Pharmacogenomics courses in pharmacy school curricula

Understanding general practitioner and pharmacist preferences for pharmacogenetic testing in primary care: a discrete choice experiment

Pharmacogenetic testing in the United Kingdom's National Health Service (NHS) has historically been reactive in nature, undertaken in the context of single gene-drug relationships in specialist settings. Using a discrete choice experiment we aimed to identify healthcare professional preferences for development of a pharmacogenetic testing service in primary care in the NHS. Respondents, representing two professions groups (general practitioners or pharmacists), completed one of two survey versions, asking them to select their preferred pharmacogenetic testing service in the context of a presentation of low mood or joint pain. Responses from 235 individuals were included. All respondents preferred pharmacogenetic testing over no testing, though preference heterogeneity was identified. Both professional groups, but especially GPs, were highly sensitive to service design, with uptake varying depending on the service offered. This study demonstrates uptake of a pharmacogenetic testing service is impacted by service design and highlights key areas which should be prioritised within future initiatives.

Pharmacogenomics education strategies in the United States pharmacy school curricula

BACKGROUND

Clinical pharmacogenomics is an expanding area in healthcare that relies heavily on pharmacists for advocacy and implementation. To support pharmacists' significant roles in clinical pharmacogenomics, pharmacy schools and colleges in the United States (US) have strived to incorporate pharmacogenomics education into their curricula, and various teaching strategies have been employed in recent years to meet pharmacogenomics educational outcomes. The six major strategies reported in the literature are described and compared in this review, which culminates in a proposed longitudinal curriculum design for pharmacogenomics education.

METHODS

Publications focused on pharmacogenomics education to pharmacy students within the US in the past decade were evaluated and summarized.

RESULTS

The major education strategies that have been studied are didactic lecture, personal genotyping or personal genomic testing, simulation laboratory activity, interprofessional education, practice-based activity such as clinical rotation, and combinational courses. Strengths and limitations of each teaching strategy are summarized and discussed.

IMPLICATIONS

Based upon each education strategy's strengths and weaknesses, the authors propose a longitudinal curriculum design to ensure that pharmacogenomics is taught multiple times to pharmacy students with diverse formats and teaching objectives conducive to long-term knowledge retention and practice readiness. Through this longitudinal curriculum design, pharmacy graduates will be well equipped to lead clinical pharmacogenomics in practice.

A randomized controlled trial of analogue pharmacogenomic testing feedback for psychotropic medications

Objective

To examine the impact of various presentations of pharmacogenomic testing results using a published, color-coded decision support tool (DST) format as a standard stimulus to list possible medications.

Methods

Participants were randomly assigned to groups and asked to decide which psychotropic medication they would prefer if depressed. Three of the groups varied the color-coded category of fluoxetine and received a statement indicating that this was the most prescribed drug for depression. A fourth control condition omitted base rate information. Participants also provided detail about their decision-making processes through a qualitative interview.

Results

Comparison of the first three groups indicated that significantly more participants selected medications from the highest category of likely effectiveness when fluoxetine appeared in this list. Comparison of the control group to its relevant analogue suggested no significant differences in selection strategy. Qualitative interview responses indicated participant comfort with genetic testing despite awareness of having very limited understanding of these techniques and their implications.

Conclusions

Both DST color-coding and base rates were influential in driving drug selection decisions, despite most participants indicating they did not understand this information.

Innovation

Efforts to standardize pharmacogenomic stimuli may lead to advances in methods of studying quantifiable healthcare decisions. Attention to the context for presenting test results may also be a useful source of understanding patient responses, particularly regarding complex tests that are likely to be interpreted heuristically.

How Pharmacogenomics Informs and Influences the Medication Experience

Both pharmacogenomics (PGx) and the medication experience (MedXp) share a common purpose for their use, which is to optimally tailor medications to each unique individual. The former pursues this aim by using an individual's genetic makeup, while the latter considers the subjective experience of medication-taking in one's life. The different ways by which these fields of study pursue their shared aim have resulted in relatively little understanding of their relationship when utilized in care processes to produce health outcomes. This commentary explores this gap and identifies implications for future research that can help close it to improve person-centered care.

Meeting the New AACP Competencies in Genetics and Clinical Pharmacogenomics at the University of Minnesota

Objective: Pharmacogenomics (PGx) is increasingly being used for creating individualized treatments for patient care. Healthcare professionals, especially pharmacists, need to understand how genetic variation impacts the efficacy and toxicity of medications. Due to the breadth and complexity of PGx-related information, it has been challenging to determine what information should be included in pharmacy curricula and how best to educate students. Methods: The University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy recently began the process of incorporating into the curriculum expanded competencies for PGx from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Pharmacogenomics Special Interest Group (PGx-SIG). We evaluated our curriculum for PGx content, determined what was currently being taught and identified educational gaps. Results: A review of our Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum showed substantial PGx content, although it was inconsistently taught throughout the required courses and in some courses absent. We revised the content of existing courses incorporating content that meet most of the PGx-SIG recommended competencies. Conclusion: There are and will be major changes in our understanding of the influences of PGx on individualized medical treatment. As our understanding grows, information on PGx in pharmacy curriculums will need to keep pace with these changes. We have begun this process at the University of Minnesota by doing a full review of PGx related information and making appropriate revisions in the pharmacy curriculum.

The Potential Roles of Pharmacists in the Clinical Implementation of Pharmacogenomics

The field of pharmacogenomics is at the forefront of a healthcare revolution, promising to usher in a new era of precision medicine [...].

The Critical Role of Pharmacists in the Clinical Delivery of Pharmacogenetics in the U.S

Since the rebirth of pharmacogenomics (PGx) in the 1990s and 2000s, with new discoveries of genetic variation underlying adverse drug response and new analytical technologies such as sequencing and microarrays, there has been much interest in the clinical application of PGx testing. The early involvement of pharmacists in clinical studies and the establishment of organizations to support the dissemination of information about PGx variants have naturally resulted in leaders in clinical implementation. This paper presents an overview of the evolving role of pharmacists, and discusses potential challenges and future paths, primarily focused in the U.S. Pharmacists have positioned themselves as leaders in clinical PGx testing, and will prepare the next generation to utilize PGx testing in their scope of practice.

Assessing the pharmacy students' knowledge of genetic counseling with genetic variants that are associated with inherited disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To assess pharmacy students' understanding of the importance of genetic counseling through a didactic lecture and active in-class learning exercise in a required pharmacogenomics course.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

During the second year, students are enrolled in a two-credit hour pharmacogenomics course which is taught by multiple faculty members from various disciplines. The pharmacy students were taught the clinical importance of genetic results and counseling patients on their individualized reports by a clinical laboratory geneticist and a clinical genetic counselor. After completion of the didactic portion of the class, students practiced genetic counseling skills through role playing with clinical cases involving genetic reports. Students' knowledge of clinical applications of pharmacogenomic data was assessed prior to and following the counseling experience.

FINDINGS

A paired sample t-test was chosen to analyze the data to determine if there was a difference in mean scores upon the completion of the lecture. There was a statistically significant mean difference between the total scores for the pretest (mean (M) = 37.89, SD = 6.66) and the total scores for the posttest (M = 48.33, SD = 5.24); t(140) = 17.53, P < .001, α = 0.05. The effect size for this analysis (d = 1.74) surpassed Cohen's determination for large effect (d = 0.8).

SUMMARY

The genetic counseling lecture and activity increased the students' overall awareness of the importance of how sensitive genetic information is reported and delivered to patients.

Advancing Pharmacogenomics-Based Care Through Interprofessional Education

As genomic medicine becomes increasingly complex, pharmacists need to work collaboratively with other healthcare professionals to provide genomics-based care. The core pharmacist competencies in genomics were recently updated and mapped to the entrustable professional activities (EPAs). The new competency that is mapped to the "Interprofessional Team Member" EPA domain emphasizes the role of pharmacists as the pharmacogenomics experts in an interprofessional healthcare team. Interprofessional education (IPE) activities involving student pharmacists and students from other healthcare disciplines are crucial to prepare student pharmacists for a team-based approach to patient-centered care. This commentary discusses the pharmacogenomics-focused IPE activities implemented by 3 programs, the challenges faced, and the lessons learned. It also discusses strategies to develop pharmacogenomics-focused IPE activities based on existing resources. Developing pharmacogenomics-focused IPE activities will help prepare pharmacy graduates with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to lead collaborative, interprofessional teams in the provision of pharmacogenomics-based care, consistent with the standards described in the genomics competencies for pharmacists.

Pharmacy students' attitudes and intentions of pursuing postgraduate studies and training in pharmacogenomics and personalised medicine

BACKGROUND

Pharmacists' contribution to pharmacogenomics (PGx) implementation in clinical practice is vital, but a great proportion of them are not aware of PGx and its applications. This highlights the university education's crucial role to prepare pharmacists to face future challenges in such a constantly evolving and demanding environment.

OBJECTIVES

Our study aims to examine pharmacy students' training satisfaction, knowledge, self-confidence and attitudes towards PGx on their intentions for postgraduate training in PGx and personalised medicine (PM).

METHODS

An initial model on students' intention to pursue postgraduate training in PGx and PM and its predicting factors, based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), was proposed. Based on it, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to 346 pharmacy students of all study years, capturing the selected factors influencing students' intentions to postgraduate training in PGx and PM, as well as their demographics. Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis was employed to determine the effects of both the examined factors and demographics on students' intentions.

RESULTS

Students did not consider themselves adequately prepared for using PGx in clinical practice. Their attitudes towards PGx implementation were the most important factor influencing their intentions to pursue postgraduate training in PGx and PM. Other factors such as self-confidence and training satisfaction also affected students' intentions, but to a lower extent. Students of the last two study years (40% of the whole sample) and male (36%) students stated to be less willing to pursue PGx-related studies in the future. Only 10% of the participants claimed to have undergone a recent PGx or genetic test, but this did not affect their intentions.

CONCLUSION

There is an important gap in pharmacy school curriculum regarding PGx and PM training which coupled with the slow rate of PGx and PM implementation into clinical practice seems to restrain students' aspiration to further expand their knowledge and horizons in terms of PGx and PM.

Pharmacogenomics elective focused on advanced lab techniques, game-based learning, and business plan development

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Many medications contain labeling information related to pharmacogenomics. Effective education in this area is critical to ensure that future healthcare professionals are equipped with the skills needed to optimize patient therapy based on genetic testing results. This study focused on a novel elective course designed to educate students in pharmacogenomics.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

We developed a one credit hour pharmacogenomics elective course divided into three main content areas. The first section incorporated traditional lecture to review and cover new content not otherwise covered in the curriculum. The second section applied foundational content from the first session through an educational review game and simulated business plan. The third section of the course provided students an overview of laboratory techniques and sample collection procedures. To evaluate the effectiveness of these activities, students provided feedback through course evaluations and completed pre- and posttests on basic pharmacogenomics content.

FINDINGS

Overall, the course improved knowledge among students, and students provided positive feedback. Students averaged 9% higher on the posttest compared to the pretest (P = .03). Course evaluations trended positive with ratings close to "strongly agree." The most frequent comments stated an appreciation for the interactive components of the course and recommended increasing the elective to two credit hours.

SUMMARY

Through incorporation of novel lab techniques, game-based learning, and an innovative business plan process, the course increased student knowledge and received positive feedback. These new techniques could serve as a model for other pharmacogenomics training programs.

Knowledge and attitudes of incoming pharmacy students toward pharmacogenomics and survey reliability

Aims: To assess knowledge and attitudes toward pharmacogenomics (PGx) of incoming doctoral pharmacy students, to evaluate the internal structure and reliability of the PGx survey and to identify variables associated with the different responses. Methods: A PGx survey based on the core pharmacist competencies in PGx was created. Results: Of 83.2% analyzable responses, 91% believed PGx is a useful tool and relevant to future practice but over 70% stated they lack confidence in clinical PGx knowledge. This 38-item PGx survey included three factors showing high reliability. Prior genetic/PGx testing and unsatisfactory medication experiences were associated with a more positive attitude toward PGx. Conclusion: The majority of students have positive attitudes toward PGx, but lack knowledge in genetic concepts and clinical PGx.

The Efficacy of a Didactic and Case-Based Pharmacogenomics Education Program on Improving the Knowledge and Confidence of Alberta Pharmacists

Background

Pharmacogenomics (PGx) is the study of how genetic variations for functional proteins, such as metabolizing enzymes and drug receptors, impact drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. In theory, pharmacists are well suited to utilize PGx in tailoring medications to patient genetics when providing medication therapy management services. However, PGx education needs to reach pharmacists prior to implementation. The aim of this study is to develop and evaluate a PGx course for pharmacists.

Methods

A PGx education program was created and offered synchronously (virtual) and asynchronously (self-study) to pharmacists in Alberta, Canada. Lectures were delivered by experts live (virtual) with a question-and-answer period for synchronous sessions. These sessions were recorded for asynchronous delivery. Six case studies were discussed in large and small groups (“breakout rooms”) in synchronous sessions, and provided for self-study in the asynchronous subgroup. Topics included genetic and PGx concepts; therapeutic applications; ethical, legal, and social considerations; and practical implementation. Pre- and post-course surveys measured self-rated knowledge using a 5-point Likert Scale and tested objective knowledge with a graded quiz.

Results

Thirty-six pharmacists completed the course and both surveys. Participants reported backgrounds in community (88.9%) and hospital (38.9%) practice. Prior education in PGx was reported by 44.4% from degree programs and 27.8% from continuing education. Overall responses to statements about confidence in PGx moved from a median of “Disagree” at baseline to “Agree” after receiving PGx education (2-point difference [1,2] on 5-point Likert Scale; p < 0.001), indicating an increase in self-assessed competency in PGx. Likewise, mean participant grades on the knowledge quiz improved (20.8±21.9% pre-course vs 70.2±19.1% post-course, p < 0.001). There was no difference in these results between synchronous and asynchronous groups.

Conclusion

A didactic and case-based PGx education program was effective at increasing pharmacist knowledge and confidence in PGx in both synchronous and asynchronous environments. Knowledge gained can be utilized in delivery of patient-centered, personalized medication therapy management in the pharmacy setting.

Pharmacogenomics and clinical cultural competency: pathway to overcome the limitations of race

Global migration trends are accelerating population admixture. Increasing population diversity met with minority health disparities necessitates thoughtful training of health professional students. Health professional accreditation standards emphasize pharmacogenomics and clinical cultural competency (CCC); however, published studies focus on students’ knowledge in pharmacogenomics alone. This report reviews considerations for integrating CCC into required pharmacogenomic education in pharmacy and other health disciplines. By coupling both topics during didactic training and active learning exercises repeated throughout the existing curriculum, students can become adept at these individualized patient care skills and retain their knowledge into their careers. Moving beyond race as a proxy for healthcare decision-making, the CCC of clinicians coupled with patients’ genetic test results could empower clinicians to address health disparities and facilitate discussions about the role of race in clinical practice. Ultimately, an integrated approach of teaching pharmacogenomics and CCC could dismantle race-norming or race-based clinical practices.

Evaluation of a longitudinal pharmacogenomics education on pharmacist knowledge in a multicampus healthcare system

Aim: To evaluate the effect of pharmacogenomics (PGx) education for pharmacists. Materials & Methods: Three-part weekly webinar series occurred in 2021. Pharmacists were assessed on their PGx knowledge at baseline and after each webinar. The primary end point was a change in the percent of correct responses between the baseline and week 1 assessment. Secondary end points included change in knowledge at weeks 4-8 and change in self-efficacy. Results: In total, 19 of 58 participants were eligible for the primary analysis, which showed an average improvement of 37% (p < 0.0001). Knowledge remained consistent between week 1 and weeks 4-8. Average self-efficacy increased (p < 0.0001) and was maintained at weeks 4-8. Conclusion: The PGx webinar series resulted in a lasting improvement in PGx knowledge and self-efficacy.

A systematic review of pharmacogenetic testing in primary care: Attitudes of patients, general practitioners, and pharmacists

BACKGROUND

Pharmacogenetic testing enhances patient safety by improving medical treatment and reducing side effects. It has shown potential in both primary and secondary care. However, implementation in healthcare, particularly in primary care, is slow.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to review articles published on the attitudes towards, and knowledge on pharmacogenetic testing in primary care, among general practitioners, pharmacists, and patients.

METHODS

The review was performed according to the PRISMA checklist. A systemized literature search was followed by a 2-step screening process. Apart from the content of articles being within the scope of the review, inclusion criteria included: articles in English; primary research articles; qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Content analysis was conducted as a qualitative meta-synthesis. The methodological rigor of included articles was assessed.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies were included. The analysis resulted in the following main themes: i) benefits of pharmacogenetic testing, ii) barriers to pharmacogenetic testing, iii) pharmacists' role in pharmacogenetic counselling, and iv) pharmacists' knowledge on pharmacogenetics. Methodological rigor was generally medium/high.

CONCLUSIONS

More studies are needed in this area, and there is a need for more education on pharmacogenetic testing for healthcare professionals. Issues like patient autonomy, economy, and access to tests also need to be addressed.

Engaging pharmacogenomics in pain management and opioid selection

Opioid misuse and mismanagement has been a public health crisis for several years. Pharmacogenomics (PGx) has been proposed as another tool to enhance opioid selection and optimization, with recent studies demonstrating successful implementation and outcomes. However, broad engagement with PGx for opioid management is presently limited. The purpose of this article is to highlight a series of barriers to PGx implementation within the specific context of opioid management. Areas of advancement needed for more robust pharmacogenomic engagement with opioids will be discussed, including clinical and economic research needs, education and training needs, policy and public health considerations, as well as legal and ethical issues. Continuing efforts to address these issues may help to further operationalize PGx toward improving opioid use.

Applications for pharmacogenomics in pharmacy practice: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Pharmacogenomics (PGx) can provide valuable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic information for the pharmacist's assessment of drug therapy, especially within medication therapy management (MTM) services. However, no review has comprehensively mapped the pharmacists' use of PGx in practice-based research. Doing so would allow future researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers to identify the ideal populations and settings for PGx implementation within the pharmacy.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this review is to identify the evidence to date of PGx use in pharmacy practice.

METHODS

A scoping review was conducted to find all studied non-oncologic pharmacy practices incorporating PGx testing. Search terms were applied to 5 databases and relevant journals. Characteristics of patients, pharmacy settings, genetic tests, and outcomes were summarized to determine models most likely to benefit patients.

RESULTS

The search identified 43 studies on the use of PGx by pharmacists published between 2007 and 2020. CYP2C19 testing with antiplatelets was the most studied model, found in both community and institutional settings. It also was the most actionable test: approximately 30% of patients have polymorphisms indicating a need for alternative antiplatelets, and identifying these patients can reduce morbidity and mortality by more than 50%. As technology shifts, broader studies using multi-gene panel tests within MTM demonstrate an approximate 50% decrease in emergency visits and hospitalizations in elderly polypharmacy patients. Clinical benefit or drug-gene interactions are also found in other cardiovascular, psychiatric, analgesic, and gastrointestinal indications. No evaluations of actual costs or of pharmacist prescribing within pharmacy-based PGx have been performed. Facilitators towards successful PGx implementation included pharmacist education, collaboration with other healthcare providers, and the use of clinical decision software.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacogenomic testing has demonstrated feasibility and improved medication outcomes in pharmacy practice, including in the community pharmacy. Further PGx research should be directed towards pharmacist prescribing, pharmacist education, and pharmacoeconomics.

Defining the role of pharmacists in medication-related genetic counseling

There is little question that precision medicine will eventually be the standard of care in treatment with algorithms designed for therapy selection and is already being used in some specialties such as cystic fibrosis and multiple cancer treatments. Genetic counselors are the heart of the treatment team in relation to counseling regarding genetic risk factors and disease states. A framework for treatment within the interdisciplinary team with more defined roles and areas of specialty will need to be in place as this practice approach expands with new data and treatments. Pharmacists are poised to be of great assistance in this matrix as many of these roles are merely an extension of current tasks and responsibilities of pharmacy practice.

Delivery of Pharmacogenetic Testing with or without Medication Therapy Management in a Community Pharmacy Setting

Objective

The delivery of pharmacogenetic (PGx) testing has primarily been through clinical and hospital settings. We conducted a study to explore the feasibility of delivering PGx testing through community pharmacies, a less-studied setting.

Methods

We conducted a cluster randomized trial of community pharmacies in North Carolina through two approaches: the provision of PGx testing alone or PGx testing with medication therapy management (MTM).

Results

A total of 150 patient participants were enrolled at 17 pharmacies and reported high satisfaction with their testing experience. Participants in the PGx plus MTM arm were more likely to recall a higher number of results (p=0.04) and more likely to clearly understand their choices for prevention or early detection of side effects (p=0.01). A medication or dose change based on the PGx results was made for 8.7% of participants.

Conclusion

Limited differences were observed in the provision of PGx testing as a standalone test or combined with MTM. A limited number of treatment changes were made based on PGx test results. Patient acceptance of PGx testing offered through the community pharmacy was very high, but the addition of MTM did not impact patient-reported perceptions about PGx testing or medication adherence.

Mapping the Educational Environment of Genomics and Pharmacogenomics in the United Arab Emirates: A Mixed-Methods Triangulated Design

Pharmacogenomics (PGx) education is crucial to support the effective delivery of PGx services in any health care system. We mapped the current educational environment of genomics and PGx in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and assessed the readiness of the accredited higher education system to move forward with the implementation of PGx in the country. We employed a mixed-methods triangulated approach to map the PGx educational environment in UAE. We used two qualitative methods and one quantitative method. University curricula inspection, interviews, and questionnaires were the main resources of data. PGx was taught in 6 out of 21 accredited universities, but only for pharmacy majors. Only three out of six PGx courses were stand-alone. Majority of academia exhibited positive attitudes toward the availability and accessibility of genetic testing, with 89% agreeing that the government should invest more money into its development. Interviews with academics and, importantly, the commissioners who oversee the accreditation process of universities in UAE revealed recurrent themes that included recognizing the importance of genomic medicine and PGx and called for translational and implementational research, including recruitment of experts in the field. We recommend, as supported by our findings in this study, the creation of standardized curriculum of genomics and PGx for each health science field, using the blended teaching approach, and benchmarking internationally accredited universities to foster international collaboration and improve the education and practice of genomics in the clinic and public health systems. An 11-item genomics and PGx strategy is presented herein. Finally, the mixed-methods study design employed in this research may also serve as a model conceptual frame for other science education mapping efforts at country or multi-institutional scales in the future.

Pharmacogenomic education among genetic counseling training programs in North America

The increasing number of genetic counselors participating directly in clinical pharmacogenomic post-test counseling prompted our evaluation of pharmacogenomic education across genetic counseling training programs in North America. Thirty-one program leadership participants from both the United States (U.S.) and Canada responded to a survey assessing pharmacogenomics education and the role of genetic counselors. Eighty-five percent of respondents agreed pharmacogenomics is currently within the scope of genetic counseling practice, and 96.3% indicated their training programs currently provide education on pharmacogenomics, with the majority reporting < 7 hr of education. Lectures on pharmacogenomics were the most common method for didactics; however, some programs also included practical modalities (e.g., case studies, clinical rotations) and online resources. Barriers to expanding pharmacogenomic education included the constrained timeline of training, and lack of resources and local expertise. Moreover, participants suggested that genetic counselors ideally should be able to order pharmacogenomic tests and counsel patients on pharmacogenomics, including result interpretation, as they believe pharmacogenomics does fall within the scope of practice of genetic counseling. Our novel results also confirm that training program leadership support a pharmacogenomic service delivery model that includes a combined effort between genetic counselors and pharmacists to utilize their synergistic expertise. However, this model likely still necessitates expanding pharmacogenomic didactics in genetic counseling training programs through more practical training and/or by leveraging online pharmacogenomic courses dedicated to supporting clinical implementation.

Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences in Pharmacogenomics Offered by US Pharmacy Programs

Objective. To characterize advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics at schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States.Methods. This was a cross-sectional, multicenter, observational study of pharmacogenomics APPEs at US pharmacy schools. Directors of experiential education at 146 accredited schools of pharmacy were contacted by phone and asked if their school offered a pharmacogenomics APPE. The preceptors of pharmacogenomics APPEs identified by this phone screen were sent an email with a link to an online survey that asked about their APPE offerings.Results. Of the 142 schools of pharmacy that were successfully reached via phone, 40 (28%) offered an APPE with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics. Thirty unique APPEs with pharmacogenomics as a primary focus were identified. The total number of preceptors involved in the pharmacogenomics APPEs was 33: 19 (58%) faculty preceptors and 14 (42%) non-faculty preceptors. Twenty-three of the 30 pharmacogenomics APPEs completed the survey (77% response rate). The APPE sites were diverse and included academic medical centers, community health systems, pharmacogenomic testing laboratories, and schools of pharmacy. Each pharmacogenomics APPE accommodated an average of six students per year. The APPE activities varied across sites.Conclusion. Only a small number of US pharmacy schools offer an APPE with a primary focus in pharmacogenomics. These rotations are diverse in scope and precepted by faculty or non-faculty pharmacists. The Academy should pursue opportunities to increase experiential education in pharmacogenomics.

Evaluating the current level of pharmacists' pharmacogenomics knowledge and its impact on pharmacogenomics implementation

The pharmacists' role is potentially vital in the growing field of personalized medicine, and well-defined guidelines and knowledge that support this role need to be established. To address the knowledge gap, over the past two decades, pharmacy schools have started providing pharmacogenomics-related courses, a field that overlaps with pharmacy and personalized medicine. Given the fact that pharmacists lead 50% of the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium implementers' sites, their role can be particularly crucial to move forward the integration of precision medicine in clinical practice. Herein, we aim to identify the educational challenges for pharmacogenomics integration into clinical practice and their impact on pharmacists' knowledge and confidence, in addition to underscoring pharmacists' role in pharmacogenomics as a whole.

Clinical Application and Educational Training for Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics—defined as the study of how genes affect a person’s response to drugs—is growing in importance for clinical care. Many medications have evidence and drug labeling related to pharmacogenomics and patient care. New evidence supports the use of pharmacogenomics in clinical settings, and genetic testing may optimize medication selection and dosing. Despite these advantages, the integration of pharmacogenomics into clinical decisions remains variable and challenging in certain practice settings. To ensure consistent application across settings, sufficient education amongst current and future healthcare providers is necessary to further integrate pharmacogenomics into routine clinical practice. This review highlights current evidence supporting clinical application of medications with pharmacogenomic labeling. The secondary objective is to review current strategies for educating health professionals and student trainees. One national organization predicts that most regions in the United States will soon contain at least one healthcare system capable of applying pharmacogenomic information. Applying genotype-guided dosing to several FDA-approved medications may help produce beneficial changes in patient outcomes. Identifying best practices for educating health care professionals and trainees remains vitally important for continuing growth of pharmacogenomic services. As pharmacogenomics continues to expand into more areas of healthcare, current and future practitioners must pursue and maintain competence in pharmacogenomics to ensure better outcomes for patients.

A Continuing Professional Development Program for Pharmacists Implementing Pharmacogenomics into Practice

A continuing professional development (CPD) program for pharmacists practicing in community and team-based primary care settings was developed and evaluated using Moore’s framework for the assessment of continuing medical education. The program had three components: online lectures, a two-day training workshop, and patient case studies. Knowledge (pre-post multiple choice test); attitudes, readiness, and comfort with applying pharmacogenomics in their practices (pre-post surveys); and experiences of implementing pharmacogenomics in practice (semi-structured interviews) were assessed. Twenty-one of 26 enrolled pharmacists successfully completed the program, and were satisfied with their experience. Almost all achieved a score of 80% or higher on the post-training multiple choice test, with significantly improved scores compared to the pre-training test. Pre- and post-training surveys demonstrated that participants felt that their knowledge and competence increased upon completion of the training. In the follow-up, 15 pharmacists incorporated pharmacogenomics testing into care for 117 patients. Ten pharmacists participated in semi-structured interviews, reporting strong performance in the program, but some difficulty implementing new knowledge in their practices. This multi-component CPD program successfully increased pharmacists’ knowledge, readiness, and comfort in applying pharmacogenomics to patient care in the short-term, yet some pharmacists struggled to integrate this new service into their practices.