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First Record of Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perfiliewi (Diptera: Psychodidae), Vector of Leishmania infantum and Phleboviruses, in Spain. DIVERSITY 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/d15030400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Phlebotomine sand flies are vectors of several diseases of importance for public health, including leishmaniosis, bartonellosis, and sand fly fevers. An entomological survey on blood-feeding Diptera was conducted in June–November 2020–2021 to know the diversity of insect vectors in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). Among the vectors collected, Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perfiliewi Parrot, 1930 was found being the first record of this species in Spain. Phlebotomus perfiliewi s.l. is one of the main vectors of Leishmania infantum in the Mediterranean Basin and Central Asia. The identification of this species was confirmed by both morphological features and DNA barcoding. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the specimens captured were Ph. perfiliewi s.s. (99.85–100% homologues from Italy and Algeria specimens), with a sequence divergence of 0.17%. The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene clearly separates the three species that make up the Ph. perfiliewi species complex. In addition, we also provide a brief discussion about their identification remarks, phylogenetic relationships, and vector status.
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Gaspari V, Gritti T, Ortalli M, Santi A, Galletti G, Rossi A, Rugna G, Mattivi A, Matteo G, Belloli GL, Mattei G, Varani S. Tegumentary Leishmaniasis in Northeastern Italy from 2017 to 2020: A Neglected Public Health Issue. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:16047. [PMID: 36498130 PMCID: PMC9740434 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192316047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Tegumentary leishmaniasis (TL) includes cutaneous (CL) and mucosal (ML) leishmaniasis; despite being endemic in southern Europe, it is often underdiagnosed and underreported. This study aimed to retrospectively examine data collected from patients with TL in a selected area of northeastern Italy (Emilia-Romagna region, RER). A network of 10 diagnostic units within RER was established, and TL cases diagnosed in RER from 2017 to 2020 were evaluated. A total of 135 TL cases were collected (62% male, 38% female); patients ranged from 1 to 84 years, with a median age of 57. Among these cases, 113 (84%) were notified to the public health authorities. The average annual incidence of TL was 0.76 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. Infections were acquired within the RER in 84% of cases; the 113 autochthonous cases were distributed in the foothills areas of the region. We provide evidence of a defined spatial distribution of TL cases in a selected area of northeastern Italy, as well as a relevant number of ML cases. Our observations suggest the need to raise awareness about TL among clinicians and pathologists, promote the molecular confirmation of cases by reference laboratories, and encourage the establishment of surveillance networks for this neglected disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Gaspari
- Unit of Dermatology, Head and Neck Department, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Tommaso Gritti
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Margherita Ortalli
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Annalisa Santi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giorgio Galletti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Arianna Rossi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Gianluca Rugna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Mattivi
- Regional Health Authority, Emilia-Romagna Region, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giulio Matteo
- Regional Health Authority, Emilia-Romagna Region, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Gian L. Belloli
- Regional Health Authority, Emilia-Romagna Region, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giovanna Mattei
- Regional Health Authority, Emilia-Romagna Region, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Stefania Varani
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- Unit of Microbiology, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
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Calzolari M, Romeo G, Munari M, Bonilauri P, Taddei R, Sampieri M, Bariselli S, Rugna G, Dottori M. Sand Flies and Pathogens in the Lowlands of Emilia-Romagna (Northern Italy). Viruses 2022; 14:v14102209. [PMID: 36298764 PMCID: PMC9608450 DOI: 10.3390/v14102209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Cases of sand fly-borne diseases in the Emilia-Romagna region, such as meningitis caused by Toscana virus and human leishmaniasis, are reported annually through dedicated surveillance systems. Sand flies are abundant in the hilly part of the region, while the lowland is unsuitable habitat for sand flies, which are found in lower numbers in this environment with respect to the hilly areas. In this study, we retrieved sand flies collected during entomological surveillance of the West Nile virus (from 2018 to 2021) to assess their abundance and screen them for the presence of pathogens. Over the four-year period, we collected 3022 sand flies, more than half in 2021. The most abundant sand fly species was Phlebotomus (Ph.) perfiliewi, followed by Ph. perniciosus; while more rarely sampled species were Ph. papatasi, Ph. mascittii and Sergentomyia minuta. Sand flies were collected from the end of May to the end of September. The pattern of distribution of the species is characterized by an abundant number of Ph. perfiliewi in the eastern part of the region, which then falls to almost none in the western part of the region, while Ph. perniciosus seems more uniformly distributed throughout. We tested more than 1500 female sand flies in 54 pools to detect phleboviruses and Leishmania species using different PCR protocols. Toscana virus and Leishmania infantum, both human pathogens, were detected in 5 pools and 7 pools, respectively. We also detected Fermo virus, a phlebovirus uncharacterized in terms of relevance to public health, in 4 pools. We recorded different sand fly abundance in different seasons in Emilia-Romagna. During the season more favorable for sand flies, we also detected pathogens transmitted by these insects. This finding implies a health risk linked to sand fly-borne pathogens in the surveyed area in lowland, despite being considered a less suitable habitat for sand flies with respect to the hilly areas.
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Lelli D, Scanferla V, Moreno A, Sozzi E, Ravaioli V, Renzi M, Tosi G, Dottori M, Lavazza A, Calzolari M. Serological Evidence of Phleboviruses in Domestic Animals on the Pre-Apennine Hills (Northern Italy). Viruses 2021; 13:v13081577. [PMID: 34452442 PMCID: PMC8402779 DOI: 10.3390/v13081577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phleboviruses are arboviruses transmitted by sand flies, mosquitoes and ticks. Some sand fly-borne phleboviruses cause illnesses in humans, such as the summer fevers caused by the Sicilian and Naples viruses or meningitis caused by the Toscana virus. Indeed, traces of several phleboviral infections have been serologically detected in domestic animals, but their potential pathogenic role in vertebrates other than humans is still unclear, as is the role of vertebrates as potential reservoirs of these viruses. In this study, we report the results of a serological survey performed on domestic animals sampled in Northern Italy, against four phleboviruses isolated from sand flies in the same area. The sera of 23 dogs, 165 sheep and 23 goats were tested with a virus neutralization assay for Toscana virus, Fermo virus, Ponticelli I virus and Ponticelli III virus. Neutralizing antibodies against one or more phleboviruses were detected in four out of 23 dogs, 31 out of 165 sheep and 12 out of 23 goats. This study shows preliminary evidence for the distribution pattern of phleboviral infections in different animal species, highlighting the potential infection of the Toscana virus in dogs and the Fermo virus in goats.
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Michelutti A, Toniolo F, Bertola M, Grillini M, Simonato G, Ravagnan S, Montarsi F. Occurrence of Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in the northeastern plain of Italy. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:164. [PMID: 33761950 PMCID: PMC7992963 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04652-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent climate and environmental changes have resulted in the geographical expansion of Mediterranean Leishmania infantum vectors towards northern latitudes and higher altitudes in different European countries, including Italy, where new foci of canine leishmaniasis have been observed in the northern part of the country. Northern Italy is also an endemic area for mosquito-borne diseases. During entomological surveillance for West Nile virus, mosquitoes and other hematophagous insects were collected, including Phlebotomine sand flies. In this study, we report the results of Phlebotomine sand fly identification during the entomological surveillance conducted from 2017 to 2019. METHODS The northeastern plain of Italy was divided by a grid with a length of 15 km, and a CO2-CDC trap was placed in each geographical unit. The traps were placed ~ 15 km apart. For each sampling site, geographical coordinates were recorded. The traps were operated every two weeks, from May to November. Sand flies collected by CO2-CDC traps were identified by morphological and molecular analysis. RESULTS From 2017 to 2019, a total of 303 sand flies belonging to the species Phlebotomus perniciosus (n = 273), Sergentomyia minuta (n = 5), P. mascittii (n = 2) and P. perfiliewi (n = 2) were collected, along with 21 unidentified specimens. The trend for P. perniciosus collected during the entomological surveillance showed two peaks, one in July and a smaller one in September. Sand flies were collected at different altitudes, from -2 m above sea level (a.s.l.) to 145 m a.s.l. No correlation was observed between altitude and sand fly abundance. CONCLUSIONS Four Phlebotomine sand fly species are reported for the first time from the northeastern plain of Italy. Except for S. minuta, the sand fly species are competent vectors of Leishmania parasites and other arboviruses in the Mediterranean Basin. These findings demonstrate the ability of sand flies to colonize new environments previously considered unsuitable for these insects. Even though the density of the Phlebotomine sand fly population in the plain areas is consistently lower than that observed in hilly and low mountainous areas, the presence of these vectors could herald the onset of epidemic outbreaks of leishmaniasis and other arthropod-borne diseases in areas previously considered non-endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Michelutti
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Micology and Medical Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro (PD), Italy.
| | - Federica Toniolo
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Micology and Medical Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Michela Bertola
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Micology and Medical Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Marika Grillini
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, University of Padova, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Giulia Simonato
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, University of Padova, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Silvia Ravagnan
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Micology and Medical Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Fabrizio Montarsi
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Micology and Medical Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro (PD), Italy
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Epidemiology of Toscana virus in South Tuscany over the years 2011-2019. J Clin Virol 2020; 128:104452. [PMID: 32474372 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toscana virus (TOSV) is a Phlebovirus transmitted to humans by phlebotomines and represent an etiological agent of acute aseptic meningitis (AAM) in countries where the virus is endemic, including Italy. Incidence of TOSV infections is closely associated with the geographical distribution of the phlebotomine vectors which in turn is affected by climate changes that determine survival and spread. As a result, TOSV infections show a seasonal trend with a peak of incidence in summer months. OBJECTIVES To measure the prevalence of TOSV infections in AAM patients in central Italy and evaluate the climate changes in phlebotomine vectors ecology and virus propagation. STUDY DESIGN One thousand and seventy-three cerebrospinal fluid samples (CSFs), collected from patients with suspected viral meningitis, were collected over nine years (2011-2019) during the May to October period and tested for viruses most commonly associated with AAM. Serum samples addressed to the Microbiology and Virology Unit of "S. Maria delle Scotte" Hospital for confirmation acute TOSV infection (n = 324) were tested for TOSV-specific IgM and IgG. RESULTS Among the CSF samples, 1.3% were positive for Enteroviruses; 0.9% for Varicella zoster virus, 1.9% for Herpes simplex virus type-1/2 and 4.6% for TOSV. Serum IgM analyses disclosed TOSV-specific IgM in 27.1% of sera suggesting the predominant involvement of TOSV in neuroinvasive infections. CONCLUSIONS This data confirms the predominant role of TOSV as causative agent of AAM during the summer time in endemic countries. Moreover, climate changes affecting phlebotomine vectors persistence, reproduction and activity could be involved in the cyclic nature of TOSV infection reported during the last nine years.
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Morini S, Calzolari M, Rossini G, Pascarelli N, Porcellini A, Randi V, Re MC, Albieri A, Bonilauri P, Bellini R, Ayhan N, Charrel R, Varani S. Detection of Specific Antibodies against Toscana Virus among Blood Donors in Northeastern Italy and Correlation with Sand Fly Abundance in 2014. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8020145. [PMID: 31973058 PMCID: PMC7074719 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Toscana virus (TOSV) is a Phlebovirus transmitted by phlebotomine sand flies and is an important etiological agent of summer meningitis in the Mediterranean basin. Since TOSV infection is often asymptomatic, we evaluated the seroprevalence in blood donors (BDs) in the Bologna and Ferrara provinces (Northeastern Italy)-the areas with the highest and lowest numbers of TOSV neuroinvasive cases in the region, respectively. A total of 1208 serum samples from BDs were collected in April-June 2014 and evaluated for the presence of specific TOSV-IgG by ELISA. The IgG-reactive samples were confirmed by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IIF) and by microneutralization test (MN). Serum samples were defined as positive for anti-TOSV IgG when reactive by ELISA and by at least one second-level test; TOSV seroprevalence was 6.8% in the Bologna province, while no circulation of TOSV was detected in the Ferrara province. Sand fly abundance in 2014 was also estimated by a geographic information system using a generalized linear model applied to a series of explanatory variables. TOSV seroprevalence rate was strongly associated with the sand fly abundance index in each municipality, pointing out the strong association between sand fly abundance and human exposure to TOSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Morini
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
| | - Mattia Calzolari
- Laboratory of Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini” (IZLER), 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (M.C.); (P.B.)
| | - Giada Rossini
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
| | - Nadia Pascarelli
- Centro Regionale Sangue Emilia-Romagna, Maggiore Hospital, 40133 Bologna, Italy; (N.P.); (A.P.); (V.R.)
| | - Andrea Porcellini
- Centro Regionale Sangue Emilia-Romagna, Maggiore Hospital, 40133 Bologna, Italy; (N.P.); (A.P.); (V.R.)
| | - Vanda Randi
- Centro Regionale Sangue Emilia-Romagna, Maggiore Hospital, 40133 Bologna, Italy; (N.P.); (A.P.); (V.R.)
| | - Maria Carla Re
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Alessandro Albieri
- Department of Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Centro Agricoltura Ambiente ‘G. Nicoli’, 40014 Crevalcore, Italy; (A.A.); (R.B.)
| | - Paolo Bonilauri
- Laboratory of Entomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini” (IZLER), 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (M.C.); (P.B.)
| | - Romeo Bellini
- Department of Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Centro Agricoltura Ambiente ‘G. Nicoli’, 40014 Crevalcore, Italy; (A.A.); (R.B.)
| | - Nazli Ayhan
- Unité des Virus Emergents (UVE: Aix Marseille Univ, IRD 190, INSERM 1207, IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France; (N.A.); (R.C.)
| | - Remi Charrel
- Unité des Virus Emergents (UVE: Aix Marseille Univ, IRD 190, INSERM 1207, IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France; (N.A.); (R.C.)
| | - Stefania Varani
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (G.R.)
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-051-2143013
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Isolation and Molecular Typing of Leishmania infantum from Phlebotomus perfiliewi in a Re-Emerging Focus of Leishmaniasis, Northeastern Italy. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7120644. [PMID: 31816970 PMCID: PMC6955719 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7120644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) caused by Leishmania (L.) infantum is a public health threat in the Emilia-Romagna region, northeastern Italy, but its epidemiology has not been fully elucidated in this area. The objective of this study was to characterize Leishmania infection in sand flies collected in a re-emerging focus of VL in the Bologna province. During the summer of 2016, 6114 sand flies were collected, identified, and tested for Leishmania detection. Of the identified sand flies, 96.5% were Phlebotomus (P.) perfiliewi and 3.5% were P. perniciosus. Detected parasites were characterized by biomolecular methods (multilocus microsatellite typing and characterization of repetitive region on chromosome 31), and quantified by real-time PCR. The prevalence of Leishmania infection in individually-tested P. perfiliewi sand flies varied from 6% to 10% with an increasing trend during the season. Promastigotes of L. infantum were isolated by dissection in one P. perfiliewi female; the isolated strain (Lein-pw) were closely related to Leishmania parasites from VL cases in northeastern Italy, but differed from strains isolated in dogs from the same area. Our findings strongly support the vector status of P. perfiliewi for human VL in the study area.
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Barzon L. Ongoing and emerging arbovirus threats in Europe. J Clin Virol 2018; 107:38-47. [PMID: 30176404 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
During the last decades, arboviruses that are endemic in Europe have expanded their geographic range and caused an increasing number of human outbreaks. These viruses include West Nile virus, which is expanding its area of circulation in central and southern Europe; Usutu virus, with increasing evidence of a role in human disease; tick-borne encephalitis virus, which is being detected in northern areas and at higher altitudes as a consequence of climate warming; Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, which is endemic in Eastern Europe and the Middle East, but has been recently detected in Spain; other viruses, such as California encephalitis virus antigenic group, which circulate in northern and central Europe but whose relevance for human disease in largely unknown. In addition, the rise in global travel and trade has posed Europe to an increased risk of introduction and expansion of exotic arthropod vectors and autochthonous transmission of arboviruses, like dengue and chikungunya viruses, following new introductions from endemic areas. Implementation of integrated arbovirus surveillance programs has been crucial to adopt proper control measures. The identification of emerging outbreaks is however challenging and requires a high degree of awareness and laboratory capacity, especially for the most neglected but potentially threatening pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, via A. Gabelli 63, 35121, Padova, Italy.
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Calzolari M, Rugna G, Clementi E, Carra E, Pinna M, Bergamini F, Fabbi M, Dottori M, Sacchi L, Votýpka J. Isolation of a Trypanosome Related to Trypanosoma theileri (Kinetoplastea: Trypanosomatidae) from Phlebotomus perfiliewi (Diptera: Psychodidae). BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:2597074. [PMID: 30112369 PMCID: PMC6077689 DOI: 10.1155/2018/2597074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The Trypanosoma theileri group includes several trypanosome species hardly distinguishable due to the lack of discriminating morphological characters. Trypanosomes belonging to this group have been isolated from different bovine, ovine, and cervids in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Americas. The principal vectors of the T. theileri group are considered tabanid flies; however, T. melophagium is transmitted exclusively by sheep keds. In 2016, 128 sand flies out of 2,728 trapped in Valsamoggia municipality, Italy, were individually dissected and an unknown trypanosome strain, named TrPhp1, was isolated from a female of the sand fly Phlebotomus perfiliewi. Sequence analysis placed this trypanosome in the T. theileri group with very high homology to other trypanosomes detected in European cervids. This is the first report of the T. theileri group isolation from a sand fly, and the possible role of this insect group in the trypanosome transmission cycle is discussed. Within the T. theileri group, the phylogenetic analysis distinguished several lineages, which, unfortunately, do not correspond with their host specificity and their taxonomic status remains ambiguous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Calzolari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Gianluca Rugna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Emanuela Clementi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “L. Spallanzani”, Università degli Studi di Pavia, via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Elena Carra
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Marco Pinna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Federica Bergamini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Massimo Fabbi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Michele Dottori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - Luciano Sacchi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie “L. Spallanzani”, Università degli Studi di Pavia, via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Jan Votýpka
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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Rugna G, Carra E, Bergamini F, Calzolari M, Salvatore D, Corpus F, Gennari W, Baldelli R, Fabbi M, Natalini S, Vitale F, Varani S, Merialdi G. Multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) reveals host-related population structure in Leishmania infantum from northeastern Italy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006595. [PMID: 29975697 PMCID: PMC6057669 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) caused by Leishmania infantum is an ongoing health problem in southern Europe, where dogs are considered the main reservoirs of the disease. Current data point to a northward spread of VL and canine leishmaniasis (CanL) in Italy, with new foci in northern regions previously regarded as non-endemic. Methodology/Principal findings Multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) was performed to investigate genetic diversity and population structure of L. infantum on 55 samples from infected humans, dogs and sand flies of the E-R region between 2013 and 2017. E-R samples were compared with 10 L. infantum samples from VL cases in other Italian regions (extra E-R) and with 52 strains within the L. donovani complex. Data displayed significant microsatellite polymorphisms with low allelic heterozygosity. Forty-one unique and eight repeated MLMT profiles were recognized among the L. infantum samples from E-R, and ten unique MLMT profiles were assigned to the extra E-R samples. Bayesian analysis assigned E-R samples to two distinct populations, with further sub-structuring within each of them; all CanL samples belonged to one population, genetically related to Mediterranean MON-1 strains, while all but one VL cases as well as the isolate from the sand fly Phlebotomus perfiliewi fell under the second population. Conversely, VL samples from other Italian regions proved to be genetically similar to strains circulating in dogs. Conclusions/Significance A peculiar epidemiological situation was observed in northeastern Italy, with the co-circulation of two distinct populations of L. infantum; one population mainly detected in dogs and the other population detected in humans and in a sand fly. While the classical cycle of CanL in Italy fits well into the data obtained for the first population, the population found in infected humans exhibits a different cycle, probably not involving a canine reservoir. This study can contribute to a better understanding of the population structure of L. infantum circulating in northeastern Italy, thus providing useful epidemiologic information for public health authorities. Visceral leishmaniasis is a sand fly-borne disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania. Leishmania infantum is the only parasitic species circulating in Italy and dogs are considered the main reservoirs of the disease. In this study, 55 L. infantum strains obtained from humans, dogs and sand flies from the Emiliana-Romagna (E-R) region, northeastern Italy, were assessed using multilocus microsatellite typing, a tool applied for population genetic studies. Results were compared with those obtained from 10 samples of visceral leishmaniasis cases occurring in other Italian regions and with 52 strains of the L. donovani complex from other foci of leishmaniasis. Our genetic analysis revealed that canine and human L. infantum strains from the E-R region were separated in two distinct populations; all samples obtained from dogs belonged to one population, while all but one human samples as well as a sand fly sample fell under another population. Samples from patients with visceral leishmaniasis from other Italian regions proved to be genetically similar to strains circulating in dogs. Our findings raise questions on the role of dogs as main reservoirs for human visceral leishmaniasis in the investigated area of northeastern Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Rugna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Elena Carra
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Federica Bergamini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Mattia Calzolari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Daniela Salvatore
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Italy
| | - Francesco Corpus
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - William Gennari
- Dipartimento Integrati Interaziendali Medicina di Laboratorio e Anatomia Patologica, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria, Policlinico di Modena, Italy
| | - Raffaella Baldelli
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Italy
| | - Massimo Fabbi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Silvano Natalini
- Department of Animal Health, Azienda Unità Sanitaria Locale, Bologna, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Vitale
- National Reference Center for Leishmaniasis (C.Re.Na.L.), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefania Varani
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Regional Reference Centre for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), St. Orsola-Malpighi University Hospital, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Merialdi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Brescia, Italy
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12
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Calzolari M, Ferrarini G, Bonilauri P, Lelli D, Chiapponi C, Bellini R, Dottori M. Co-circulation of eight different phleboviruses in sand flies collected in the Northern Apennine Mountains (Italy). INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 64:131-134. [PMID: 29902582 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Calzolari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER) "B. Ubertini", Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Giulia Ferrarini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER) "B. Ubertini", Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Paolo Bonilauri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER) "B. Ubertini", Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Davide Lelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER) "B. Ubertini", Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Chiara Chiapponi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER) "B. Ubertini", Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
| | - Romeo Bellini
- Centro Agricoltura Ambiente (CAA) "G. Nicoli", Via Argini Nord 3351, 40014 Crevalcore, (BO), Italy.
| | - Michele Dottori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER) "B. Ubertini", Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
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13
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Calzolari M, Chiapponi C, Bellini R, Bonilauri P, Lelli D, Moreno A, Barbieri I, Pongolini S, Lavazza A, Dottori M. Isolation of three novel reassortant phleboviruses, Ponticelli I, II, III, and of Toscana virus from field-collected sand flies in Italy. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:84. [PMID: 29409533 PMCID: PMC5802049 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2668-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Different phleboviruses are important pathogens for humans; most of these viruses are transmitted by sand flies. An increasing number of new phleboviruses have been reported over the past decade, especially in Mediterranean countries, mainly via their detection in sand flies. Results At least five different phleboviruses co-circulated in sand flies that were collected in three sites in Emilia-Romagna (Italy) in the summer of 2013. The well-known Toscana virus (TOSV) was isolated; three new, closely related phleboviruses differing in their M segments and tentatively named Ponticelli I, Ponticelli II and Ponticelli III virus, respectively, were isolated; a fifth putative phlebovirus, related to the sand fly fever Naples phlebovirus species, was also detected. The co-circulation, in a restricted area, of three viruses characterized by different M segments, likely resulted from reassortment events. According to the phylogenetic analysis of complete genome sequences, the TOSV belongs to clade A, together with other Italian isolates, while the Ponticelli viruses fall within the Salehabad phlebovirus species. Conclusions Results highlight an unexpected diversity of phleboviruses that co-circulate in the same area, suggesting that interactions likely occur amongst them, that can present challenges for their correct identification. The co-circulation of different phleboviruses appears to be common, and the bionomics of sand fly populations seem to play a relevant role. Such a complex situation emphasizes the need for detailed investigations of the biology of these viruses to better characterize their pathogenic potential for mammals, including humans. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2668-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Calzolari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy.
| | - Chiara Chiapponi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Romeo Bellini
- Centro Agricoltura Ambiente "Giorgio Nicoli", Crevalcore, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Bonilauri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Davide Lelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Ana Moreno
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Ilaria Barbieri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Stefano Pongolini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Antonio Lavazza
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Michele Dottori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
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Ayhan N, Baklouti A, Prudhomme J, Walder G, Amaro F, Alten B, Moutailler S, Ergunay K, Charrel RN, Huemer H. Practical Guidelines for Studies on Sandfly-Borne Phleboviruses: Part I: Important Points to Consider Ante Field Work. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017; 17:73-80. [PMID: 28055576 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2016.1957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to provide practical information to help researchers intending to perform "from field to laboratory" studies on phleboviruses transmitted by sandflies. This guideline addresses the different steps to be considered starting from the field collection of sandflies to the laboratory techniques aiming at the detection, isolation, and characterization of sandfly-borne phleboviruses. In this guideline article, we address the impact of various types of data for an optimal organization of the field work intending to collect wildlife sandflies for subsequent virology studies. Analysis of different data sets should result in the geographic positioning of the trapping stations. The overall planning, the equipment and tools needed, the manpower to be deployed, and the logistics to be anticipated and set up should be organized according to the objectives of the field study for optimal efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazli Ayhan
- 1 UMR "Emergence des Pathologies Virales" (EPV: Aix-Marseille Univ. - IRD 190 - Inserm 1207 - EHESP), Fondation IHU Méditerranée Infection, APHM Public Hospitals of Marseille , Marseille, France
| | - Amal Baklouti
- 1 UMR "Emergence des Pathologies Virales" (EPV: Aix-Marseille Univ. - IRD 190 - Inserm 1207 - EHESP), Fondation IHU Méditerranée Infection, APHM Public Hospitals of Marseille , Marseille, France
| | - Jorian Prudhomme
- 2 Centre IRD, UMR MIVEGEC (IRD 224 - CNRS 5290 - Université Montpellier) , Montpellier, France
| | | | - Fatima Amaro
- 4 Centre for Vectors and Infectious Diseases Research, National Institute of Health Ricardo Jorge , Águas de Moura, Portugal
| | - Bulent Alten
- 5 Ecology Section, ESRL Laboratories, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University , Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sara Moutailler
- 6 Animal Health Laboratory , UMR BIPAR, ANSES Maisons-Alfort, Paris, France
| | - Koray Ergunay
- 7 Virology Unit, Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University , Ankara, Turkey
| | - Remi N Charrel
- 1 UMR "Emergence des Pathologies Virales" (EPV: Aix-Marseille Univ. - IRD 190 - Inserm 1207 - EHESP), Fondation IHU Méditerranée Infection, APHM Public Hospitals of Marseille , Marseille, France
| | - Hartwig Huemer
- 8 Division of Virology, Departments Hygiene, Microbiology and Social Medicine, Innsbruck Medical University , Innsbruck, Austria
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Arthropod-borne virus (Arbovirus) infections are considered an emerging threat for Europe, with an increase in cases in recent decades. The increase in global travel and trade has contributed to the introduction of vectors and viruses into new geographical areas. Tropical arboviruses such as dengue and chikungunya have re-emerged causing local, sporadic outbreaks ignited by travel-imported cases. The recent Zika virus outbreak in the Americas highlighted a need to strengthen preparedness for (re-)emerging arbovirus infections globally. AIMS To strengthen preparedness for the early identification of (re-)emerging arbovirus outbreaks in Europe and highlight areas for research. SOURCES An evidence review of published and grey literature together with consultations with European arbovirus experts. CONTENT This paper presents an overview of endemic and travel-imported arboviruses of clinical significance in Europe. The overview includes syndromic presentation, risk factors for infection and risk of transmission as well as an update on treatments and vaccinations and surveillance notifications and reporting. The paper also presents predictive modelled risks of further geographical expansion of vectors and viruses. IMPLICATIONS There are a range of arboviruses of clinical significance to Europe. There has been an increase in notifications of endemic and travel-imported arbovirus cases in recent years and an increased geographical range of vectors and viruses. The heterogeneity in surveillance reporting indicates a risk for the early identification of (re-)emerging outbreaks. The data presented show a need to strengthen preparedness for (re-)emerging arbovirus infections and a need for research into neglected arboviruses, risks of non-vector transmission and effective therapeutics and vaccinations.
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16
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Rugna G, Carra E, Corpus F, Calzolari M, Salvatore D, Bellini R, Di Francesco A, Franceschini E, Bruno A, Poglayen G, Varani S, Vitale F, Merialdi G. Distinct Leishmania infantum Strains Circulate in Humans and Dogs in the Emilia-Romagna Region, Northeastern Italy. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017; 17:409-415. [PMID: 28301296 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2016.2052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Human leishmaniasis is an emerging problem in Italy and is on the increase in the Emilia-Romagna region, northeastern part of the country. Nevertheless, studies dealing with the molecular characterization of Leishmania spp. circulating in these areas are limited. In the present work, we explored the genetic polymorphism of Leishmania isolates from 28 cases of canine leishmaniasis and three cases of human visceral leishmaniasis (VL), which occurred in 2013-2014 in the Emilia-Romagna region. The characterization was carried out in comparison with nine human isolates of Leishmania from other VL endemic Italian regions and two reference strains. Nucleic acid from 31 Leishmania-positive phlebotomine sandfly pools, sampled in 2012-2013 in the Emilia-Romagna region, were also evaluated. DNA amplification and sequencing of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer-1 and of a repetitive nuclear region on chromosome 31 were carried out for genotyping. Two size polymorphic targets were also analyzed by PCR, the cpb E/F-gene and the k26-gene. Altogether, the analysis showed the circulation of different Leishmania infantum genotypes in the Emilia-Romagna region: two genotypes found in dogs from public kennels were similar to VL isolates from other Italian regions, whereas a third genotype was detected in VL cases of the Emilia-Romagna region and in all but one of the sandfly pools. The combined molecular tools applied in this study can constitute a helpful support for parasite tracking (e.g., in outbreak investigations) and for a better understanding of the epidemiological evolution of leishmaniasis in northeastern Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Rugna
- 1 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Elena Carra
- 1 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesco Corpus
- 1 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Mattia Calzolari
- 1 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
| | - Daniela Salvatore
- 2 Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna , Ozzano Emilia, Italy
| | - Romeo Bellini
- 3 Medical and Veterinary Entomology Department, Centro Agricoltura Ambiente "G. Nicoli" IAEA Collaborating Center , Crevalcore, Italy
| | | | - Erica Franceschini
- 4 Clinic of Infectious Diseases, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria , Policlinico of Modena, Modena, Italy
| | - Antonella Bruno
- 5 Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico S. Matteo , S.C. Microbiologia e Virologia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Poglayen
- 2 Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna , Ozzano Emilia, Italy
| | - Stefania Varani
- 6 Unit of Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic, and Specialty Medicine, St. Orsola Malpighi University Hospital, University of Bologna , Bologna, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Vitale
- 7 National Reference Center for Leishmaniasis (C.Re.Na.L.) , Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Merialdi
- 1 Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy
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Meningitis Caused by Toscana Virus Is Associated with Strong Antiviral Response in the CNS and Altered Frequency of Blood Antigen-Presenting Cells. Viruses 2015; 7:5831-43. [PMID: 26569288 PMCID: PMC4664982 DOI: 10.3390/v7112909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Toscana virus (TOSV) is a Phlebotomus-transmitted RNA virus and a frequent cause of human meningitis and meningoencephalitis in Southern Europe during the summer season. While evidence for TOSV-related central nervous system (CNS) cases is increasing, little is known about the host defenses against TOSV. We evaluated innate immune response to TOSV by analyzing frequency and activation of blood antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and cytokine levels in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with TOSV neuroinvasive infection and controls. An altered frequency of different blood APC subsets was observed in TOSV-infected patients, with signs of monocytic deactivation. Nevertheless, a proper or even increased responsiveness of toll-like receptor 3 and 7/8 was observed in blood APCs of these patients as compared to healthy controls. Systemic levels of cytokines remained low in TOSV-infected patients, while levels of anti-inflammatory and antiviral mediators were significantly higher in CSF from TOSV-infected patients as compared to patients with other infectious and noninfectious neurological diseases. Thus, the early host response to TOSV appears effective for viral clearance, by proper response to TLR3 and TLR7/8 agonists in peripheral blood and by a strong and selective antiviral and anti-inflammatory response in the CNS.
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