Acute toxicity studies of aqueous leaf extract of Phyllanthus niruri

Acute and Subchronic Toxicological Study of the Cocktail Extract from Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb, Phyllanthus niruri L. and Morinda citrifolia L

Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb, Phyllanthus niruri L., and Morinda citrifolia L. are Indonesian medicinal herbs used empirically as traditional therapeutics for maintaining health. The cocktail extract of these three plants (CECPM) had been developed and demonstrated immunostimulant activity in rats. This study aimed to evaluate the acute and subchronic toxicity of CECPM in vivo. The acute toxicity assay was conducted by orally administering a range dose of CECPM (313, 625, 1250, 2500, or 5000 mg/kg body weight (bw) on female mice once and then evaluating the toxic symptom every day for 14 days later. The chronic toxicity test was carried out by giving various doses of CECPM (600, 800, and 1000 mg/kg·bw) to female and male rats orally continuously for 90 consecutive days. The signs of toxicities were evaluated at the 90- and 28 days postadministration. The acute oral toxicity assays showed that there was no toxic syndrome and mortality found during the period of the experiment. The lethal dose level (LD50) of CECPM was more than 5000 g/kg, which was categorized as practically non-toxic. Meanwhile, in the sub-chronic toxicity study, some parameters tested at 90 days postadministration and after 28 days of withdrawal, such as the body weight, relative organ weight, food intake, hematological and biochemical blood parameters, and also histopathological examination of five primary tissues (heart, liver, kidney, spleen, and lung) revealed no abnormalities. There was no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for the present study of CECPM 1000 mg/kg·bw of the rat. Therefore, it is concluded that the orally administered CECPM was relatively nontoxic during acute and subchronic toxicology studies.

Antiplasmodial and interferon-gamma-modulating activities of the aqueous extract of stone breaker (Phyllanthus niruri Linn.) in malaria infection

Plasmodium falciparum parasites are the primary cause of malaria across Africa. The problem of drug resistance to malaria is ever growing and novel therapeutic strategies need to be developed, particularly those targeting the parasite and also the host or host-pathogen interaction. Previous studies have shown that the development of cerebral malaria (CM) is related to dysregulation of the immune system in a murine malaria model of experimental cerebral malaria. It involves a complex interaction of events and interferon-gamma seems to be the unifying factor. Therefore, the antiplasmodial activity targeting the parasite and immunomodulatory strategies that reduce overall host inflammation, with IFN-γ in focus, could delay CM onset and prove beneficial in malaria infection therapy. Phyllanthus niruri is used to treat fever and other symptoms of malaria in Nigeria. Its modes of action as an anti-malarial remedy have not been exhaustively investigated. This study therefore examined the aqueous extract of P. niruri (PE) for its antiplasmodial activity in vitro using the Plasmodium falciparum HB3 strain. Furthermore, in vivo murine malaria model using the Plasmodium berghei ANKA strain was used to investigate its anti-malarial effects. We showed that PE has multiple anti-malarial effects, including anti-parasitic and host immunomodulatory activities. Co-culture of P. falciparum with PE and some of its phytoconstituents drastically reduced parasite number. PE also decreased parasitemia, and increased the survival of infected mice. We also observed that the integrity of the blood-brain barrier was maintained in the PE-treated mice. The results confirmed that PE showed moderate antiplasmodial activity. In vivo murine malaria model using P. berghei ANKA for experimental cerebral malaria revealed that PE suppressed parasite growth, and modulate the production of interferon-gamma. The findings demonstrate that PE affects malaria progression, targeting parasites and host cells.

Diuretic Potential of Fenchyl Acetate with Its Mechanism of Action: Toxicity Study

Hypertension has become a global threat and is one of the greatest risk factors for chronic kidney disease. Fenchyl acetate is a monoterpene that has been assessed for its various pharmacological activities in the past, but no study has evaluated its diuretic potential and the mechanism involved in the diuretic activity after prolonged administration in rats. Therefore, this study aimed to measure the safety and diuretic profile of fenchyl acetate in rats. For evaluating the acute toxicity, a single dose of 2000 mg/kg was administered as per the OECD guideline no. 425, and the rats were observed for 14 days. After 14 days, blood samples were assessed for biochemical, hematological, and oxidative stress parameters. For the acute diuretic study, fenchyl acetate was given in doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, and urine samples after 8 h were assessed for sodium, potassium, creatinine, uric acid excretion, and urinary output. A single dose of fenchyl acetate (F.A) was selected for prolonged diuretic activity, and furosemide was taken as the standard drug in a repeated dose administration for 7 days. Rats' urine was assessed for pH, sodium, potassium, creatinine, and uric acid excretion along with urinary volume excretion. Furthermore, blood was withdrawn by cardiac puncture, and selected organs like the heart, liver, kidney, and spleen were analyzed for oxidative stress biomarkers. Using pharmacological antagonists or inhibitors, the involvement of L-NAME, acetylcholine, or prostaglandin in F.A.-induced diuresis was determined. Mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme complexes were also assessed in the kidney homogenates. The acute toxicity results showed F.A to be safe as its LD50 was greater than 2000 mg/kg and there were no signs of mortality or toxicity. The acute diuretic study showed that F.A resulted in a significant and dose-dependent increase in sodium, potassium, creatinine, and uric acid excretion along with urinary output, and these results were comparable to the standard drug furosemide. Prolonged administration with F.A (400 mg/kg) resulted in a comparable excretion of sodium, potassium, creatinine, uric acid, and urine output with furosemide (15 mg/kg). The oxidative stress parameters revealed that F.A (400 mg/kg) resulted in reducing the formation of free radicals. The results from the mechanism-based studies showed the involvement of NO in inducing diuresis. Furthermore, F.A (400 mg/kg) significantly increased the mitochondrial complexes I, II, III, IV, I + III, and II + III in the kidney homogenates, thus restoring the mitochondrial enzymes and improving the renal function. The current study suggests that F.A is safe with a significant diuretic potential with the involvement of NO in its mechanism of action.

An Investigation into the Acute and Subacute Toxicity of Extracts of Cassipourea flanaganii Stem Bark In Vivo

The conventional use of medicinal plants is in part based on the widespread belief that plant crude extracts are non-toxic. In South Africa, traditional preparations of Cassipourea flanaganii used to treat hypermelanosis have accordingly been regarded by many as non-toxic. Whether that is so impacts on the potential of bark extracts to be developed as a commercial drug to treathypermelanosis, given their documented capacity to inhibit tyrosinase activity. Our study investigated the acute and subacute toxicity of the methanol extract of C. flanaganii bark in rats. Wistar rats were randomly assigned into different treatment groups. The rats received a daily oral gavage of crude extract for acute and subacute toxicity tests. Haematological, biomechanical, clinical and histopathology examinations were carried out to evaluate the possible toxicity of C. flanaganii. The results were subjected to the Student's t-test and ANOVA. For both acute and subacute toxicity, there was no statistical difference between the groups. There were no clinical or behavioral signs of toxicity observed in the rats. No treatment-related gross pathology lesions and no histopathology were observed. The findings of this study demonstrate the absence of acute or subacute toxicity after oral treatment with C. flanaganii stem bark extracts in Wistar rats at the levels administered. Chemical profiling of the total extract using LC-MS tentatively identified eleven (11) compounds as the major chemical constituents.

Effects of one-year supplementation with Phyllanthus niruri on fibrosis score and metabolic markers in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background and purpose

and purpose: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a significant global health concern with limited pharmacotherapy options. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a standardized extract of Phyllanthus niruri in mild-to-moderate NAFLD.

Materials and methods

This was a 12-month randomized controlled trial, in which adults with a controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) score >250 dB/m and a fibrosis score <10 kPa were randomly assigned to receive a standardized P. niruri extract at a dose of 3,000 mg daily (n = 112) or a placebo (n = 114). The primary outcomes were changes in CAP score and liver enzyme levels, while the secondary outcomes were changes in other metabolic parameters. The analysis was performed on an intention-to-treat basis.

Results

After 12 months, there was no significant difference in the change of CAP score between the intervention and control groups (-15.05 ± 36.76 dB/m vs. -14.74 ± 41.08 dB/m; p = 0.869). There was also no significant difference in the changes of liver enzyme levels between the two groups. However, the intervention group showed a significant reduction in fibrosis score, which was not observed in the control group (-0.64 ± 1.66 kPa versus 0.10 ± 1.61 kPa; p = 0.001). No major adverse events were reported in either group.

Conclusion

This study showed that P. niruri did not significantly reduce CAP score and liver enzyme levels in patients with mild-to-moderate NAFLD. However, a significant improvement in fibrosis score was observed. Further research is needed to determine its clinical benefits at different dosages for NAFLD treatment.

Scale-up approach for supercritical fluid extraction with ethanol-water modified carbon dioxide on Phyllanthus niruri for safe enriched herbal extracts

Scaling-up supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) for the extraction of bioactive compounds from herbal plants is challenging, especially with the presence of alcohol-water as co-solvent. Hence, the main objective of this study is to validate the scale-up criteria of SFE process for Phyllanthus niruri (P. niruri), and analyse the extract safety and profitability process at the industrial scale. The study was performed by using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂) with ethanol-water co-solvent at two operating conditions (L1: 200 bar, 60 °C and L2: 262 bar, 80 °C). The solvent-to-feed ratio (S/F) scale-up validation experiments were conducted at both operating conditions with feed mass capacity of 0.5 kg. The extraction yields and overall extraction curves obtained were almost similar to the predicted ones, with error of 5.13% and 14.2%, respectively. The safety of scale-up extract was evaluated by using a toxicity test against zebrafish embryo (FETT). The extract exhibited a low toxic effect with the LD₅₀ value of 505.71 µg/mL. The economic evaluation using a detailed profitability analysis showed that the SFE of P. niruri was an economically feasible process, as it disclosed the encouraging values of return on investment (ROI) and net present values (NPV) for all scale-up capacities.

Effects of the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus niruri Linn during pregnancy and lactation on neurobehavioral parameters of rats' offspring

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus niruri L. (Phyllanthaceae) is a plant used in traditional medicine, mainly to treat kidney stones. However, the effects of maternal exposure to P. niruri remain poorly explored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of administration of aqueous extract of P. niruri (AEPN) during pregnancy and lactation, in maternal toxicity, reflex maturation, and offspring memory.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pregnant rats were divided into three groups (n = 8/group): Control (vehicle), AEPN 75, and AEPN 150 (each respectively treated with P. niruri at a dose of 75 and 150 mg/kg/day). The animals were treated via intragastric gavage during pregnancy and lactation. Weight gain, feed intake, and reproductive performance were analyzed in the mothers. In the offspring, the following tests were performed: Neonatal Reflex Ontogeny, Open Field Habituation Test and the Object Recognition Test in adulthood.

RESULTS

Maternal exposure to AEPN did not influence weight gain, feed intake, or reproductive parameters. In the offspring, anticipation of reflex ontogenesis (time of completion) was observed (p < 0.05). During adulthood, the AEPN groups presented decreases in exploratory activity upon their second exposure to the Open Field Habituation Test (in a dose-dependent manner) (p < 0.05). In the Object Recognition Test, administration of the extract at 75 and 150 mg/kg induced significant dose-dependent improvements in short and long-term memory (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Administration of the AEPN accelerated the reflex maturation in neonates, and improved offspring memory while inducing no maternal or neonatal toxicity.

Pengaruh Kombinasi Metformin dan Ekstrak Air Meniran (Phyllanthus niruri Linn.) terhadap Perbaikan Status Obesitas Tikus Sprague dawley Jantan

Latar Belakang: Perubahan gaya hidup dan pola makan menyebabkan tingginya angka kejadian obesitas di seluruh dunia yaitu 13% padat tahun 2016. Perbaikan status obesitas dapat dilakukan melalui jalur farmakologik ataupun non farmakologik. Metformin dan meniran (Phyllanthus niruri Linn.) mempunyai fungsi untuk menurunkan penyerapan asupan makanan.Tujuan: menganalisis pengaruh kombinasi metformin dan ekstrak air meniran (Phyllanthus niruri Linn.) terhadap perbaikan status obesitas tikus Sprague Dawley jantan.Metode: multigroup time series design.  Dua puluh empat ekor tikus dibuat obesitas dengan cara diberi pakan tambahan lemak sapi cair dan fruktosa terhadap pakan dasar AIN93G selama 5 minggu. Obesitas ditentukan dengan indeks Lee > 300. Sampel dikelompokkan menjadi 4 kelompok, kelompok 1 diberi metformin 45 mg/kg BB/hari, kelompok 2 diberi ekstrak air meniran 400 mg/kg BB/hari, kelompok 3 diberi kombinasi keduanya, dan kelompok 4 kontrol.Hasil: Selama penelitian ada perbedaan berat pakan dan asupan kalori  pada setiap kelompok perlakuan. Setelah 28 hari perlakuan ada perbedaan kenaikan berat badan dan perubahan indeks Lee antara ketiga kelompok perlakuan (ρ < 0,05), walaupun indeks Lee > 300.Kesimpulan: pemberian kombinasi ekstrak air meniran dan metformin dapat mengendalikan kenaikan berat badan dan menurunkan indeks Lee.

Anti-inflammatory activity of novel thiosemicarbazone compounds indole-based as COX inhibitors

BACKGROUND

In this article, a series of 20 new thiosemicarbazone derivatives containing indole were synthesized and evaluated for their anti-inflammatory potential.

METHODS

The compounds were obtained through a synthetic route of only two steps, with yields that varied between 33.6 and 90.4%, and characterized by spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques.

RESULTS

An initial screening through the lymphoproliferation assay revealed that compounds LT76, LT81, and LT87 were able to inhibit lymphocyte proliferation, with CC₅₀ of 0.56 ± 0.036, 0.9 ± 0.01 and 0.5 ± 0.07 µM, respectively, better results than indomethacin (CC₅₀ > 12 µM). In addition, these compounds were able to suppress the in-vitro production of TNF-α and NO, in addition to stimulating the production of IL-4. Reinforcing in-vitro assays, the compounds were able to inhibit COX-2 similar to Celecoxib showing greater selectivity for this isoform (LT81 SI: 23.06 versus Celecoxib SI: 11.88). Animal studies showed that compounds LT76 (64.8% inhibition after 6 h), LT81 (89% inhibition after 6 h) and LT87 (100% inhibition after 4 h) were able to suppress edema in mice after inoculation carrageenan with greater potency than indomethacin, and immunohistochemistry revealed that the groups treated with LT76, LT81 and LT87 reduced the expression of COX-2, similar or better results when compared to indomethacin. Complementarily, in-silico studies have shown that these compounds have a good pharmacokinetic profile, for respecting the parameters of Lipinski and Veber, showing their good bioavailability.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate the potency of thiosemicarbazone derivatives containing indole and confirm their importance as scaffolds of molecules with notorious anti-inflammatory activity.

Acute and sub-chronic (28-day) oral toxicity profiles of newly synthesized prebiotic butyl-fructooligosaccharide in ICR mouse and Wistar rat models

B-FOS (butyl-fructooligosaccharide) is a newly synthesized prebiotic molecule, formed by the combination of FOS and butyrate by ester bonds. B-FOS has been reported to have the potential prebiotic effect of promoting intestinal flora diversity and enhancing butyrate production. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential acute and sub-chronic toxicity of B-FOS in Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice and Wistar rats to verify its biosafety. ICR mice were administered a single oral gavage of B-FOS at doses of 0, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg body weight and observed for signs of acute toxicity for 14 days. Sub-chronic toxicity was evaluated by repeated oral administration of B-FOS at 2000 mg/kg for 28 days, in accordance with Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) protocol test numbers 420 and 407. No mortality or abnormal clinical signs were observed during the experimental periods after B-FOS administration. Furthermore, no significant changes in body weight, organ weight, serum biochemical parameters, or tissue histology were observed after animal sacrifice. These in vivo results indicate that B-FOS does not exert any acute or sub-chronic toxicity at a dose of 2000 mg/kg, and this novel molecule can be regarded as a safe prebiotic substance for use in the food and nutraceutical industries.

Aqueous extract of dry powder blend of seeds and leaves of Picralima nitida (Stapf) T. & H. Durand reduce pain and inflammation in animal models

OBJECTIVES

Blend of seeds and leaves of Picralima nitida herein referred to as West African Durand powder (WDP) was investigated for antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties.

METHODS

Acute toxic effect of the aqueous extract was evaluated in mice of both sexes. Antinociceptive effect of WDP (100-400 mg/kg) was evaluated in models of acetic acid-induced writhing and thermal nociception on hot plate in mice. Carrageenan-induced paw oedema and air pouch rat models were used to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of the extract.

RESULTS

WDP (2,000 mg/kg) showed no toxic effect in mice. WDP at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg inhibited abdominal writhings by 59.9, 66.0 and 79.0%, respectively. There was a significant increase in reaction time on the hot plate tests in mice treated with WDP (400 mg/kg). The paw oedema was reduced by WDP (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) 5 h post-carrageeenan. Exudate volume was significantly reduced to 39.8 and 44.8% by 200 and 400 mg/kg WDP, respectively. WDP reduced Leucocytes counts (23.3 and 57.1%, respectively) and neutrophil counts (28.1 and 60.0%, as well as reduced nitrites, malondialdehyde levels and increased glutathione concentrations in the air pouch.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that aqueous extract of blend of seeds and leaves of P. nitida possesses antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties.

Maternal-fetal repercussions of Phyllanthus niruri L. treatment during rat pregnancy

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus niruri is a well-known plant for its therapeutic purposes to treat various diseases, being widely used by the population, mainly by women. However, there is no scientific confirmation of the effects of use during pregnancy.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Evaluating the effect of Phyllanthus niruri aqueous extract on the maternal toxicity, reproductive outcomes and fetal anomaly incidence in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pregnant rats were distributed into four experimental groups: Control = treated with water (vehicle); Treated 150 = treated with P. niruri at dose 150 mg/kg and; Treated 300 = treated with P. niruri at dose 300 mg/kg; and Treated 600 = treated with P. niruri at dose 600 mg/kg. The rats were treated by intragastric route (gavage) with P. niruri or vehicle (water) from gestational day 0 to 21. At day 21 of pregnancy, maternal reproductive outcomes, biochemical profile and maternal renal tissue were evaluated. The fetuses and placentas were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

Treatment with P. niruri did not alter the reproductive performance outcomes of rats. However, treated 600 group presented with changes in maternal kidney weight and morphology. The plant did not present teratogenic effect, but caused fetal macrosomia and increased ossification sites.

CONCLUSION

Treatment with aqueous extract of P. niruri administered during gestation did not cause reproductive toxicity, but led to changes in maternal kidneys and in offspring weight, showing that the leaf extract of this plant can produce detrimental effects during pregnancy.

Polyherbal Medicine Divya Sarva-Kalp-Kwath Ameliorates Persistent Carbon Tetrachloride Induced Biochemical and Pathological Liver Impairments in Wistar Rats and in HepG2 Cells

Divya Sarva-Kalp-Kwath (SKK) is a poly-herbal ayurvedic medicine formulated using plant extracts of Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae), Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae), and Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae), described to improve liver function and general health. In the present study, we have explored the hepatoprotective effects of SKK in ameliorating carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) induced liver toxicity using in-vitro and in-vivo test systems. Chemical analysis of SKK using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS-QToF) and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) revealed the presence of different bioactive plant metabolites, known to impart hepatoprotective effects. In human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells, co-treatment of SKK with CCl₄ effectively reduced the hepatotoxicity induced by the latter. These effects were confirmed by studying parameters such as loss of cell viability; release of hepatic injury enzymatic biomarkers- aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP); and changes in reactive oxygen species and in mitochondrial membrane potentials. In-vivo safety analysis in Wistar rats showed no loss in animal body weight, or change in feeding habits after repeated oral dosing of SKK up to 1,000 mg/kg/day for 28 days. Also, no injury-related histopathological changes were observed in the animal's blood, liver, kidney, heart, brain, and lung. Pharmacologically, SKK played a significant role in modulating CCl₄ induced hepatic injuries in the Wistar rats at a higher dose. In the 9 weeks' study, SKK (200 mg/kg) reduced the CCl₄ stimulated increase in the release of enzymes (ALT, AST, and ALP), bilirubin, total cholesterol, and uric acid levels in the Wistar rats. It also reduced the CCl₄ stimulated inflammatory lesions such as liver fibrosis, lymphocytic infiltration, and hyper-plasticity. In conclusion, SKK showed pharmacological effects in improving the CCl₄ stimulated liver injuries in HepG2 cells and in Wistar rats. Furthermore, no adverse effects were observed up to 10× higher human equivalent dose of SKK during 28-days repeated dose exposure in Wistar rats. Based on the literature search on the identified plant metabolites, SKK was found to act in multiple ways to ameliorate CCl₄ induced hepatotoxicity. Therefore, polyherbal SKK medicine has shown remarkable potentials as a possible alternative therapeutics for reducing liver toxicity induced by drugs, and other toxins.

Evaluation of the ameliorative effects of Phyllanthus niruri on the deleterious insecticide imidacloprid in the vital organs of chicken embryos

Background

Insecticides are widely used in agriculture to curb the loss caused by insects. These insecticides are incorporated into the food chain and accumulate in the human body, as well disturb the various metabolic pathways. Imidacloprid is an insect neurotoxin commonly used in agriculture to control the insect pests. P. niruri is a traditional medicinal shrub widely used as an anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and anti-lethality agent.

Objective

The present study is designed to evaluate the ameliorative effects of Phyllanthus niruri (Bhumi amla) on the deleterious Insecticide imidacloprid in the vital organs of Chicken embryos.

Materials and methods

The embryonated chicken eggs were divided into the four groups (one control and three treated groups); the chorioallantoic membranes of control received 200 μl phosphate buffer saline, whereas group I and group II received 100 μg imidacloprid and 200 μl aqueous extract of P. niruri (PNE) respectively. Group III received both 100 μg imidacloprid and 200 μl PNE. The serum was collected on the 18th day its development; which was subjected to the biochemical analysis based on colorimetric assay in semi-automated biochemical analyzer using commercial kits.

Results

We observed significant in ovo effects of imidacloprid on chicken embryos; the values of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), were increased in imidacloprid treated group I; histopathology also revealed damage to the liver (necrotic areas and dilated blood sinusoids). Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), amylase, cholesterol, triglycerides protein and albumin levels were also altered significantly (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The serum biochemicals were returned back to the nearly normal levels. PNE has ameliorated and overcome the effects of imidacloprid reasonably with the subsequent treatment among group III. Hence, P. niruri may be used to minimize the effects of an accidental exposure of imidacloprid.

Exploring Antimalarial Herbal Plants across Communities in Uganda Based on Electronic Data

Malaria is one of the most rampant diseases today not only in Uganda but also throughout Africa. Hence, it needs very close attention as it can be severe, causing many deaths, especially due to the rising prevalence of pathogenic resistance to current antimalarial drugs. The majority of the Ugandan population relies on traditional herbal medicines for various health issues. Thus, herein, we review various plant resources used to treat malaria across communities in Uganda so as to provide comprehensive and valuable ethnobotanical data about these plants. Approximately 182 plant species from 63 different plant families are used for malaria treatment across several communities in Uganda, of which 112 plant species have been investigated for antimalarial activities and 96% of the plant species showing positive results. Some plants showed very strong antimalarial activities and could be investigated further for the identification and validation of potentially therapeutic antimalarial compounds. There is no record of an investigation of antimalarial activity for approximately 39% of the plant species used for malaria treatment, yet these plants could be potential sources for potent antimalarial remedies. Thus, the review provides guidance for areas of further research on potential plant resources that could be sources of compounds with therapeutic properties for the treatment of malaria. Some of the plants were investigated for antimalarial activities, and their efficacy, toxicity, and safety aspects still need to be studied.

Acute oral toxicity of the ellagitannin geraniin and a geraniin-enriched extract from Nephelium lappaceum L rind in Sprague Dawley rats

Despite the lack of its toxicity evaluation, traditional herbal products are being widely used for various health indications. Geraniin, an ellagitannin, is a bioactive compound found in many traditional herbal medicines. In spite its numerous health benefits ranging from anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycaemic, hepatoprotective, anti-cancer and anti-microbial, no toxicity data on geraniin is available. The objective of this study is to evaluate the acute oral toxicity of geraniin and an enriched geraniin-extract of Nephelium lappaceum L rind. This study followed the guidelines of the OECD 423 acute oral toxicity test. Subsequent to a single oral administration of the test compounds, the rats were observed for 14 days for signs of toxicity and mortality. Following euthanasia, full blood count, biochemistry of blood and histopathology assessment of organs were carried out. All parameters analysed indicated insignificant difference compared to control. The LD₅₀ cut-off values for both geraniin and geraniin-enriched extract was established to be 2000 mg/kg b. w., following a single oral dose. It was however observed that the hepatocytes of three geraniin-administered rats exhibited a ‘foamy appearance’. As such, the no-observed-adverse-effect level of geraniin is below 2000 mg/kg, while that of geraniin-enriched extract is up to 2000 mg/kg. Further detailed toxicity studies are required to establish geraniin or its enriched extract from Nephelium lappaceum L rind safe for human consumption.

Escalation of liver malfunctioning: A step toward Herbal Awareness

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

About 2-5% of the world's population is suffering from liver toxicity including Pakistan with the second highest rate of hepatitis prevalence. Liver is a vital body organ which not only performs metabolic activities but also aids in detoxification, storage and digestion of food. Now a day's malnutrition, alcohol consumption and drug addiction are major causes of liver diseases throughout the world. In fact, there is no possible outcome to compensate liver malfunction for long term, and transplantation of liver is the only option left after the irretrievable injury of hepatic function. Subsequently, natural based therapeutic approaches are in the process of scrupulous testing as strong hepatoprotective mediator. In this regard plants are well thought hepatoprotective agents having multiple active components. In this review, based on species' pharmacology and safety we have compiled some plants which show strong hepatoprotective activity, main phytoconstituents with biological activities and few commercially used herbal formulations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnopharmacological information was gathered by an extensive literature survey like WHO monographs on selected herbal medicinal plants (Vol 1-Vol 4); Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy, Mills S and Bone K, Churchill Livingstone, London, UK; Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals, Wichtl M Medpharm Press, Stuttgart 3rd edn; Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Materia Medica Vols 1 and 2, Chang H-M and But P P-H World Scientific, Singapore; British Herbal Compendium Vol. 2, Bradley P British Herbal Medicine Association, Bournemouth, UK; ESCOP Monographs 2nd edn. Thieme, Stuttgart, Germany; as well as by using electronic databases such as Pubchem, Chemspider, http://www.herbal-ahp.org; http://www.ahpa.org; http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2003/9241546271.pdf; http://www.escop.com, Pubmed, HubMed and Scopus.

RESULTS

Data for more about 29 plants have been accomplished for their bioactive constituent(s), biological activities and medicinal uses. Some of the plants have been identified as strong hepato-modulator. Such knowledge about traditional medicinal plants can be globally applied for safe and evidence based use in pharmacological applications.

CONCLUSION

With the rise in liver risks a meek struggle has been made to draw attention toward herbal therapy. Hepatoprotective constituents of said plants are expressed with chemical structures. However, for certain plants active constituents are not still isolated/purified but overall plant extract was found effective in providing protection against hepatic injury. As a future perspective, there is need to purify plant active constituents for ethnomedical rationale.

Phyllanthus Niruri Standardized Extract Alleviates the Progression of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Decreases Atherosclerotic Risk in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the major global health issues, strongly correlated with insulin resistance, obesity and oxidative stress. The current study aimed to evaluate anti-NAFLD effects of three different extracts of Phyllanthus niruri (P. niruri). NAFLD was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats using a special high-fat diet (HFD). A 50% methanolic extract (50% ME) exhibited the highest inhibitory effect against NAFLD progression. It significantly reduced hepatomegaly (16%) and visceral fat weight (22%), decreased NAFLD score, prevented fibrosis, and reduced serum total cholesterol (TC) (48%), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (65%), free fatty acids (FFAs) (25%), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (45%), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (38%), insulin concentration (67%), homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (73%), serum atherogenic ratios TC/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (29%), LDL/HDL (66%) and (TC-HDL)/HDL (64%), hepatic content of cholesterol (43%), triglyceride (29%) and malondialdehyde (MDA) (40%) compared to a non-treated HFD group. In vitro, 50% ME of P. niruri inhibited α-glucosidase, pancreatic lipase enzymes and cholesterol micellization. It also had higher total phenolic and total flavonoid contents compared to other extracts. Ellagic acid and phyllanthin were identified as major compounds. These results suggest that P. niruri could be further developed as a novel natural hepatoprotective agent against NAFLD and atherosclerosis.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Phyllanthus niruri L.: A Review

Phyllanthus niruri, a typical member of family Euphorbiaceae, is a small annual herb found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. The genus Phyllanthus has been used in traditional medicine for its wide range of pharmacological activities like antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antiplasmodial, antiviral, diuretic and hepatoprotective. This review summarizes the information about morphological, biochemical, ethanobotanical, pharmacological, biological and toxicological activities with special emphasis on mechanism of anticancer activity of P. niruri. Gaps in previous studies such as taxonomic inconsistency of P. niruri, novel phytochemicals and their therapeutic properties, especially mechanisms of anticancerous activity and market products available, have been looked into and addressed. Scientific information related to 83 phytochemicals (including many novel compounds detected recently by the authors) has been provided in a very comprehensive manner. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of aqueous extract of Chenopodium opulifolium schrad leaves

Aim:

Chenopodium opulifolium is a specie of the Chenopodiaceae commonly used as vegetables in local diet and for treating different ailment in Uganda. This study was conducted to evaluate the antioxidant, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of C. opulifolium leaves (AECO).

Materials and Methods:

The dried leaf of the plant was extracted by maceration in water. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis, antioxidants, and membrane stabilizing effects were determined in the extract. The extract was then investigated for acute toxicity, antinociceptive (writhing, hot plate and open field test), and anti-inflammatory (egg albumin-induced paw edema) effects in rodents.

Results:

Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, phlobatannins, flavonoids, and saponins in AECO. Total caffeic acid derivatives and total flavonoids content were 91.7 mgCAE/g sample and 94.7 mgRE/g sample, respectively. AECO demonstrated antioxidant effects in both 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl and NO assays. Significant membrane stabilizing activity was observed in both the heat and hypotonic solution-induced lysis of erythrocytes. The acute toxicity test showed that AECO (5000 mg/kg) did not cause any significant change in behavior or death in rats. AECO (100-400 mg/kg) produced a significant antinociceptive effect in both the writhing and hot plate tests, but no significant reduction in the locomotory activity in mice. Furthermore, the extract significantly (P < 0.05) reduced egg albumin-induced rat paw edema by 44.2%, 44.5%, and 51.2%, respectively, after 120 min.

Conclusion:

The results showed that C. opulifolium extract possesses significant antioxidant, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects, and these affirm the reasons for its folkloric use.

The Genus Phyllanthus: An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Review

The plants of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) have been used as traditional medicinal materials for a long time in China, India, Brazil, and the Southeast Asian countries. They can be used for the treatment of digestive disease, jaundice, and renal calculus. This review discusses the ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, and pharmacological studies of Phyllanthus over the past few decades. More than 510 compounds have been isolated, the majority of which are lignins, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and tannins. The researches of their remarkable antiviral, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities have become hot topics. More pharmacological screenings and phytochemical investigations are required to support the traditional uses and develop leading compounds.

Safety assessment and behavioral effects of Solanum guaraniticum leaf extract in rats

ABSTRACT Solanum guaraniticum is a medicinal plant traditionally used to treat gastric and liver diseases. However, there is no documented evidence corroborating its safety. The present study evaluated the potential toxicity of S. guaraniticum leaf extract after acute administration in rats. Single doses of the extract (1.250, 2.500, and 5.000 mg/kg) were administered by gavage, and the rats were then monitored for 48 h and/or 14 days. Mortality, acute signs of toxicity, and general activity in the open field test were assessed as well as hematological and biochemical parameters, enzymatic activity (δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase and acetylcholinesterase), and oxidative stress parameters (lipid peroxidation level, non-protein thiol content, tissue catalase activity, and serum ferrous reducing power). Phytochemical analysis was also performed by HPLC. The results showed that extract administration produced no deaths (LD50 > 5,000 mg/kg), and no significant adverse effects regarding food consumption, body weight gain, gross pathology, or other parameters. However, the open field tests showed a decrease in spontaneous activity (crossing and rearing) mainly at 48 h after treatment. The results suggest that S. guaraniticum extract is not acutely toxic, but causes alterations in central nervous system activity.

Bufothionine induced the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in H22 liver tumor and acute liver injury

Background

Bufothionine is an alkaloid in Cinobufacini (Huachansu). This study aims to investigate the effects of bufothionine on liver tumors and acute liver injury.

Methods

In the hepatoprotective experiment, fifty rats were randomly divided into five groups (n = 10): normal saline group, model group, compound glycyrrhizin injection (9.14 mL/kg); cinobufacini injection (3.42 mL/kg) (InjA) and bufothionine (9.77 mL/kg) (BufoA) group. Liver weight indices were recorded to judge the degree of liver swelling, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining of liver tissues was carried out to observe liver histological morphology injury and biochemical indicators including aspartate aminotransferase (AST); alanine aminotransferase (ALT); alkaline phosphatase (ALP); and total bilirubin (TBIL) were determined by modular auto-analyzer. In anti-tumor experiment, H₂₂-tumor-bearing mice were randomly divided into five groups (n = 10): normal saline group, model group, cinobufacini injection (InjB) (5.14 mL/kg), bufothionine (8.02 mL/kg) (BufoB) and 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) (3.42 mL/kg). Tumors were picked out and determined with vernier calipers. Histological morphology of tumors was observed by H&E staining. In SMMC-7721 cells, expressions of proteins related to mitochondria-mediated apoptosis pathway including Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3, caspase-9, cyto-c, Bid, and p53 were analyzed by western blotting at low, medium, high concentrations of bufothione (3.62 μg/mL, 18.12 μg/mL,90.62 μg/mL).

Results

Butothionine relieved CCl₄-induced liver morphology, decreased the level of ALT (P =2.46 × 10^-2) and expressed tendency to decrease other biochemical markers including AST, ALP and TBIL. Butothionine could also promote necrosis of tumor tissue in H₂₂-tumor-bearing mice and restrained tumor growth with 65.16% inhibition rate. Its mechanism might relate to up-regulation of p53 (at low, mediate and high concentration, corresponding P values were 0.142, 0.0257, 0.0162), caspase-3 (P = 0.246, 0.0267 and 0.0236), cyto-c (P = 0.276, 0.0343 and 0.0429), Bid (P = 0.0125, 0.0395 and 0.0132) and Bax (P = 0.563, 0.0492 and 0.0357) in a dose-dependent manner, down-regulation of Bcl-2 expression (P = 0.0232, 0.0178 and 0.0464), but had no significant effects on caspase-9 (P = 0.253, 0.147 and 0.287).

Conclusion

Bufothionine induced the proteins for the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis that inhibits liver tumors and protects the liver against acute injury.

Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community of district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tharu community is the largest primitive indigenous community of the Uttarakhand, India. In this article we have scientifically enumerated medicinal plants and herbal preparations used by the Tharu community to treat various skin diseases, and discussed dermatological properties of these plants in the light of previous ethnomedicinal, microbiological, pharmacological, toxicological, phytochemical and clinical studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnomedicinal survey was conducted in different villages of Tharu community located in district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India. Ethnomedicinal information on plants used to treat various skin diseases was collected from 122 individuals (93 males and 29 females), including 35 experienced herbal practitioners and 87 local villagers. For each of the recorded plant species the use value (UV) and fidelity level (FL) was calculated. The informant consensus factor (Fic) was also calculated to find out the homogeneity in the information given by the informants.

RESULTS

A total of 90 plant species belonging to 86 genera and 48 families were used by the Tharu community to treat various skin diseases viz., wounds (38 spp.), boils (32 spp.), cuts (18 spp.), leprosy (11 spp.), eczema (10 spp.), itching (7 spp.), ringworm (5 spp.), burns (4 spp.), leucoderma (4 spp.), cracked heels (2 spp.), dandruff (3 spp.), body infection (2 spp.), chilblains (2 spp.), hair fall (2 spp.) and toes infection (2 spp.). Information on botanical name, family, vernacular name, ailments treated, mode and dose of herbal preparations, UV and FL values are provided for each of the recorded species. According to UV value most preferred plant species used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community was Ricinus communis L. followed by Tridax procumbens (L.) L., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Ageratum conyzoides and Allium cepa L.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study has revealed significant information on various medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases by Tharu community. Literature review has confirmed most of the claims made by the Tharu community regarding treatment of various skin diseases by the reported plants. The literature review has also revealed that products from very few of the reported plants are available in market, while most of the reported plants are still under preclinical or clinical trials. There are various known phytochemicals, and antibiotic, antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal agents present in these plants which may be synthesized or transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Some of the reported plants have shown promising results in preclinical trails and there is a need of clinical trials to see their safety and efficacy in treating various skin diseases. These plants may be targeted for development of new medicines, ointments or drugs for the treatment of skin diseases. However further toxicological, preclinical and clinical studies are needed to validate claims about little worked out plant species reported in the present study viz., Sida cordata (Burm. F.) Borss. Waalk., Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker, Caesulia axillaris Roxb., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Vanda tessellate (Roxb.) Hook. Ex G.Don. and Eualaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. Further studies on these plants are recommended to assess their potential in development of new skin care products.

Acute oral toxicity of the ethyl acetate fraction of Orostachys japonicus in mice

CONTEXT

Orostachys japonicus (Crassulaceae) is referred to as Wa-song in Korea. It is used as an anti-inflammatory, antifebrile, hemostatic, and anti cancer agent, and as an antidote.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the acute toxicity of the ethyl acetate fraction of O. japonicus (OJE) after the oral administration in Balb/c mice of both sexes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were oral administered a single doses of 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg of body weight and were monitored for 14 d. Biochemical parameters [aspartate amino transferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total protein (TP), globulin (GB), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatinine (CR)] and histopathological examination of liver were performed.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

No animals died and no toxic changes were observed in clinical signs, body weight, and organ weight. The LD50 of orally administered OJE was higher than 2000 mg/kg/d in both sexes. No toxicological findings were found in biochemical parameters. In histophathological examination, neutrophilic infiltration was observed at a dose of 2000 mg/kg group in both sexes. These finding suggest that oral administration of OJE does not produce acute toxicity. Therefore, these results could provide satisfactory preclinical evidence of safety to launch clinical trials on standardized formulation of OJE to be a biohealth product.

Male rat hormone imbalance, testicular changes and toxicity associated with aqueous leaf extract of an antimalarial plant: Phyllanthus niruri

CONTEXT

Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae), a medicinal plant traditionally known for dissolving kidney stones, is used prophylactically as an antimalarial agent.

OBJECTIVE

The study was undertaken to determine its effect on some male hormones and other toxicological properties due to paucity of its data despite its wide use.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats (100-140 g) were used. Group 1 [control group (C), n = 6] received water. Group 2 [low-dose test group (LD), n = 6] received 50 mg/kg body weight (b.wt.) aqueous leaf extract orally. Group 3 [high-dose test group (HD), n = 6] received 500 mg/kg b.wt. extract for 90 days. Upon sacrifice, among other organs the testes were harvested. Blood samples drawn were used for biochemical (including progesterone, estrogen and testosterone), cytotoxicity and hematological assays.

RESULTS

C, LD and HD estrogen values were 192 ± 25, 385 ± 122 and 962 ± 357 pg/ml, respectively. In the same order, progesterone values were 96 ± 24, 155 ± 45 and 320 ± 80 pg/ml, respectively. Testosterone levels were 5210 ± 1090, 4710 ± 220 and 4500 ± 580 pg/ml, respectively. Significant differences were observed in the estrogen and progesterone levels (p = 0.001). Degenerative changes were observed histologically. Cytotoxicity at 50% (CC50) was 10.0 µg/ml.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This antimalarial plant is mildly cytotoxic with male antifertility properties.