, increase in reactive oxygen species, promoted apoptosis and intracellular lactate dehydrogenase release, a decrease of axon length, microglial DNA damage, astrogliosis, and significantly reduced myelination. Moreover, BPA exposure increases the risk of developing neurologic diseases, including neurovascular (e.g. stroke) and neurodegenerative (e.g. Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) diseases. Furthermore, epidemiological studies showed that the adverse effects of BPA on neurodevelopment in children contributed to the emergence of serious neurological diseases like attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), depression, emotional problems, anxiety, and cognitive disorders. In summary, BPA exposure compromises human health, promoting the development and progression of neurologic disorders. More research is required to fully understand how BPA-induced neurotoxicity affects human health.

The Longitudinal Association of Egg Consumption with Cognitive Function in Older Men and Women: The Rancho Bernardo Study

This study examines the prospective association of egg consumption with multiple domains of cognitive function in older, community-dwelling men and women followed for 16.3 years. Participants were 617 men and 898 women from the Rancho Bernardo Cohort aged 60 and older, who were surveyed about egg intake/week in 1972-1974, and attended a 1988-1991 research visit, where cognitive function was assessed with 12 tests. Analyses showed that egg intake ranged from 0-24/week (means: men = 4.2 ± 3.2; women = 3.5 ± 2.7; p < 0.0001). In men, covariate-adjusted regressions showed that egg intake was associated with better performance on Buschke total (p = 0.04), long-term (p = 0.02), and short-term (p = 0.05) recall. No significant associations were observed in women (p's > 0.05). Analyses showed that in those aged <60y in 1972-1974, egg intake was positively associated with scores on Heaton copying (p < 0.04) and the Mini-Mental Status Exam (MMSE; p < 0.02) in men and category fluency (p < 0.05) in women. Egg intake was not significantly associated with odds of poor performance on MMSE, Trails B, or category fluency in either sex. These reassuring findings suggest that there are no long-term detrimental effects of egg consumption on multiple cognitive function domains, and for men, there may be beneficial effects for verbal episodic memory. Egg consumption in middle age may also be related to better cognitive performance later in life.

Prevention of Alzheimer's disease through diet: An exploratory review

Introduction

This exploratory review article describes about the genetic factors behind Alzheimer's disease (AD), their association with foods, and their relationships with cognitive impairment. It explores the dietary patterns and economic challenges in AD prevention.

Methods

Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar were searched for articles that examined the relationships between Diets, Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and Socioeconomic conditions in preventative Alzheimer's disease studies. Graphs and Network analysis data were taken from Scopus under the MeSH search method, including words, Alzheimer's, APoE4, Tau protein, APP, Amyloid precursor protein, Beta-Amyloid, Aβ, Mediterranean Diet, MD, DASH diet, MIND diet, SES, Socioeconomic, Developed country, Underdeveloped country, Preventions. The network analysis was done through VOS viewer.

Results

Mediterranean diet (MD) accurately lowers AD (Alzheimer's Disease) risk to 53% and 35% for people who follow it moderately. MIND scores had a statistically significant reduction in AD rate compared to those in the lowest tertial (53% and 35% reduction, respectively). Subjects with the highest adherence to the MD and DASH had a 54% and 39% lower risk of developing AD, respectively, compared to those in the lowest tertial. Omega-6, PUFA, found in nuts and fish, can play most roles in the clearance of Aβ. Vitamin D inhibits induced fibrillar Aβ apoptosis. However, the high cost of these diet components rise doubt about the effectiveness of AD prevention through healthy diets.

Conclusion

The finding of this study revealed an association between diet and the effects of the chemical components of foods on AD biomarkers. More research is required to see if nutrition is a risk or a protective factor for Alzheimer's disease to encourage research to be translated into therapeutic practice and to clarify nutritional advice.

The effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on cognitive function outcomes in the elderly depends on the baseline omega-3 index

Both epidemiological and preclinical studies have shown the benefits of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) on dementia and cognitive impairment, yet the results of clinical randomized controlled trials (RCTs) performed to date are conflicting. The difference in the baseline omega-3 index (O3i) of subjects is a potential cause for this disparity, yet this is usually ignored. The present meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) on cognitive function in the elderly and the role of baseline O3i. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science up to June 27th, 2023. The mean changes in the mini-mental state examination (MMSE) score were calculated as weighted mean differences by using a fixed-effects model. Fifteen random controlled trials were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled analysis showed that n-3 PUFA supplementation did not significantly improve the MMSE score (WMD = 0.04, [-0.08, 0.16]; Z = 0.62, P = 0.53; I2 = 0.00%, P(I2) = 0.49). Out of the 15 studies included in the meta-analysis, only 7 reported O3i at baseline and outcome, so only these 7 articles were used for subgroup analysis. Subgroup analysis showed that the MMSE score was significantly improved in the higher baseline O3i subgroup (WMD = 0.553, [0.01, 1.095]; I2 = 0.00%, P(I2) = 0.556) and higher O3i increment subgroup (WMD = 0.525, [0.023, 1.026]; I2 = 0.00%, P(I2) = 0.545). The overall effect demonstrated that n-3 PUFA supplementation exerted no improvement on global cognitive function. However, a higher baseline O3i and higher O3i increment were associated with an improvement in cognitive function in the elderly.

Molecular Advances on Cannabinoid and Endocannabinoid Research

Since ancient times, cannabis has been used for recreational and medical purposes [...].

Detrimental influence of industrial effluents, especially heavy metals, on limnological parameters of water and nutritional profile in addition to enzymatic activities of fish, Sperata seenghala (Sykes, 1839) from diverse Ramsar sites, India (Punjab)

The present research was designed to determine the nutritive value of the liver and intestine of fish, Sperata seenghala, the impact of effluence load on limnological parameters of water and proximate composition of fish organs, especially on fatty acids, liver enzymatic activities, seasonal variations in the nutritional profile of fish, and to check and compare the pollution status of Ramsar sites in Punjab by calculating the water quality index, heavy metal pollution index, and metal index from June 2018 to August 2020. WQI of Harike wetland was found to be 53.95, which depicts that water quality in this region is "poor". At Nangal wetland, water quality index was reported to be "excellent" quality water and fit for the whole ecological unit. Overall heavy metal pollution index for Harike wetland was reported 174.569, whereas for Nangal wetland it was 5.994, depicting massive contaminant loads in a polluted region. MI value was also recorded as being higher (6.9336) in polluted habitat than in control habitat (0.8175). In fish liver, significant (p < 0.05) higher mean total lipids (6.73%), total proteins (3.98%), moisture (77.69%), ash (3.56%), and carbohydrates (3.79%) were observed in the samples from Nangal wetland than Harike wetland. A similar trend was reported in all biochemical contents of the fish intestine. Enzyme activities such as aspartate-aminotransferase and alanine-aminotransferase were significantly elevated (p < 0.05) in the specimens collected from the polluted region. The mean total n-3 (except in spring), n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (except in winter), and average monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids diminished significantly (p < 0.05) in the liver of fish from contaminated habitat than control site. In the intestine of fish collected from the polluted region, significant reductions in the mean total n-3 (except in autumn as well as summer), total n-6 PUFAs (in autumn and winter), and total SFAs were reported than control site.

Dietary Fat Modulation of Gut Microbiota and Impact on Regulatory Pathways Controlling Food Intake

Obesity is a multifactorial disease that continues to increase in prevalence worldwide. Emerging evidence has shown that the development of obesity may be influenced by taxonomic shifts in gut microbiota in response to the consumption of dietary fats. Further, these alterations in gut microbiota have been shown to promote important changes in satiation signals including gut hormones (leptin, ghrelin, GLP-1, peptide YY and CCK) and orexigenic and anorexigenic neuropeptides (AgRP, NPY, POMC, CART) that influence hyperphagia and therefore obesity. In this review, we highlight mechanisms by which gut microbiota can influence these satiation signals both locally in the gastrointestinal tract and via microbiota-gut-brain communication. Then, we describe the effects of dietary interventions and associated changes in gut microbiota on satiety signals through microbiota-dependent mechanisms. Lastly, we present microbiota optimizing therapies including prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics and weight loss surgery that can help restore beneficial gut microbiota by enhancing satiety signals to reduce hyperphagia and subsequent obesity. Overall, a better understanding of the mechanisms by which dietary fats induce taxonomical shifts in gut microbiota and their impact on satiation signaling pathways will help develop more targeted therapeutic interventions in delaying the onset of obesity and in furthering its treatment.

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoid Receptor Antagonists in Inflammation, Diabetes Mellitus, and Obesity

Recently, research has greatly expanded the knowledge of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) and its involvement in several therapeutic applications. Cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) are present in nearly every mammalian tissue, performing a vital role in different physiological processes (neuronal development, immune modulation, energy homeostasis). The ECS has an essential role in metabolic control and lipid signaling, making it a potential target for managing conditions such as obesity and diabetes. Its malfunction is closely linked to these pathological conditions. Additionally, the immunomodulatory function of the ECS presents a promising avenue for developing new treatments for various types of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions. Preclinical investigations using peripherally restricted CBR antagonists that do not cross the BBB have shown promise for the treatment of obesity and metabolic diseases, highlighting the importance of continuing efforts to discover novel molecules with superior safety profiles. The purpose of this review is to examine the roles of CB1R and CB2Rs, as well as their antagonists, in relation to the above-mentioned disorders.

Microbiota-gut-brain axis and related therapeutics in Alzheimer's disease: prospects for multitherapy and inflammation control

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia in the elderly and causes neurodegeneration, leading to memory loss, behavioral disorder, and psychiatric impairment. One potential mechanism contributing to the pathogenesis of AD may be the imbalance in gut microbiota, local and systemic inflammation, and dysregulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA). Most of the AD drugs approved for clinical use today are symptomatic treatments that do not improve AD pathologic changes. As a result, researchers are exploring novel therapeutic modalities. Treatments involving the MGBA include antibiotics, probiotics, transplantation of fecal microbiota, botanical products, and others. However, single-treatment modalities are not as effective as expected, and a combination therapy is gaining momentum. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent advances in MGBA-related pathological mechanisms and treatment modalities in AD and to propose a new concept of combination therapy. "MGBA-based multitherapy" is an emerging view of treatment in which classic symptomatic treatments and MGBA-based therapeutic modalities are used in combination. Donepezil and memantine are two commonly used drugs in AD treatment. On the basis of the single/combined use of these two drugs, two/more additional drugs and treatment modalities that target the MGBA are chosen based on the characteristics of the patient's condition as an adjuvant treatment, as well as the maintenance of good lifestyle habits. "MGBA-based multitherapy" offers new insights for the treatment of cognitive impairment in AD patients and is expected to show good therapeutic results.

Long-term dietary folic acid supplementation attenuated aging-induced hippocampus atrophy and promoted glucose uptake in 25-month-old rats with cognitive decline

The brain has high energy demand making it sensitive to changes in energy fuel supply. Aging shrinks brain volume, decreases glucose uptake availability of the brain, and finally, causes cognitive dysfunction. Folic acid supplementation delayed cognitive decline and neurodegeneration. However, whether folic acid affects brain energy metabolism and structural changes is unclear. The study aimed to determine if long-term dietary folic acid supplementation could alleviate age-related cognitive decline by attenuating hippocampus atrophy and promoting brain glucose uptake in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. According to folic acid levels in diet, three-month-old male SD rats were randomly divided into four intervention groups for 22 months in equal numbers: folic acid-deficient diet (FA-D) group, folic acid-normal diet (FA-N) group, low folic acid-supplemented diet (FA-L) group, and high folic acid-supplemented diet (FA-H) group. The results showed that serum folate concentrations decreased and serum homocysteine (Hcy) concentrations increased with age, and dietary folic acid supplementation increased serum folate concentrations and decreased Hcy concentrations at 11, 18, and 22 months of intervention. Dietary folic acid supplementation attenuated aging-induced hippocampus atrophy, which was showed by higher fractional anisotropy and lower mean diffusivity in the hippocampus, increased brain ¹⁸F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (¹⁸F-FDG) uptake, then stimulated neuronal survival, and alleviated age-related cognitive decline in SD rats. In conclusion, long-term dietary folic acid supplementation alleviated age-related cognitive decline by attenuating hippocampus atrophy and promoting brain glucose uptake in SD rats.

Towards early detection of neurodegenerative diseases: A gut feeling

The gastrointestinal tract communicates with the nervous system through a bidirectional network of signaling pathways called the gut-brain axis, which consists of multiple connections, including the enteric nervous system, the vagus nerve, the immune system, endocrine signals, the microbiota, and its metabolites. Alteration of communications in the gut-brain axis is emerging as an overlooked cause of neuroinflammation. Neuroinflammation is a common feature of the pathogenic mechanisms involved in various neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) that are incurable and debilitating conditions resulting in progressive degeneration and death of neurons, such as in Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. NDs are a leading cause of global death and disability, and the incidences are expected to increase in the following decades if prevention strategies and successful treatment remain elusive. To date, the etiology of NDs is unclear due to the complexity of the mechanisms of diseases involving genetic and environmental factors, including diet and microbiota. Emerging evidence suggests that changes in diet, alteration of the microbiota, and deregulation of metabolism in the intestinal epithelium influence the inflammatory status of the neurons linked to disease insurgence and progression. This review will describe the leading players of the so-called diet-microbiota-gut-brain (DMGB) axis in the context of NDs. We will report recent findings from studies in model organisms such as rodents and fruit flies that support the role of diets, commensals, and intestinal epithelial functions as an overlooked primary regulator of brain health. We will finish discussing the pivotal role of metabolisms of cellular organelles such as mitochondria and peroxisomes in maintaining the DMGB axis and how alteration of the latter can be used as early disease makers and novel therapeutic targets.

Combined metabolic activators improve metabolic functions in the animal models of neurodegenerative diseases

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), are associated with metabolic abnormalities. Integrative analysis of human clinical data and animal studies have contributed to a better understanding of the molecular and cellular pathways involved in the progression of NDDs. Previously, we have reported that the combined metabolic activators (CMA), which include the precursors of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and glutathione can be utilized to alleviate metabolic disorders by activating mitochondrial metabolism.

METHODS

We first analysed the brain transcriptomics data from AD patients and controls using a brain-specific genome-scale metabolic model (GEM). Then, we investigated the effect of CMA administration in animal models of AD and PD. We evaluated pathological and immunohistochemical findings of brain and liver tissues. Moreover, PD rats were tested for locomotor activity and apomorphine-induced rotation.

FINDINGS

Analysis of transcriptomics data with GEM revealed that mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in the underlying molecular pathways of AD. In animal models of AD and PD, we showed significant damage in the high-fat diet groups' brain and liver tissues compared to the chow diet. The histological analyses revealed that hyperemia, degeneration and necrosis in neurons were improved by CMA administration in both AD and PD animal models. These findings were supported by immunohistochemical evidence of decreased immunoreactivity in neurons. In parallel to the improvement in the brain, we also observed dramatic metabolic improvement in the liver tissue. CMA administration also showed a beneficial effect on behavioural functions in PD rats.

INTERPRETATION

Overall, we showed that CMA administration significantly improved behavioural scores in parallel with the neurohistological outcomes in the AD and PD animal models and is a promising treatment for improving the metabolic parameters and brain functions in NDDs.

Lipids and Secretory Vesicle Exocytosis

In recent years, the number of studies implicating lipids in the regulation of synaptic vesicle exocytosis has risen considerably. It has become increasingly clear that lipids such as phosphoinositides, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, arachidonic acid and myristic acid play critical regulatory roles in the processes leading up to exocytosis. Lipids may affect membrane fusion reactions by altering the physical properties of the membrane, recruiting key regulatory proteins, concentrating proteins into exocytic "hotspots" or by modulating protein functions allosterically. Discrete changes in phosphoinositides concentration are involved in multiple trafficking events including exocytosis and endocytosis. Lipid-modifying enzymes such as the DDHD2 isoform of phospholipase A1 were recently shown to contribute to memory acquisition via dynamic modifications of the brain lipid landscape. Considering the increasing reports on neurodegenerative disorders associated with aberrant intracellular trafficking, an improved understanding of the control of lipid pathways is physiologically and clinically significant and will afford unique insights into mechanisms and therapeutic methods for neurodegenerative diseases. Consequently, this chapter will discuss the different classes of lipids, phospholipase enzymes, the evidence linking them to synaptic neurotransmitter release and how they act to regulate key steps in the multi-step process leading to neuronal communication and memory acquisition.

Neuroimmune Dysregulation in Prepubertal and Adolescent Individuals Affected by Klinefelter Syndrome

BACKGROUND

The syndrome Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is a genetic disorder due to an extra X chromosome in males. Many cases remain undiagnosed until the onset of major manifestations, which include hypergonadotropic hypogonadism and infertility. This condition is associated with many comorbidities that involve the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. Last but not the least, individuals with KS show a high risk of developing psychiatric and mood disorders in adult age.

OBJECTIVE

While many studies are accessible on KS in adult individuals, the neuroinflammatory condition in adolescent and prepubertal KS individuals is not fully known.

METHODS

Our study aims to evaluate in prepubertal and adolescent KS individuals, for the first time, the levels of the serum of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), cytokines having subtle roles in oxidative processes, and neuroinflammation with respect to the levels of TNF-α, TGF-β, MCP-1, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-12 and oxidative stress by employing free oxygen radicals defense and free oxygen radicals test.

RESULTS

We found no changes in NGF and oxidative stress parameters, but BDNF decreased compared to healthy children. Quite interestingly, our data showed reduced levels of IL-2, IL-1α, IL- 12, IL-10, and IL-6 in prepubertal KS children.

CONCLUSION

The present study discloses disrupted immune system and neurotrophin pathways in KS children.

Epilepsy and Cognitive Impairment in Childhood and Adolescence: A Mini-Review

Managing epilepsy in people with an intellectual disability remains a therapeutic challenge and must take into account additional issues such as diagnostic difficulties and frequent drug resistance. Advances in genomic technologies improved our understanding of epilepsy and raised the possibility to develop patients-tailored treatments acting on the key molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the disease. In addition to conventional antiseizure medications (ASMs), ketogenic diet, hormone therapy and epilepsy surgery play an important role, especially in cases of drugresistance. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the mainfactors influencing cognition in children and adolescents with epilepsy and the main therapeutic options available for the epilepsies associated with intellectual disability.

Antioxidant Intervention to Improve Cognition in the Aging Brain: The Example of Hydroxytyrosol and Resveratrol

Both physiological and pathological aging processes induce brain alterations especially affecting the speed of processing, working memory, conceptual reasoning and executive functions. Many therapeutic approaches to reduce the impact of brain aging on cognitive functioning have been tested; unfortunately, there are no satisfactory results as a single therapy. As aging is partly contributed by free radical reactions, it has been proposed that exogenous antioxidants could have a positive impact on both aging and its associated manifestations. The aim of this report is to provide a summary and a subsequent review of the literature evidence on the role of antioxidants in preventing and improving cognition in the aging brain. Manipulation of endogenous cellular defense mechanisms through nutritional antioxidants or pharmacological compounds represents an innovative approach to therapeutic intervention in diseases causing brain tissue damage, such as neurodegeneration. Coherently with this notion, antioxidants, especially those derived from the Mediterranean diet such as hydroxytyrosol and resveratrol, seem to be able to delay and modulate the cognitive brain aging processes and decrease the occurrence of its effects on the brain. The potential preventive activity of antioxidants should be evaluated in long-term exposure clinical trials, using preparations with high bioavailability, able to bypass the blood-brain barrier limitation, and that are well standardized.

Lysophospholipids: A Potential Drug Candidates for Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) commonly present misfolded and aggregated proteins. Considerable research has been performed to unearth the molecular processes underpinning this pathological aggregation and develop therapeutic strategies targeting NDs. Fibrillary deposits of α-synuclein (α-Syn), a highly conserved and thermostable protein, are a critical feature in the development of NDs such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Lewy body disease (LBD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and multiple system atrophy (MSA). Inhibition of α-Syn aggregation can thus serve as a potential approach for therapeutic intervention. Recently, the degradation of target proteins by small molecules has emerged as a new therapeutic modality, gaining the hotspot in pharmaceutical research. Additionally, interest is growing in the use of food-derived bioactive compounds as intervention agents against NDs via functional foods and dietary supplements. According to reports, dietary bioactive phospholipids may have cognition-enhancing and neuroprotective effects, owing to their abilities to influence cognition and mental health in vivo and in vitro. However, the mechanisms by which lipids may prevent the pathological aggregation of α-Syn warrant further clarification. Here, we review evidence for the potential mechanisms underlying this effect, with a particular focus on how porcine liver decomposition product (PLDP)-derived lysophospholipids (LPLs) may inhibit α-Syn aggregation.

Ketogenic Diet: An Effective Treatment Approach for Neurodegenerative Diseases

This review discusses the effects and mechanisms of a ketogenic diet on neurodegenerative diseases on the basis of available evidence. A ketogenic diet refers to a high-fat, mediumprotein, and low-carbohydrate diet that leads to a metabolic shift to ketosis. This review systematically summarizes the scientific literature supporting this effective treatment approach for neurodegenerative diseases, including effects on mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, neuronal apoptosis, neuroinflammation, and the microbiota-gut-brain axis. It also highlights the clinical evidence for the effects of the ketogenic diet in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and motor neuron disease. Finally, it discusses the common adverse effects of ketogenic therapy. Although the complete mechanism of the ketogenic diet in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases remains to be elucidated, its clinical efficacy has attracted many new followers. The ketogenic diet is a good candidate for adjuvant therapy, but its specific applicability depends on the type and the degree of the disease.

Interdisciplinary Approaches to Deal with Alzheimer's Disease-From Bench to Bedside: What Feasible Options Do Already Exist Today?

Alzheimer's disease is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases in the western population. The incidence of this disease increases with age. Rising life expectancy and the resulting increase in the ratio of elderly in the population are likely to exacerbate socioeconomic problems. Alzheimer's disease is a multifactorial disease. In addition to amyloidogenic processing leading to plaques, and tau pathology, but also other molecular causes such as oxidative stress or inflammation play a crucial role. We summarize the molecular mechanisms leading to Alzheimer's disease and which potential interventions are known to interfere with these mechanisms, focusing on nutritional approaches and physical activity but also the beneficial effects of cognition-oriented treatments with a focus on language and communication. Interestingly, recent findings also suggest a causal link between oral conditions, such as periodontitis or edentulism, and Alzheimer's disease, raising the question of whether dental intervention in Alzheimer's patients can be beneficial as well. Unfortunately, all previous single-domain interventions have been shown to have limited benefit to patients. However, the latest studies indicate that combining these efforts into multidomain approaches may have increased preventive or therapeutic potential. Therefore, as another emphasis in this review, we provide an overview of current literature dealing with studies combining the above-mentioned approaches and discuss potential advantages compared to monotherapies. Considering current literature and intervention options, we also propose a multidomain interdisciplinary approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease patients that synergistically links the individual approaches. In conclusion, this review highlights the need to combine different approaches in an interdisciplinary manner, to address the future challenges of Alzheimer's disease.

Metabolic fingerprinting of dogs with idiopathic epilepsy receiving a ketogenic medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil

Consumption of medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) has been shown to improve seizure control, reduce behavioural comorbidities and improve cognitive function in epileptic dogs. However, the exact metabolic pathways affected by dietary MCT remain poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to identify changes in the metabolome and neurotransmitters levels relevant to epilepsy and behavioural comorbidities associated with the consuming of an MCT supplement (MCT-DS) in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (IE). Metabolic alterations induced by a commercial MCT-DS in a population of 28 dogs with IE were evaluated in a 6-month multi-centre, prospective, randomised, double-blinded, controlled cross-over trial design. A metabolic energy requirement-based amount of 9% MCT or control oil was supplemented to the dogs' stable base diet for 3 months, followed by the alternative oil for another 3 months. A validated, quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy platform was applied to pre- and postprandially collected serum samples to compare the metabolic profile between both DS and baseline. Furthermore, alterations in urinary neurotransmitter levels were explored. Five dogs (30%) had an overall reduction in seizure frequency of ≥50%, and were classified as MCT-responders, while 23 dogs showed a ≤50% reduction, and were defined as MCT non-responders. Amino-acid metabolism was significantly influenced by MCT consumption compared to the control oil. While the serum concentrations of total fatty acids appeared similar during both supplements, the relative concentrations of individual fatty acids differed. During MCT supplementation, the concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids and arachidonic acid were significantly higher than under the control oil. β-Hydroxybutyric acid levels were significantly higher under MCT supplementation. In total, four out of nine neurotransmitters were significantly altered: a significantly increased γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) concentration was detected during the MCT-phase accompanied by a significant shift of the GABA-glutamate balance. MCT-Responders had significantly lowered urinary concentrations of histamine, glutamate, and serotonin under MCT consumption. In conclusion, these novel data highlight metabolic changes in lipid, amino-acid and ketone metabolism due to MCT supplementation. Understanding the metabolic response to MCT provides new avenues to develop better nutritional management with improved anti-seizure and neuroprotective effects for dogs with epilepsy, and other behavioural disorders.

Adjustment of the MIND diet tool for discriminating Greek patients with dementia: A confirmatory factor analysis

Background

The MIND diet, a hybrid of the Mediterranean and DASH diets, has been shown to reduce cognitive decline and dementia occurrence.

Aim

In the current cross-sectional study the effect of the MIND diet in elderly Greek individuals, assessed for cognitive decline, was investigated. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) evaluated the MIND diet score's factor structure in relation to the ability to distinguish the Greek elderly population diagnosed with or without dementia.

Methods

One hundred fifteen participants recently diagnosed with dementia and 52 cognitively healthy controls, after proper neuropsychological testing by neurologists, were included. To ensure the variance-covariance of matrix for the CFA, a second reference group of 36 participants who self-reported as healthy in terms of cognitive status from the general Greek population, was included. Demographic, anthropometric characteristics, emotional status, cognitive function, and dementia diagnosis were recorded. A prediction model investigated the MIND diet's components to separate the study participants according to their cognitive health. CFA was used to examine if the structure of the MIND diet tool scale was a proper model fit or if a different model more appropriately fit our sample data.

Results and discussion

The CFA conducted, suggested that the 9 components MIND diet score supported our sample data better than the original 15-item MIND diet.

Conclusion

The MIND diets' components must be considered in relevance to the dietary habits and cultural background of the respective population studied. Future studies should evaluate prospectively the effect of MIND-9 on preventing the onset of dementia in Greek adults.

Dietary Inulin Supplementation Affects Specific Plasmalogen Species in the Brain

Plasmalogens (Pls) are glycerophospholipids that play critical roles in the brain. Evidence supports the role of diet and that of the gut microbiota in regulating brain lipids. We investigated the impact of dietary intake of inulin—a soluble fiber used as prebiotic—on the Pl content of the cortex in mice. No global modification in the Pl amounts was observed when evaluated by gas chromatographic analysis of dimethyl acetals (DMAs). However, the analysis of individual molecular species of Pls by liquid chromatography revealed a reduced abundance of major species of ethanolamine Pls (PlsEtn)―PE(P-18:0/22:6) and PE(P-34:1)―in the cortex of mice fed a diet supplemented with inulin. DMA and expression levels of genes (Far-1, Gnpat, Agps, Pla2g6 and Tmem86b) encoding key enzymes of Pl biosynthesis or degradation were not altered in the liver and in the cortex of mice exposed to inulin. In addition, the fatty acid profile and the amount of lyso forms derived from PlsEtn were not modified in the cortex by inulin consumption. To conclude, inulin affects the brain levels of major PlsEtn and further investigation is needed to determine the exact molecular mechanisms involved.

Food-Grade Quercetin-Loaded Nanoemulsion Ameliorates Effects Associated with Parkinson's Disease and Cancer: Studies Employing a Transgenic C. elegans Model and Human Cancer Cell Lines

A nanosized food-grade quercetin-loaded nanoemulsion (QNE) system comprising capmul MCM NF (oil) and cremophor RH 40 (surfactant) was developed using a high-speed homogenization technique. The developed QNE was studied for its significant neuroprotective (anti-Parkinsonism) and cytotoxicity (anticancer) effects against Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) strains and human cancer cells, respectively. HR-TEM studies revealed that the QNE was spherical with a mean globule size of ~50 nm. Selected area electron diffraction (SAED) studies results demonstrated that QNE was amorphous. In vivo results show that QNE potentially reduced the α-Syn aggregation, increased mitochondrial and fat content, and improved the lifespan in transgenic C. elegans strain NL5901. QNE significantly downregulated the reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in wild-type C. elegans strain N2. In vitro results of the MTT assay show that QNE significantly exhibited chemotherapeutic effects in all treated human cancer cells in an order of cytotoxicity: HeLa cells > A549 cells > MIA PaCa-2 cells, based on the IC50 values at 24 h. Conclusively, the QNE showed improved solubility, targetability, and neuroprotective effects against the PD-induced C. elegans model, and also cytotoxicity against human cancer cells and could be potentially used as an anti-Parkinson’s or anticancer agent.

A comparative study between olive oil and corn oil on oxidative metabolism

Fats are an important part of diet, but not all lipids have the same structure and chemical properties. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their structure and can be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, respectively. Most vegetable oils, such as olive oil and corn oil, contain significant amounts of these fatty acids. The presence of double bonds in the molecule of a fatty acid constitutes vulnerable sites for oxidation reactions generating lipid peroxides, potentially toxic compounds that can cause cellular damage. In response to this oxidative damage, aerobic organisms have intracellular enzymatic antioxidant defense mechanisms. The aim of the present investigation was to study comparatively the effects of control liquid diets, of a defined composition, containing olive oil or corn oil as a lipid source respectively of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, on the oxidative metabolism of rats. Rats were divided into three groups which received a control animal feed diet (A.F.), olive oil liquid diet (O.O) and corn oil liquid diet (C.O) for 30 days. It was observed that the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), increased in the liver and white fat tissue of rats fed with olive oil when compared to the corn oil group. However, in brown fat tissue and blood cells, the enzyme activities showed a tendency to decrease in the olive oil group. In addition, the effect of olive oil and corn oil on several glucose metabolism parameters (pyruvate, lactate, LDH, acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate) showed that corn oil impairs to a greater extent the cellular metabolism. All these results helped in concluding that some body tissues are more adversely affected than others by the administration of corn oil or olive oil, and their antioxidant defenses and cellular metabolism respond differently too.

The Endocannabinoids-Microbiota Partnership in Gut-Brain Axis Homeostasis: Implications for Autism Spectrum Disorders

The latest years have witnessed a growing interest towards the relationship between neuropsychiatric disease in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and severe alterations in gut microbiota composition. In parallel, an increasing literature has focused the attention towards the association between derangement of the endocannabinoids machinery and some mechanisms and symptoms identified in ASD pathophysiology, such as alteration of neural development, immune system dysfunction, defective social interaction and stereotypic behavior. In this narrative review, we put together the vast ground of endocannabinoids and their partnership with gut microbiota, pursuing the hypothesis that the crosstalk between these two complex homeostatic systems (bioactive lipid mediators, receptors, biosynthetic and hydrolytic enzymes and the entire bacterial gut ecosystem, signaling molecules, metabolites and short chain fatty acids) may disclose new ideas and functional connections for the development of synergic treatments combining “gut-therapy,” nutritional intervention and pharmacological approaches. The two separate domains of the literature have been examined looking for all the plausible (and so far known) overlapping points, describing the mutual changes induced by acting either on the endocannabinoid system or on gut bacteria population and their relevance for the understanding of ASD pathophysiology. Both human pathology and symptoms relief in ASD subjects, as well as multiple ASD-like animal models, have been taken into consideration in order to provide evidence of the relevance of the endocannabinoids-microbiota crosstalk in this major neurodevelopmental disorder.

Changes in Adiposity and Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers Following a Modified Mediterranean Ketogenic Diet in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer’s Disease

Background

Ketogenic diets have been used to treat both obesity and neurological disorders, including epilepsy and more recently Alzheimer’s disease (AD), likely due to favorable effects on both central and peripheral metabolism. Improvements in body composition have also been reported; however, it is unclear if diet-induced changes in adiposity are related to improvements in AD and related neuropathology.

Purpose

We examined the effects of a Modified Mediterranean Ketogenic (MMK) diet vs. an American Heart Association (AHA) diet on body weight, body composition, and body fat distribution and their association with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers in older adults at risk for AD.

Methods

Twenty adults (mean age: 64.3 ± 6.3 years, 35% Black, 75% female) were randomly assigned to a crossover trial starting with either the MMK or AHA diet for 6 weeks, followed by a 6-week washout and then the opposite diet for 6 weeks. At baseline and after each diet adiposity was assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and CSF biomarkers were measured. Linear mixed effect models were used to examine the effect of diet on adiposity. Spearman correlations were examined to assess associations between adiposity and CSF biomarkers.

Results

At baseline there was a high prevalence of overweight/obesity and central adiposity, and higher visceral fat and lower peripheral fat were associated with an adverse CSF biomarker profile. The MMK and AHA diets led to similar improvements in body composition and body fat distribution. Significant correlations were found between changes in adiposity and changes in CSF biomarkers (r’s = 0.63–0.92, p’s < 0.05), with notable differences by diet. Decreases in body fat on the MMK diet were related to changes in Aβ biomarkers, whereas decreases in body fat on the AHA diet were related to changes in tau biomarkers and cholinesterase activity. Interestingly, increases in CSF Aβ on the MMK diet occurred in those with less fat loss.

Conclusion

An MMK diet leads to favorable changes in body composition, body fat distribution, and CSF biomarkers. Our data suggest that modest weight loss that maximizes visceral fat loss and preserves peripheral fat, may have the greatest impact on brain health.

Clinical Trial Registration

[www.ClinicalTrials.gov], identifier [NCT02984540].

Transgenerational Abnormalities Induced by Paternal Preconceptual Alcohol Drinking: Findings from Humans and Animal Models

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy and lactation is a widespread preventable cause of neurodevelopmental impairment in newborns. While the harmful effects of gestational alcohol use have been well documented, only recently, the role of paternal preconceptual alcohol consumption (PPAC) prior to copulating has drawn specific epigenetic considerations. Data from human and animal models have demonstrated that PPAC may affect sperm function, eliciting oxidative stress. In newborns, PPAC may induce changes in behavior, cognitive functions, and emotional responses. Furthermore, PPAC may elicit neurobiological disruptions, visuospatial impairments, hyperactivity disorders, motor skill disruptions, hearing loss, endocrine, and immune alterations, reduced physical growth, placental disruptions, and metabolic alterations. Neurobiological studies on PPAC have also disclosed changes in brain function and structure by disrupting the growth factors pathways. In particular, as shown in animal model studies, PPAC alters brain nerve growth factor (NGF) and brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) synthesis and release. This review shows that the crucial topic of lifelong disabilities induced by PPAC and/or gestational alcohol drinking is quite challenging at the individual, societal, and familial levels. Since a nontoxic drinking behavior before pregnancy (for both men and women), during pregnancy, and lactation cannot be established, the only suggestion for couples planning pregnancies is to completely avoid the consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Traditionally used polyherbals in a southern African therapeutic context

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In African traditional medicine, there are several plant species that are used in combination with either other plant species or non-plant derived combinations such as sugar and honey, salt and vinegar, milk, fat etc. This review examines the role of these combinations and postulates the scientific and therapeutic validation of such combinations.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study reviewed the ethnopharmacological literature and documented the use of southern African plant combinations to find a scientific rationale for such combinations, and provide recommendations for future studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical books and online databases such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed and Google Scholar were used to find ethnobotanical studies within the southern African context that focus on the combinations of plants with other plants or various additional ingredients. The scientific literature was examined to determine if evidence was available to substantiate such combinations.

RESULTS

One hundred and eighty-seven medicinal plant (plant-to-plant) combinations that are used in the southern African traditional healing system were recorded. These plant combinations were used against infections of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and skin as well other non-infectious diseases such as reproductive and psychiatric disorders. Respiratory infections were the most documented infections to be treated using plant combinations. The plant that was documented to be most commonly used in combination with other plants was Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. While plant-plant combinations have drawn a marked interest, comparatively, plant-adjuvant (e.g. milk, sugar, honey, salt, vinegar, fats) combinations have attracted less research interest. Milk was reported as the most used additional ingredient in combination with medicinal plants. The combination of animal urine and dung with medicinal plants has been reported as a treatment for treat prostate infections, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Other ingredients such as clay and flour were also documented, and these are often mixed with medicinal plants to treat fever, stomach ailments, sexually transmitted infections (STI) and skin conditions. Although combination therapy has been frequently reported in ethnobotanical records, over 90% of the combinations reviewed still need to be scientifically validated.

CONCLUSION

Scientific reports on the antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and other pharmacological effects of these combinations may offer an understanding of traditional combination therapy. In addition, investigation into the mechanisms of action of these combinations are also recommended to supplement the findings. Nonetheless, the use of plant combinations is still an untapped research area in southern Africa and there is a need to validate the use of those documented combinations to obtain a better understanding of combined traditional medicinal plant use.

Dual Roles of Coconut Oil and Its Major Component Lauric Acid on Redox Nexus: Focus on Cytoprotection and Cancer Cell Death

It has been reported that coconut oil supplementation can reduce neuroinflammation. However, coconut oils are available as virgin coconut oil (VCO), crude coconut oil (ECO), and refined coconut oil (RCO). The impact of coconut oil extraction process (and its major fatty acid component lauric acid) at cellular antioxidant level, redox homeostasis and inflammation in neural cells is hitherto unexplained. Herein, we have shown the antioxidant levels and cellular effect of coconut oil extracted by various processes in human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) cultured in vitro. Results indicate VCO and ECO treated cells displayed better mitochondrial health when compared to RCO. Similar trend was observed for the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), key oxidative stress response genes (GCLC, HO-1, and Nqo1) and inflammatory genes (IL6, TNFα, and iNOS) in SH-SY5Y cells. Our results signified that both VCO and ECO offer better neural health primarily by maintaining the cellular redox balance. Further, RCO prepared by solvent extraction and chemical refining process lacks appreciable beneficial effect. Then, we extended our study to find out the reasons behind maintaining the cellular redox balance in neuroblastoma cells by VCO and ECO. Our GC-MS results showed that lauric acid (C14:0) (LA) content was the major difference in the fatty acid composition extracted by various processes. Therefore, we evaluated the efficacy of LA in SH-SY5Y cells. The LA showed dose-dependent effect. At IC50 concentration (11.8 μM), LA down regulated the oxidative stress response genes and inflammatory genes. The results clearly indicate that the LA inhibited the neuroinflammation and provided an efficient cellular antioxidant activity, which protects the cells. The efficiency was also evaluated in normal cell line such as fibroblasts (L929) to cross-validate that the results were not false positive. Different concentration of LA on L929 cells showed high compatibility. From our observation, we conclude that VCO and ECO offers better cellular protection owing to their powerful antioxidant system. Therefore, we advocate the inclusion of either VCO and/or ECO in the diet for a healthy lifestyle.

Does obesity put your brain at risk?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The negative impact of obesity on the brain is an issue of increasing clinical interest. Hence, this review summarized evidence linking obesity with brain morphology (gray and white matter volume), brain function (functional activation and connectivity), and cognitive function.

METHODS

A criticals review of the relevant published English articles between 2008 and 2022, using PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct. Studies were included if (1) an experimental/intervention study was conducted (2) the experiment/intervention included both high fat diet or body weight, whether it could counteract the negative effect brain morphological or functional change. Critical analysis for a supporting study was also carried out.

RESULTS

Brain dysfunction can be recognized as result from neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, change in gut-brain hormonal functionality decrease regional blood flow or diminished hippocampal size and change in gut-brain hormonal functionality; which collectively translate into a cycle of deranged metabolic control and cognitive deficits, often obesity referred as changes in brain biochemistry and brain function. Recently, a few changes in brain structure and functions could be traced back even to obese children or adult. Evidence here suggested that obesity elicits early neuroinflammation effects, which likely disrupt the normal metabolism in hypothalamus, and hippocampus result from brain insulin resistance. The mechanisms of these robust effects are discussed herein.

CONCLUSION

Brain disease is inseparable from obesity itself and requires a better recognition to allow future therapeutic targeting for treatment of obesity. Additional research is needed to identify the best treatment targets and to identify if these changes reversible.

Alcohol and Head and Neck Cancer: Updates on the Role of Oxidative Stress, Genetic, Epigenetics, Oral Microbiota, Antioxidants, and Alkylating Agents

Head and neck cancer (HNC) concerns more than 890,000 patients worldwide annually and is associated with the advanced stage at presentation and heavy outcomes. Alcohol drinking, together with tobacco smoking, and human papillomavirus infection are the main recognized risk factors. The tumorigenesis of HNC represents an intricate sequential process that implicates a gradual acquisition of genetic and epigenetics alterations targeting crucial pathways regulating cell growth, motility, and stromal interactions. Tumor microenvironment and growth factors also play a major role in HNC. Alcohol toxicity is caused both directly by ethanol and indirectly by its metabolic products, with the involvement of the oral microbiota and oxidative stress; alcohol might enhance the exposure of epithelial cells to carcinogens, causing epigenetic modifications, DNA damage, and inaccurate DNA repair with the formation of DNA adducts. Long-term markers of alcohol consumption, especially those detected in the hair, may provide crucial information on the real alcohol drinking of HNC patients. Strategies for prevention could include food supplements as polyphenols, and alkylating drugs as therapy that play a key role in HNC management. Indeed, polyphenols throughout their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions may counteract or limit the toxic effect of alcohol whereas alkylating agents inhibiting cancer cells’ growth could reduce the carcinogenic damage induced by alcohol. Despite the established association between alcohol and HNC, a concerning pattern of alcohol consumption in survivors of HNC has been shown. It is of primary importance to increase the awareness of cancer risks associated with alcohol consumption, both in oncologic patients and the general population, to provide advice for reducing HNC prevalence and complications.

Neuroinflammation: Molecular Mechanisms And Therapeutic Perspectives

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation is a key component in the etiopathogenesis of neurological diseases and brain aging. This process involves the brain immune system that modulates synaptic functions and protects neurons from infection or damage. Hence, the knowledge of neuroinflammation related pathways and modulation by drugs or natural compounds is functional to developing therapeutic strategies aimed at preserving, maintaining and restoring brain health.

OBJECTIVE

This review article summarizes the basics of neuroinflammation and related signaling pathways, the success of the dietary intervention in clinical practice and the possible development of RNA-based strategies for treating neurological diseases.

METHODS

Pubmed search from 2012 to 2022 with the keywords neuroinflammation and molecular mechanisms in combination with diet, miRNA and non-coding RNA.

RESULTS

Glial cells-play a crucial role in neuroinflammation, but several pathways can be activated in response to different inflammatory stimuli, inducing cell death by apoptosis, pyroptosis or necroptosis. The dietary intervention has immunomodulatory effects and could limit the inflammatory process induced by microglia and astrocytes. Thus by inhibiting neuroinflammation and improving the symptoms of a variety of neurological diseases, diet exerts pleiotropic neuroprotective effects independently from the spectrum of pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the specific disorder. Furthermore, data from animal models revealed that altered expression of specific noncoding RNAs, in particular microRNAs, contributes to neuroinflammatory diseases; consequently, RNA-based strategies may be promising to alleviate the consequences of neuroinflammation.

CONCLUSION

Further studies are needed to identify the molecular pathways and the new pharmacological targets in neuroinflammation to lay the basis for more effective and selective therapies to be applied, in parallel to dietary intervention, in the treatment of neuroinflammation-based diseases.

Microglial Inflammatory-Metabolic Pathways and Their Potential Therapeutic Implication in Major Depressive Disorder

Increasing evidence supports the notion that neuroinflammation plays a critical role in the etiology of major depressive disorder (MDD), at least in a subset of patients. By virtue of their capacity to transform into reactive states in response to inflammatory insults, microglia, the brain's resident immune cells, play a pivotal role in the induction of neuroinflammation. Experimental studies have demonstrated the ability of microglia to recognize pathogens or damaged cells, leading to the activation of a cytotoxic response that exacerbates damage to brain cells. However, microglia display a wide range of responses to injury and may also promote resolution stages of inflammation and tissue regeneration. MDD has been associated with chronic priming of microglia. Recent studies suggest that altered microglial morphology and function, caused either by intense inflammatory activation or by senescence, may contribute to depression and associated impairments in neuroplasticity. In this context, modifying microglia phenotype by tuning inflammatory pathways might have important translational relevance to harness neuroinflammation in MDD. Interestingly, it was recently shown that different microglial phenotypes are associated with distinct metabolic pathways and analysis of the underlying molecular mechanisms points to an instrumental role for energy metabolism in shaping microglial functions. Here, we review various canonical pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory and metabolic pathways in microglia that may provide new therapeutic opportunities to control neuroinflammation in brain disorders, with a strong focus on MDD.

Markers of Neuroinflammation in the Serum of Prepubertal Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

BACKGROUND

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are the manifestation of the damage caused by alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), the extreme FASD manifestation, show both facial dysmorphology and mental retardation. Alcohol consumed during gestational age prejudices brain development by reducing, among others, the synthesis and release of neurotrophic factors and neuroinflammatory markers. Alcohol drinking also induces oxidative stress.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate the potential association between neurotrophins, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in 12 prepubertal male and female FASD children diagnosed as FAS or partial FAS (pFAS).

METHODS

Accordingly, we analyzed, in the serum, the level of BDNF and NGF and the oxidative stress, as Free Oxygen Radicals Test (FORT) and Free Oxygen Radicals Defense (FORD). Moreover, serum levels of inflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, MCP-1, TGF-β, and TNF-α) involved in neuroinflammatory and oxidative processes have been investigated.

RESULTS

We demonstrated low serum levels of NGF and BDNF in pre-pubertal FASD children with respect to healthy controls. These changes were associated with higher serum presence of TNF- α and IL-1α. Quite interestingly, an elevation in the FORD was also found despite normal FORT levels. Moreover, we found a potentiation of IL-1α, IL-2, IL-10, and IL-1α1 in the analyzed female compared to male children.

CONCLUSION

The present investigation shows an imbalance in the peripheral neuroimmune pathways that could be used in children as early biomarkers of the deficits observed in FASD.

Pediatrics for Disability: A Comprehensive Approach to Children with Syndromic Psychomotor Delay

Intellectual disability is the impairment of cognitive, linguistic, motor and social skills that occurs in the pediatric age and is also described by the term "mental retardation". Intellectual disability occurs in 3-28 % of the general population due to a genetic cause, including chromosome aberrations. Among people with intellectual disabilities, the cause of the disability was identified as a single gene disorder in up to 12 %, multifactorial disorders in up to 4 %, and genetic disorders in up to 8.5 %. Children affected by a malformation syndrome associated with mental retardation or intellectual disability represent a care challenge for the pediatrician. A multidisciplinary team is essential to manage the patient, thereby controlling the complications of the syndrome and promoting the correct psychophysical development. This requires continuous follow-up of these children by the pediatrician, which is essential for both the clinical management of the syndrome and facilitating the social integration of these children.

Dietary lipids from body to brain

Dietary habits have drastically changed over the last decades in Western societies. The Western diet, rich in saturated fatty acids (SFA), trans fatty acids (TFA), omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFA) and cholesterol, is accepted as an important factor in the development of metabolic disorders, such as obesity and diabetes type 2. Alongside these diseases, nutrition is associated with the prevalence of brain disorders. Although clinical and epidemiological studies revealed that metabolic diseases and brain disorders might be related, the underlying pathology is multifactorial, making it hard to determine causal links. Neuroinflammation can be a result of unhealthy diets that may cause alterations in peripheral metabolism. Especially, dietary fatty acids are of interest, as they act as signalling molecules responsible for inflammatory processes. Diets rich in n-6 PUFA, SFA and TFA increase neuroinflammation, whereas diets rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), omega-3 (n-3) PUFA and sphingolipids (SL) can diminish neuroinflammation. Moreover, these pro- and anti-inflammatory diets might indirectly influence neuroinflammation via the adipose tissue, microbiome, intestine and vasculature. Here, we review the impact of nutrition on brain health. In particular, we will discuss the role of dietary lipids in signalling pathways directly applicable to inflammation and neuronal function.

Long-term diet-induced obesity does not lead to learning and memory impairment in adult mice

Obesity arising from excessive dietary fat intake is a risk factor for cognitive decline, dementia and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease. Here, we studied the effect of long-term high-fat diet (HFD) (24 weeks) and return to normal diet (ND) on behavioral features, microglia and neurons in adult male C57BL/6J mice. Consequences of HFD-induced obesity and dietary changes on general health (coat appearance, presence of vibrissae), sensory and motor reflexes, learning and memory were assessed by applying a phenotypic assessment protocol, the Y maze and Morris Water Maze test. Neurons and microglia were histologically analyzed within the mediobasal hypothalamus, hippocampus and frontal motor cortex after long-term HFD and change of diet. Long periods of HFD caused general health issues (coat alterations, loss of vibrissae), but did not affect sensory and motor reflexes, emotional state, memory and learning. Long-term HFD increased the microglial response (increased Iba1 fluorescence intensity, percentage of Iba1-stained area and Iba1 gene expression) within the hypothalamus, but not in the cortex and hippocampus. In neither of these regions, neurodegeneration or intracellular lipid droplet accumulation was observed. The former alterations were reversible in mice whose diet was changed from HFD to ND. Taken together, long periods of excessive dietary fat alone do not cause learning deficits or spatial memory impairment, though HFD-induced obesity may have detrimental consequences for cognitive flexibility. Our data confirm the selective responsiveness of hypothalamic microglia to HFD.

Influence of Dietary Nutrient Intake on Episodic Memory Across the Adult Life Span

The aim of the study was to identify nutrients that have the ability to impact brain functioning and, as a consequence, influence episodic memory. In particular, we examined recollection, the ability to recall details of previous experiences, which is the episodic memory process most affected as age advances. A sample of 1,550 healthy participants between 21 and 80 years old participated in the study. Nutritional intake was examined through a food frequency questionnaire and software developed to determine the daily consumption of 64 nutrients based on food intake during the last year. Recollection was measured through a computerized source memory paradigm. First, we identified which nutrients influence recollection across the entire adult life span. Then, moderator analyses were conducted by dividing the sample into young (21–40 years old), middle-aged (41–60 years old) and older (61–80 years old) adults to establish in which life stage nutrients influence episodic memory. Across the adult life span, recollection accuracy was shown to benefit from the intake of sodium, heme, vitamin E, niacin, vitamin B6, cholesterol, alcohol, fat, protein, and palmitic, stearic, palmitoleic, oleic, gadoleic, alpha-linoleic and linoleic acid. The effects of energy, maltose, lactose, calcium and several saturated fatty acids on recollection were modulated by age; in older adults, the consumption of these nutrients negatively influenced episodic memory performance, and in middle-aged adults, only lactose had negative effects. Several brain mechanisms that support episodic memory were influenced by specific nutrients, demonstrating the ability of food to enhance or deteriorate episodic memory.

Effects of Cannabinoid Exposure during Neurodevelopment on Future Effects of Drugs of Abuse: A Preclinical Perspective

The endocannabinoid system plays a central role in the earliest stages of embryonic, postnatal and adolescent neurodevelopment. Aberrant activity of this system at key developmental phases has been shown to affect neural development. The aim of this review is to synthesise and analyse preclinical insights within rodent populations, focusing on the effects that perinatal (embryonic, gestational and early postnatal developmental stages) and adolescent (postnatal day 21–60) cannabinoid exposure impose across time on the subsequent activity of various drugs of abuse. Results in rodents show that exposure to cannabinoids during the perinatal and adolescent period can lead to multifaceted behavioural and molecular changes. In the perinatal period, significant effects of Δ⁹-THC exposure on subsequent opiate and amphetamine reward-related behaviours were observed primarily in male rodents. These effects were not extended to include cocaine or alcohol. In adolescence, various cannabinoid agonists were used experimentally. This array of cannabinoids demonstrated consistent effects on opioids across sex. In contrast, no significant effects were observed regarding the future activity of amphetamines and cocaine. However, these studies focused primarily on male rodents. In conclusion, numerous gaps and limitations are apparent in the current body of research. The sparsity of studies analysing the perinatal period must be addressed. Future research within both periods must also focus on delineating sex-specific effects, moving away from a male-centric focus. Studies should also aim to utilise more clinically relevant cannabinoid treatments.

The Effect and Mechanism of Cholesterol and Vitamin B12 on Multi-Domain Cognitive Function: A Prospective Study on Chinese Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Background: Nutrients are associated with cognitive function, but limited research studies have systematically evaluated on multi-domain cognitive function. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect and mechanism of specific nutrient on multi-domain cognitive function, and provide nutrition guidance for improving cognitive function.

Methods: Participants were selected based on a multicenter prospective study on middle-aged and older adults in China. Global cognitive function was evaluated by the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Nutrients intake was assessed according to food frequency questionnaire and China Food Composition Database, and principal component analysis was performed to extract nutrient patterns. Associations between specific nutrients and cognitive function were assessed using log-binomial regression. Restricted cubic spline was used to illustrate the dose-response relationship of nutrients with multi-domain cognitive function. Mediation analysis was used to determine the mechanism of nutrients in cognitive function.

Results: Four nutrient patterns were identified (vitamin-mineral, protein-carbohydrate, fatty acid-vitamin E, and cholesterol-vitamin B₁₂), and only a nutrient pattern rich in cholesterol and vitamin B₁₂ was found associated with cognitive function (RR = 0.891, 95%CI = 0.794–0.999). In multi-domain cognitive function, dietary cholesterol and vitamin B₁₂ were related to better performance of visual memory function (P = 0.034, P = 0.02). In dose-response relationship, it suggested a U-shaped association between vitamin B₁₂ and MMSE (P = 0.02) within a certain range.

Conclusions: Dietary intake rich in cholesterol and vitamin B₁₂ was associated with better cognitive function, and vitamin B₁₂ had a U-shaped dose-response relation with MMSE. Thus, ensuring moderate cholesterol and vitamin B₁₂intake may be an advisable strategy to improve cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults.

Clinical Trial Registration: EMCOA, ChiCTR-OOC-17011882, Registered 5th, July 2017-Retrospectively registered, http://www.medresman.org/uc/project/projectedit.aspx?proj=2610

Knowledge and Practice towards Alcohol Consumption in a Sample of University Students

Objective: Alcohol affects many human systems and is involved in the pathogenesis of other diseases. Particular attention must be paid to alcohol consumption among young people. It has been shown that 25% of young people's deaths are attributable to alcohol, and around 35 million people aged over 11 had consumed at least one alcoholic beverage in 2015. Study Design: Young people aged 18-24 were the most vulnerable to binge drinking in Italy, and 50.6% of teenagers drunk alcohol. Only a few studies in the literature have investigated those habits in university students. This study aims to examine alcohol use habits in a population of university students in Italy. Methods: Between 2018 and 2019, an anonymous online questionnaire was randomly sent to university students from 17 different universities in a network of research centres to study alcohol use disorders. The survey included socio-demographic information, questions about alcohol use, knowledge about alcohol consumption, and related risks. Used questionnaires were the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption (AUDIT-C) and the Drinking Motive Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R). Results: the AUDIT-C revealed that 53.3% of students were high-risk drinkers. Regarding binge drinking habits, 13.1% of students admitted to binge drinking behavior at least once a month. In our sample, male students are more likely to be low-risk drinkers than female peers (p < 0.008). Students from northern Italy are more likely to be high-risk drinkers (p = 0.003). Beer (65.9%) and wine (60.9%) were the most consumed alcoholic beverages. The most common places to drink alcohol were pubs (85.5%). The most likely motivations to drink alcohol were enhancement (40.43%), social (38.39%), coping (15.63%), and social pressure or conformity (5.55%). Only 43.8% of participants reported having attended an educational course on alcohol. Conclusions: University students were not fully aware of the implications of alcohol misuse and will be part of the adult society as critical figures and future leaders. It is imperative to inform students about alcohol consumption risks and investigate the motivations to drink. Stress, anxiety, and social pressure are only a few issues young people are exposed to. Special attention must be paid to young people and their coping strategies that involve substance abuse by using educative, preventive, and motivational approaches.