An Exploration Into the Use of a Chatbot for Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Retrospective Cohort Study

Large language models outperform traditional natural language processing methods in extracting patient-reported outcomes in IBD

Background and Aims

Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) are vital in assessing disease activity and treatment outcomes in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, manual extraction of these PROs from the free-text of clinical notes is burdensome. We aimed to improve data curation from free-text information in the electronic health record, making it more available for research and quality improvement. This study aimed to compare traditional natural language processing (tNLP) and large language models (LLMs) in extracting three IBD PROs (abdominal pain, diarrhea, fecal blood) from clinical notes across two institutions.

Methods

Clinic notes were annotated for each PRO using preset protocols. Models were developed and internally tested at the University of California San Francisco (UCSF), and then externally validated at Stanford University. We compared tNLP and LLM-based models on accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value. Additionally, we conducted fairness and error assessments.

Results

Inter-rater reliability between annotators was >90%. On the UCSF test set (n=50), the top-performing tNLP models showcased accuracies of 92% (abdominal pain), 82% (diarrhea) and 80% (fecal blood), comparable to GPT-4, which was 96%, 88%, and 90% accurate, respectively. On external validation at Stanford (n=250), tNLP models failed to generalize (61-62% accuracy) while GPT-4 maintained accuracies >90%. PaLM-2 and GPT-4 showed similar performance. No biases were detected based on demographics or diagnosis.

Conclusions

LLMs are accurate and generalizable methods for extracting PROs. They maintain excellent accuracy across institutions, despite heterogeneity in note templates and authors. Widespread adoption of such tools has the potential to enhance IBD research and patient care.

Natural Language Processing in medicine and ophthalmology: A review for the 21st-century clinician

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on the interaction between computers and human language, enabling computers to understand, generate, and derive meaning from human language. NLP's potential applications in the medical field are extensive and vary from extracting data from Electronic Health Records -one of its most well-known and frequently exploited uses- to investigating relationships among genetics, biomarkers, drugs, and diseases for the proposal of new medications. NLP can be useful for clinical decision support, patient monitoring, or medical image analysis. Despite its vast potential, the real-world application of NLP is still limited due to various challenges and constraints, meaning that its evolution predominantly continues within the research domain. However, with the increasingly widespread use of NLP, particularly with the availability of large language models, such as ChatGPT, it is crucial for medical professionals to be aware of the status, uses, and limitations of these technologies.

Impact of artificial intelligence on prognosis, shared decision-making, and precision medicine for patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a perspective and expert opinion

INTRODUCTION

Artificial intelligence (AI) is expected to impact all facets of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) management, including disease assessment, treatment decisions, discovery and development of new biomarkers and therapeutics, as well as clinician-patient communication.

AREAS COVERED

This perspective paper provides an overview of the application of AI in the clinical management of IBD through a review of the currently available AI models that could be potential tools for prognosis, shared decision-making, and precision medicine. This overview covers models that measure treatment response based on statistical or machine-learning methods, or a combination of the two. We briefly discuss a computational model that allows integration of immune/biological system knowledge with mathematical modeling and also involves a 'digital twin', which allows measurement of temporal trends in mucosal inflammatory activity for predicting treatment response. A viewpoint on AI-enabled wearables and nearables and their use to improve IBD management is also included.

EXPERT OPINION

Although challenges regarding data quality, privacy, and security; ethical concerns; technical limitations; and regulatory barriers remain to be fully addressed, a growing body of evidence suggests a tremendous potential for integration of AI into daily clinical practice to enable precision medicine and shared decision-making.

"Application and accuracy of artificial intelligence-derived large language models in patients with age related macular degeneration"

INTRODUCTION

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) affects millions of people globally, leading to a surge in online research of putative diagnoses, causing potential misinformation and anxiety in patients and their parents. This study explores the efficacy of artificial intelligence-derived large language models (LLMs) like in addressing AMD patients' questions.

METHODS

ChatGPT 3.5 (2023), Bing AI (2023), and Google Bard (2023) were adopted as LLMs. Patients' questions were subdivided in two question categories, (a) general medical advice and (b) pre- and post-intravitreal injection advice and classified as (1) accurate and sufficient (2) partially accurate but sufficient and (3) inaccurate and not sufficient. Non-parametric test has been done to compare the means between the 3 LLMs scores and also an analysis of variance and reliability tests were performed among the 3 groups.

RESULTS

In category a) of questions, the average score was 1.20 (± 0.41) with ChatGPT 3.5, 1.60 (± 0.63) with Bing AI and 1.60 (± 0.73) with Google Bard, showing no significant differences among the 3 groups (p = 0.129). The average score in category b was 1.07 (± 0.27) with ChatGPT 3.5, 1.69 (± 0.63) with Bing AI and 1.38 (± 0.63) with Google Bard, showing a significant difference among the 3 groups (p = 0.0042). Reliability statistics showed Chronbach's α of 0.237 (range 0.448, 0.096-0.544).

CONCLUSION

ChatGPT 3.5 consistently offered the most accurate and satisfactory responses, particularly with technical queries. While LLMs displayed promise in providing precise information about AMD; however, further improvements are needed especially in more technical questions.

A chatbot for hypertension self-management support: user-centered design, development, and usability testing

Objectives

Health-related chatbots have demonstrated early promise for improving self-management behaviors but have seldomly been utilized for hypertension. This research focused on the design, development, and usability evaluation of a chatbot for hypertension self-management, called "Medicagent."

Materials and Methods

A user-centered design process was used to iteratively design and develop a text-based chatbot using Google Cloud's Dialogflow natural language understanding platform. Then, usability testing sessions were conducted among patients with hypertension. Each session was comprised of: (1) background questionnaires, (2) 10 representative tasks within Medicagent, (3) System Usability Scale (SUS) questionnaire, and (4) a brief semi-structured interview. Sessions were video and audio recorded using Zoom. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were used to assess effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction of the chatbot.

Results

Participants (n = 10) completed nearly all tasks (98%, 98/100) and spent an average of 18 min (SD = 10 min) interacting with Medicagent. Only 11 (8.6%) utterances were not successfully mapped to an intent. Medicagent achieved a mean SUS score of 78.8/100, which demonstrated acceptable usability. Several participants had difficulties navigating the conversational interface without menu and back buttons, felt additional information would be useful for redirection when utterances were not recognized, and desired a health professional persona within the chatbot.

Discussion

The text-based chatbot was viewed favorably for assisting with blood pressure and medication-related tasks and had good usability.

Conclusion

Flexibility of interaction styles, handling unrecognized utterances gracefully, and having a credible persona were highlighted as design components that may further enrich the user experience of chatbots for hypertension self-management.

Computer Science meets Vascular Surgery: Keeping a pulse on artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI)-based technologies have garnered interest across a range of disciplines in the past several years, with an even more recent interest in various health care fields, including Vascular Surgery. AI offers a unique ability to analyze health data more quickly and efficiently than could be done by humans alone and can be used for clinical applications such as diagnosis, risk stratification, and follow-up, as well as patient-used applications to improve both patient and provider experiences, mitigate health care disparities, and individualize treatment. As with all novel technologies, AI is not without its risks and carries with it unique ethical considerations that will need to be addressed before its broad integration into health care systems. AI has the potential to revolutionize the way care is provided to patients, including those requiring vascular care.

Comparative Performance of ChatGPT and Bard in a Text-Based Radiology Knowledge Assessment

PURPOSE

Bard by Google, a direct competitor to ChatGPT, was recently released. Understanding the relative performance of these different chatbots can provide important insight into their strengths and weaknesses as well as which roles they are most suited to fill. In this project, we aimed to compare the most recent version of ChatGPT, ChatGPT-4, and Bard by Google, in their ability to accurately respond to radiology board examination practice questions.

METHODS

Text-based questions were collected from the 2017-2021 American College of Radiology's Diagnostic Radiology In-Training (DXIT) examinations. ChatGPT-4 and Bard were queried, and their comparative accuracies, response lengths, and response times were documented. Subspecialty-specific performance was analyzed as well.

RESULTS

318 questions were included in our analysis. ChatGPT answered significantly more accurately than Bard (87.11% vs 70.44%, P < .0001). ChatGPT's response length was significantly shorter than Bard's (935.28 ± 440.88 characters vs 1437.52 ± 415.91 characters, P < .0001). ChatGPT's response time was significantly longer than Bard's (26.79 ± 3.27 seconds vs 7.55 ± 1.88 seconds, P < .0001). ChatGPT performed superiorly to Bard in neuroradiology, (100.00% vs 86.21%, P = .03), general & physics (85.39% vs 68.54%, P < .001), nuclear medicine (80.00% vs 56.67%, P < .01), pediatric radiology (93.75% vs 68.75%, P = .03), and ultrasound (100.00% vs 63.64%, P < .001). In the remaining subspecialties, there were no significant differences between ChatGPT and Bard's performance.

CONCLUSION

ChatGPT displayed superior radiology knowledge compared to Bard. While both chatbots display reasonable radiology knowledge, they should be used with conscious knowledge of their limitations and fallibility. Both chatbots provided incorrect or illogical answer explanations and did not always address the educational content of the question.

Insights of Parents and Parents-To-Be in Using Chatbots to Improve Their Preconception, Pregnancy, and Postpartum Health: A Mixed Studies Review

INTRODUCTION

Chatbots, which are also known as conversational or virtual agents, are digital programs that can interact with humans using voice, text, or animation. They have shown promise in providing preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum care. This review aims to consolidate the insights of parents and parents-to-be in using chatbots to improve their preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum health.

METHODS

Seven electronic databases were searched from their inception dates until April 2022 (PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global) for relevant studies. English language primary studies that were conducted on parents or parents-to-be aged ≥18 years old who had undergone interventions involving the use of any type of chatbot were included in this review. The quality of included studies was appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. A convergent qualitative synthesis design for mixed studies reviews was used to synthesize the findings, and results were thematically analyzed.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria: quantitative (n = 11), qualitative (n = 1), and mixed method (n = 3). Three main themes were identified: (1) welcoming a new health resource, (2) obstacles blocking the way, and (3) moving toward a digital health era.

DISCUSSION

Parents and parents-to-be appreciated the informational, socioemotional, and psychological support provided by chatbots. Recommendations for technological improvements in the functionality of the chatbots were made that include training sessions for health care providers to familiarize them with this new digital technology. Multidisciplinary chatbot development teams could also be established to develop more comprehensive chatbot-delivered health programs for more diverse populations.

Inflammation, Autoinflammation and Autoimmunity in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

In this review, the role of innate and adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is reported. In IBD, an altered innate immunity is often found, with increased Th17 and decreased Treg cells infiltrating the intestinal mucosa. An associated increase in inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1 and TNF-α, and a decrease in anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10, concur in favoring the persistent inflammation of the gut mucosa. Autoinflammation is highlighted with insights in the role of inflammasomes, which activation by exogenous or endogenous triggers might be favored by mutations of NOD and NLRP proteins. Autoimmunity mechanisms also take place in IBD pathogenesis and in this context of a persistent immune stimulation by bacterial antigens and antigens derived from intestinal cells degradation, the adaptive immune response takes place and results in antibodies and autoantibodies production, a frequent finding in these diseases. Inflammation, autoinflammation and autoimmunity concur in altering the mucus layer and enhancing intestinal permeability, which sustains the vicious cycle of further mucosal inflammation.

Optimizing healthcare system by amalgamation of text processing and deep learning: a systematic review

The explosion of clinical textual data has drawn the attention of researchers. Owing to the abundance of clinical data, it is becoming difficult for healthcare professionals to take real-time measures. The tools and methods are lacking when compared to the amount of clinical data generated every day. This review aims to survey the text processing pipeline with deep learning methods such as CNN, RNN, LSTM, and GRU in the healthcare domain and discuss various applications such as clinical concept detection and extraction, medically aware dialogue systems, sentiment analysis of drug reviews shared online, clinical trial matching, and pharmacovigilance. In addition, we highlighted the major challenges in deploying text processing with deep learning to clinical textual data and identified the scope of research in this domain. Furthermore, we have discussed various resources that can be used in the future to optimize the healthcare domain by amalgamating text processing and deep learning.

Validity of Chatbot Use for Mental Health Assessment: Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

Mental disorders in adolescence and young adulthood are major public health concerns. Digital tools such as text-based conversational agents (ie, chatbots) are a promising technology for facilitating mental health assessment. However, the human-like interaction style of chatbots may induce potential biases, such as socially desirable responding (SDR), and may require further effort to complete assessments.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the convergent and discriminant validity of chatbots for mental health assessments, the effect of assessment mode on SDR, and the effort required by participants for assessments using chatbots compared with established modes.

METHODS

In a counterbalanced within-subject design, we assessed 2 different constructs-psychological distress (Kessler Psychological Distress Scale and Brief Symptom Inventory-18) and problematic alcohol use (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-3)-in 3 modes (chatbot, paper-and-pencil, and web-based), and examined convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, we investigated the effect of mode on SDR, controlling for perceived sensitivity of items and individuals' tendency to respond in a socially desirable way, and we also assessed the perceived social presence of modes. Including a between-subject condition, we further investigated whether SDR is increased in chatbot assessments when applied in a self-report setting versus when human interaction may be expected. Finally, the effort (ie, complexity, difficulty, burden, and time) required to complete the assessments was investigated.

RESULTS

A total of 146 young adults (mean age 24, SD 6.42 years; n=67, 45.9% female) were recruited from a research panel for laboratory experiments. The results revealed high positive correlations (all P<.001) of measures of the same construct across different modes, indicating the convergent validity of chatbot assessments. Furthermore, there were no correlations between the distinct constructs, indicating discriminant validity. Moreover, there were no differences in SDR between modes and whether human interaction was expected, although the perceived social presence of the chatbot mode was higher than that of the established modes (P<.001). Finally, greater effort (all P<.05) and more time were needed to complete chatbot assessments than for completing the established modes (P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that chatbots may yield valid results. Furthermore, an understanding of chatbot design trade-offs in terms of potential strengths (ie, increased social presence) and limitations (ie, increased effort) when assessing mental health were established.

Applications of natural language processing in ophthalmology: present and future

Advances in technology, including novel ophthalmic imaging devices and adoption of the electronic health record (EHR), have resulted in significantly increased data available for both clinical use and research in ophthalmology. While artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms have the potential to utilize these data to transform clinical care, current applications of AI in ophthalmology have focused mostly on image-based deep learning. Unstructured free-text in the EHR represents a tremendous amount of underutilized data in big data analyses and predictive AI. Natural language processing (NLP) is a type of AI involved in processing human language that can be used to develop automated algorithms using these vast quantities of available text data. The purpose of this review was to introduce ophthalmologists to NLP by (1) reviewing current applications of NLP in ophthalmology and (2) exploring potential applications of NLP. We reviewed current literature published in Pubmed and Google Scholar for articles related to NLP and ophthalmology, and used ancestor search to expand our references. Overall, we found 19 published studies of NLP in ophthalmology. The majority of these publications (16) focused on extracting specific text such as visual acuity from free-text notes for the purposes of quantitative analysis. Other applications included: domain embedding, predictive modeling, and topic modeling. Future ophthalmic applications of NLP may also focus on developing search engines for data within free-text notes, cleaning notes, automated question-answering, and translating ophthalmology notes for other specialties or for patients, especially with a growing interest in open notes. As medicine becomes more data-oriented, NLP offers increasing opportunities to augment our ability to harness free-text data and drive innovations in healthcare delivery and treatment of ophthalmic conditions.

Natural Language Processing: from Bedside to Everywhere

OBJECTIVES

Owing to the rapid progress of natural language processing (NLP), the role of NLP in the medical field has radically gained considerable attention from both NLP and medical informatics. Although numerous medical NLP papers are published annually, there is still a gap between basic NLP research and practical product development. This gap raises questions, such as what has medical NLP achieved in each medical field, and what is the burden for the practical use of NLP? This paper aims to clarify the above questions.

METHODS

We explore the literature on potential NLP products/services applied to various medical/clinical/healthcare areas.

RESULTS

This paper introduces clinical applications (bedside applications), in which we introduce the use of NLP for each clinical department, internal medicine, pre-surgery, post-surgery, oncology, radiology, pathology, psychiatry, rehabilitation, obstetrics, and gynecology. Also, we clarify technical problems to be addressed for encouraging bedside applications based on NLP.

CONCLUSIONS

These results contribute to discussions regarding potentially feasible NLP applications and highlight research gaps for future studies.

How Far Can Conversational Agents Contribute to IBD Patient Health Care—A Review of the Literature

Modern societies are facing health and healthcare challenges as never seen before. The digital world in which we are living today considers digital health interventions such as “internet-delivered” therapy (e-Therapy) or mobile apps as an integrated part of healthcare systems. Digital transformation in health care requires the active involvement of patients as the central part of healthcare interventions. In the case of chronic health conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), it is believed that the adoption of new digital tools helps to maintain and extend the health and care of patients, optimizing the course of the treatment of the disease. The study goal was to undertake a literature review associating the use of chatbot technology with IBD patients' health care. This study intends to support digital product developments, mainly chatbot for IBD or other chronic diseases. The work was carried out through two literature review phases. The first one was based on a systematic approach and the second was a scoping review focused only on Frontiers Journals. This review followed a planned protocol for search and selection strategy that was created by a research team discussion. Chatbot technology for chronic disease self-management can have high acceptance and usability levels. The more interaction with a chatbot, the more patients are able to increase their self-care practice, but there is a challenge. The chatbot ontology to personalize the communication still needed to have strong guidelines helping other researchers to define which Electronic Medical Records (EMRs) should be used in the chatbots to improve the user satisfaction, engagement, and dialog quality. The literature review showed us both evidence and success of these tools in other health disorders. Some of them revealed a huge potential for conversational agents as a part of digital health interventions.

Artificial Intelligence for Disease Assessment in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: How Will it Change Our Practice?

Artificial intelligence (AI) has arrived and it will directly impact how we assess, monitor, and manage inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Advances in the machine learning methodologies that power AI have produced astounding results for replicating expert judgment and predicting clinical outcomes, particularly in the analysis of imaging. This review will cover general concepts for AI in IBD, with descriptions of common machine learning methods, including decision trees and neural networks. Applications of AI in IBD will cover recent achievements in endoscopic image interpretation and scoring, new capabilities for cross-sectional image analysis, natural language processing for automated understanding of clinical text, and progress in AI-powered clinical decision support tools. In addition to detailing current evidence supporting the capabilities of AI for replicating expert clinical judgment, speculative commentary on how AI may advance concepts of disease activity assessment, care pathways, and pathophysiologic mechanisms of IBD will be addressed.

Artificial intelligence and inflammatory bowel disease: practicalities and future prospects

Artificial intelligence (AI) is an emerging technology predicted to have significant applications in healthcare. This review highlights AI applications that impact the patient journey in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), from genomics to endoscopic applications in disease classification, stratification and self-monitoring to risk stratification for personalised management. We discuss the practical AI applications currently in use while giving a balanced view of concerns and pitfalls and look to the future with the potential of where AI can provide significant value to the care of the patient with IBD.

Medical Specialty Recommendations by an Artificial Intelligence Chatbot on a Smartphone: Development and Deployment

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic has limited daily activities and even contact between patients and primary care providers. This makes it more difficult to provide adequate primary care services, which include connecting patients to an appropriate medical specialist. A smartphone-compatible artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot that classifies patients’ symptoms and recommends the appropriate medical specialty could provide a valuable solution.

Objective

In order to establish a contactless method of recommending the appropriate medical specialty, this study aimed to construct a deep learning–based natural language processing (NLP) pipeline and to develop an AI chatbot that can be used on a smartphone.

Methods

We collected 118,008 sentences containing information on symptoms with labels (medical specialty), conducted data cleansing, and finally constructed a pipeline of 51,134 sentences for this study. Several deep learning models, including 4 different long short-term memory (LSTM) models with or without attention and with or without a pretrained FastText embedding layer, as well as bidirectional encoder representations from transformers for NLP, were trained and validated using a randomly selected test data set. The performance of the models was evaluated on the basis of the precision, recall, F₁-score, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). An AI chatbot was also designed to make it easy for patients to use this specialty recommendation system. We used an open-source framework called “Alpha” to develop our AI chatbot. This takes the form of a web-based app with a frontend chat interface capable of conversing in text and a backend cloud-based server application to handle data collection, process the data with a deep learning model, and offer the medical specialty recommendation in a responsive web that is compatible with both desktops and smartphones.

Results

The bidirectional encoder representations from transformers model yielded the best performance, with an AUC of 0.964 and F₁-score of 0.768, followed by LSTM model with embedding vectors, with an AUC of 0.965 and F₁-score of 0.739. Considering the limitations of computing resources and the wide availability of smartphones, the LSTM model with embedding vectors trained on our data set was adopted for our AI chatbot service. We also deployed an Alpha version of the AI chatbot to be executed on both desktops and smartphones.

Conclusions

With the increasing need for telemedicine during the current COVID-19 pandemic, an AI chatbot with a deep learning–based NLP model that can recommend a medical specialty to patients through their smartphones would be exceedingly useful. This chatbot allows patients to identify the proper medical specialist in a rapid and contactless manner, based on their symptoms, thus potentially supporting both patients and primary care providers.

Leveraging conversational technology to answer common COVID-19 questions

The rapidly evolving science about the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic created unprecedented health information needs and dramatic changes in policies globally. We describe a platform, Watson Assistant (WA), which has been used to develop conversational agents to deliver COVID-19 related information. We characterized the diverse use cases and implementations during the early pandemic and measured adoption through a number of users, messages sent, and conversational turns (ie, pairs of interactions between users and agents). Thirty-seven institutions in 9 countries deployed COVID-19 conversational agents with WA between March 30 and August 10, 2020, including 24 governmental agencies, 7 employers, 5 provider organizations, and 1 health plan. Over 6.8 million messages were delivered through the platform. The mean number of conversational turns per session ranged between 1.9 and 3.5. Our experience demonstrates that conversational technologies can be rapidly deployed for pandemic response and are adopted globally by a wide range of users.

Clinical applications of artificial intelligence and machine learning-based methods in inflammatory bowel disease

Our objective was to review and exemplify how selected applications of artificial intelligence (AI) might facilitate and improve inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) care and to identify gaps for future work in this field. IBD is highly complex and associated with significant variation in care and outcomes. The application of AI to IBD has the potential to reduce variation in healthcare delivery and improve quality of care. AI refers to the ability of machines to mimic human intelligence. The range of AI's ability to perform tasks that would normally require human intelligence varies from prediction to complex decision-making that more closely resembles human thought. Clinical applications of AI have been applied to study pathogenesis, diagnosis, and patient prognosis in IBD. Despite these advancements, AI in IBD is in its early development and has tremendous potential to transform future care.

Digital microbiology

BACKGROUND

Digitalization and artificial intelligence have an important impact on the way microbiology laboratories will work in the near future. Opportunities and challenges lie ahead to digitalize the microbiological workflows. Making efficient use of big data, machine learning, and artificial intelligence in clinical microbiology requires a profound understanding of data handling aspects.

OBJECTIVE

This review article summarizes the most important concepts of digital microbiology. The article gives microbiologists, clinicians and data scientists a viewpoint and practical examples along the diagnostic process.

SOURCES

We used peer-reviewed literature identified by a PubMed search for digitalization, machine learning, artificial intelligence and microbiology.

CONTENT

We describe the opportunities and challenges of digitalization in microbiological diagnostic processes with various examples. We also provide in this context key aspects of data structure and interoperability, as well as legal aspects. Finally, we outline the way for applications in a modern microbiology laboratory.

IMPLICATIONS

We predict that digitalization and the usage of machine learning will have a profound impact on the daily routine of laboratory staff. Along the analytical process, the most important steps should be identified, where digital technologies can be applied and provide a benefit. The education of all staff involved should be adapted to prepare for the advances in digital microbiology.