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Summa M, Tuutti E, Al-Hello H, Huttunen LM, Rimhanen-Finne R. Norovirus GII.17 Caused Five Outbreaks Linked to Frozen Domestic Bilberries in Finland, 2019. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2024; 16:180-187. [PMID: 38466479 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-024-09587-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
In March 2019, the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare and Finnish Food Authority started an outbreak investigation after a notification of food business operators' recall of frozen bilberries due to a norovirus finding. A retrospective search was conducted in the food and waterborne outbreak notification system to identify the notifications linked to norovirus and consumption of bilberries in January-March 2019. Five outbreaks were found in which norovirus GII or GII.17 had been detected in patient samples. A pooled retrospective cohort study was performed for those four in which a questionnaire study had been done. A case was defined as a person with diarrhoea or vomiting within 2 days after consuming a meal studied at one of the outbreak locations. Of 79 participants, 45 (57%) cases were identified. Persons that had consumed foods containing unheated bilberries were three times more likely to get ill than those who had not consumed them (RR 3.1, CI 95% 1.2-8.1, p = 0.02). Norovirus GII.17 was found in 16/17 patient samples sent for further typing. Identical norovirus GII.17 was detected in frozen Finnish bilberries and patient samples. At the berry packaging premises, signs of norovirus GII contamination were found in packaging lines. A new procedure for extracting viral nucleic acid from food and environmental samples was used during the outbreak investigation. Consumption of industrially packed frozen berries as heated would be one of the means to prevent norovirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maija Summa
- Microbiology Unit, Laboratory and Research Division, Finnish Food Authority, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Enni Tuutti
- Food Chain Division, Microbiological Food Safety Unit, Finnish Food Authority, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Haider Al-Hello
- Expert Microbiology Unit, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Liisa-Maija Huttunen
- Infectious Disease Control and Vaccinations Unit, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ruska Rimhanen-Finne
- Infectious Disease Control and Vaccinations Unit, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
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Johne R, Scholz J, Falkenhagen A. Heat stability of foodborne viruses - Findings, methodological challenges and current developments. Int J Food Microbiol 2024; 413:110582. [PMID: 38290272 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Heat treatment of food represents an important measure to prevent pathogen transmission. Thus far, evaluation of heat treatment processes is mainly based on data from bacteria. However, foodborne viruses have gained increasing attention during the last decades. Here, the published literature on heat stability and inactivation of human norovirus (NoV), hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) was reviewed. Data for surrogate viruses were not included. As stability assessment for foodborne viruses is often hampered by missing infectivity assays, an overview of applied methods is also presented. For NoV, molecular capsid integrity assays were mainly applied, but data from initial studies utilizing novel intestinal enteroid or zebrafish larvae assays are available now. However, these methods are still limited in applicability and sensitivity. For HAV, sufficient cell culture-based inactivation data are available, but almost exclusively for one single strain, thus limiting interpretation of the data for the wide range of field strains. For HEV, data are now available from studies using pig inoculation or cell culture. The results of the reviewed studies generally indicate that NoV, HAV and HEV possess a high heat stability. Heating at 70-72 °C for 2 min significantly reduces infectious titers, but often does not result in a >4 log10 decrease. However, heat stability greatly varied dependent on virus strain, matrix and heating regime. In addition, the applied method largely influenced the result, e.g. capsid integrity assays tend to result in higher measured stabilities than cell culture approaches. It can be concluded that the investigated foodborne viruses show a high heat stability, but can be inactivated by application of appropriate heating protocols. For HAV, suggestions for safe time/temperature combinations for specific foods can be derived from the published studies, with the limitation that they are mostly based on one strain only. Although significant improvement of infectivity assays for NoV and HEV have been made during the last years, further method development regarding sensitivity, robustness and broader applicability is important to generate more reliable heat inactivation data for these foodborne viruses in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reimar Johne
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Johannes Scholz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander Falkenhagen
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
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Race AS, Spoelstra J, Parker BL. Wastewater contaminants in a fractured bedrock aquifer and their potential use as enteric virus indicators. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0121323. [PMID: 38231263 PMCID: PMC10880619 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01213-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Domestic wastewater is a source of persistent organic pollutants and pathogens to the aquatic environment, including groundwater aquifers. Wastewater contaminants include a variety of personal care products, pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupters, bacteria, and viruses. Groundwater from 22 wells completed in a semi-confined to confined, fractured Silurian dolostone aquifer in southern Wellington County, Ontario, Canada, was analyzed for 14 organic wastewater contaminants (4 artificial sweeteners, 10 pharmaceuticals) as well as E. coli, total coliforms, and 6 human enteric viruses. Enteric viruses were detected in 8.6% of 116 samples, and at least one organic wastewater contaminant was detected in 82% of the wells (in order of decreasing detection frequency: acesulfame, ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole, triclosan, carbamazepine, and saccharin). Virus indicator metrics [positive and negative predictive values (PPV, NPV), sensitivity, specificity] were calculated at the sample and well level for the organic wastewater compounds, E. coli, and total coliforms. Fecal bacteria were not good predictors of virus presence (PPV = 0%-8%). Of the potential chemical indicators, triclosan performed the best at the sample level (PPV = 50%, NPV = 100%), and ibuprofen performed the best at the well level (PPV = 60%, NPV = 67%); however, no samples had triclosan or ibuprofen concentrations above their practical quantification limits. Therefore, none of the compounds performed sufficiently well to be considered reliable for assessing the potential threat of enteric viruses in wastewater-impacted groundwater in this bedrock aquifer. Future studies need to evaluate the indicator potential of persistent organic wastewater contaminants in different types of aquifers, especially in fractured rock where heterogeneity is strong.IMPORTANCEAssessing the potential risk that human enteric viruses pose in groundwater aquifers used for potable water supply is complicated by several factors, including: (i) labor-intensive methods for the isolation and quantification of viruses in groundwater, (ii) the temporal variability of these viruses in domestic wastewater, and (iii) their potentially rapid transport in the subsurface, especially in fractured rock aquifers. Therefore, aquifer risk assessment would benefit from the identification of suitable proxy indicators of enteric viruses that are easier to analyze and less variable in wastewater sources. Traditional fecal indicators (e.g., E. coli and coliforms) are generally poor indicators of enteric viruses in groundwater. While many studies have examined the use of pharmaceutical and personal care products as tracers of domestic wastewater and fecal pollution in the environment, there is a paucity of data on the potential use of these chemical tracers as enteric virus indicators, especially in groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S. Race
- Morwick G360 Groundwater Research Institute, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Now with: Tesla, Spring Creek, Nevada, USA
| | - John Spoelstra
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
| | - Beth L. Parker
- Morwick G360 Groundwater Research Institute, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Hennechart-Collette C, Fourniol L, Fraisse A, Martin-Latil S, Perelle S. Evaluation of a Proteinase K-Based Extraction Method to Detect Hepatitis A Virus, Hepatitis E Virus and Norovirus in Artificially Contaminated Dairy Products. Foods 2023; 12:foods12071489. [PMID: 37048310 PMCID: PMC10093961 DOI: 10.3390/foods12071489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus and hepatitis viruses (hepatitis A (HAV) and hepatitis E (HEV)) are leading causes of foodborne disease worldwide. Among the various food products, different types of dairy products can be implicated in viral foodborne outbreaks and contamination can occur at different stages, such as preparation, contact with contaminated equipment or via other foods. The aim of this study was to characterise a proteinase K method adapted from the ISO 15216 method for the detection of HAV, HEV and norovirus in artificially contaminated dairy products, based on the recent international standard of ISO 16140-4. Results showed that the recovery yields obtained from pure RNA in dairy products ranged from 5.76% to 76.40% for HAV, from 35.09% to 100.00% for HEV, from 25.09% to 100.00% for norovirus GI and from 47.83% to 100.00% for norovirus GII. The process control MNV-1 was detected in all RNA extracts, with recovery yields between 36.83% and 100.00%. The limit of detection (LOD) of the method was between 184 and 642 genome copies/mL (or/g) for the LOD50 and 802 and 2800 genome copies/mL or/g for the LOD95 according to the virus analysed. This method proved to be suitable for detecting viruses in dairy products for routine diagnostic needs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa Fourniol
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Université Paris-Est, Anses, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Audrey Fraisse
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Université Paris-Est, Anses, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sandra Martin-Latil
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Université Paris-Est, Anses, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sylvie Perelle
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Université Paris-Est, Anses, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Melo J, Quintas C. Minimally processed fruits as vehicles for foodborne pathogens. AIMS Microbiol 2023; 9:1-19. [PMID: 36891538 PMCID: PMC9988415 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2023001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The consumption of minimally processed fruit (MPF) has increased over the last decade due to a novel trend in the food market along with the raising consumers demand for fresh, organic, convenient foods and the search for healthier lifestyles. Although represented by one of the most expanded sectors in recent years, the microbiological safety of MPF and its role as an emergent foodborne vehicle has caused great concern to the food industry and public health authorities. Such food products may expose consumers to a risk of foodborne infection as they are not subjected to prior microbial lethal methods to ensure the removal or destruction of pathogens before consumption. A considerable number of foodborne disease cases linked to MPF have been reported and pathogenic strains of Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, as well as Norovirus accounted for the majority of cases. Microbial spoilage is also an issue of concern as it may result in huge economic losses among the various stakeholders involved in the manufacturing and commercialization of MPF. Contamination can take place at any step of production/manufacturing and identifying the nature and sources of microbial growth in the farm-to-fork chain is crucial to ensure appropriate handling practices for producers, retailers, and consumers. This review aims to summarize information about the microbiological hazards associated with the consumption of MPF and also highlight the importance of establishing effective control measures and developing coordinated strategies in order to enhance their safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessie Melo
- Universidade do Algarve, Instituto Superior de Engenharia, Campus da Penha 8005-139, Faro Portugal and MED, Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Célia Quintas
- Universidade do Algarve, Instituto Superior de Engenharia, Campus da Penha 8005-139, Faro Portugal and MED, Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
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Ortiz‐Solà J, Valero A, Abadias M, Nicolau‐Lapeña I, Viñas I. Evaluation of water-assisted UV-C light and its additive effect with peracetic acid for the inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica and murine norovirus on whole and fresh-cut strawberries during shelf-life. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2022; 102:5660-5669. [PMID: 35373358 PMCID: PMC9545235 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.11913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of the present study was to examine the inactivation of Salmonella enterica (50 μL; 109 CFU g-1 ), Listeria monocytogenes (50 μL; 109 CFU g-1 ), and murine norovirus (MNV-1; 50 μL; 107 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50 ) mL-1 ) on whole and fresh-cut strawberries after 2 min disinfection treatments (water (H2 O), chlorine 200 mg L-1 (NaClO), water-assisted ultraviolet-C (UV-C) (WUV), and the combination WUV and 40 mg L-1 of PA (WUV + PA)) in a water tank (15 L) equipped with 4 UV-C lamps (17.2 W each), and after 7 days of cold storage (4 and 10 °C). For MNV-1, dry UV-C treatment (DUV) was also tested. For all UV-C treatments, an irradiation dose of 1.3 kJ m-2 was used. RESULTS When strawberries were washed with WUV, L. monocytogenes and S. enterica were reduced by 2.8 and 2.2 log CFU g-1 , respectively. The addition of 40 mg L-1 of PA to WUV (WUV + PA) increased the reduction range of L. monocytogenes and S. enterica by 1.9 and 0.8 log, respectively. Regarding the wash water, no pathogens were recovered after the WUV + PA treatment (detection limit 50 CFU mL-1 ). Depending on storage conditions (7 days at 4 or 10 °C), reductions observed were 0.5 to 2.0 log for S. enterica and 0.5 to 3.0 log for L. monocytogenes. The reductions in MNV-1 titer after disinfection treatments ranged from 1.3 to 1.7 log. No significant differences between storage conditions were observed for MNV-1: titers did not decline or were reduced up to 0.3 log after 7 days of cold storage. CONCLUSION The three-way action for disinfecting strawberries by UV-C irradiation and PA, plus the physical removal of the microorganisms by agitated water, are effective against foodborne pathogens on strawberries and water wash. During storage, WUV had a larger impact on the inactivation kinetics of S. enterica. Storage had little impact on MNV-1 inactivation. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Ortiz‐Solà
- Universitat de Lleida, Food Technology DepartmentAgrotecnio‐Cerca Center, 25001LleidaCarrer de Jaume II, 69Spain
| | - Antonio Valero
- Universidad de CórdobaFaculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food science and Technology, 14014CórdobaAvenida de Medina Azahara, 1Spain
| | - Maribel Abadias
- IRTA, Postharvest Programme, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic i Tecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, 25003LleidaParc de GardenySpain
| | - Iolanda Nicolau‐Lapeña
- Universitat de Lleida, Food Technology DepartmentAgrotecnio‐Cerca Center, 25001LleidaCarrer de Jaume II, 69Spain
| | - Inmaculada Viñas
- Universitat de Lleida, Food Technology DepartmentAgrotecnio‐Cerca Center, 25001LleidaCarrer de Jaume II, 69Spain
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Steele M, Lambert D, Bissonnette R, Yamamoto E, Hardie K, Locas A. Norovirus GI and GII and hepatitis A virus in berries and pomegranate arils in Canada. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 379:109840. [PMID: 35905649 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Between 2016 and 2021, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) collected 4218 samples of fresh and frozen berries (blackberries, blueberries, raspberries, strawberries and mixed berries) and pomegranate arils at retail across 11 major cities in Canada and tested these samples for the presence of norovirus GI, norovirus GII and hepatitis A virus RNA. The purpose of this testing was to provide information on the prevalence of these viruses in berries and pomegranate arils on the Canadian marketplace. Of the 926 fresh fruit samples tested, norovirus GI RNA was detected in one raspberry sample and norovirus GII RNA was detected in one strawberry sample. Of the 3292 frozen fruit samples tested, norovirus GI RNA was detected in one blackberry sample, one raspberry sample and one strawberry sample, and norovirus GII RNA was detected in one blueberry sample, three raspberry samples, four strawberry samples, one pomegranate arils sample and one mixed berry sample. None of the fresh or frozen fruit samples tested positive for hepatitis A virus RNA. No statistically significant associations were observed between the prevalence of viral RNA in samples of fresh and frozen fruit, between the prevalence of viral RNA in samples of domestic and imported fruit or between the prevalence of viral RNA in samples of specific fruit types. Overall, the prevalence of norovirus GI and GII RNA together in fresh and frozen fruit samples in Canada was 0.36 %. The results of this study may be used to refine surveillance programs for norovirus and hepatitis A virus in fresh and frozen berries and pomegranate arils, e.g. by adapting the commodities tested and/or the numbers of planned samples to better target these hazards. This information may also be used to inform other Government of Canada approaches to better understand the controls associated norovirus and hepatitis A virus in fresh and frozen berries and pomegranate arils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Steele
- Food Safety Science Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1400 Merivale Rd., Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0Y9.
| | - Dominic Lambert
- Food Virology National Reference Centre, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, St-Hyacinthe Laboratory, 3400 Casavant Boulevard West, St-Hyacinthe J2S 8E3, QC, Canada
| | - Rachel Bissonnette
- Food Virology National Reference Centre, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, St-Hyacinthe Laboratory, 3400 Casavant Boulevard West, St-Hyacinthe J2S 8E3, QC, Canada
| | - Etsuko Yamamoto
- Food Safety Science Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1400 Merivale Rd., Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0Y9
| | - Kate Hardie
- Food Safety Science Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1400 Merivale Rd., Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0Y9
| | - Annie Locas
- Food Safety Science Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1400 Merivale Rd., Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0Y9
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Transfer of MS2 bacteriophage from surfaces to raspberry and pitanga fruits and virus survival in response to sanitization, frozen storage and preservation technologies. Food Microbiol 2022; 104:103995. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.103995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Monitoring coliphages to reduce waterborne infectious disease transmission in the One Water framework. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2022; 240:113921. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.113921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Gómez-López VM, Jubinville E, Rodríguez-López MI, Trudel-Ferland M, Bouchard S, Jean J. Inactivation of Foodborne Viruses by UV Light: A Review. Foods 2021; 10:foods10123141. [PMID: 34945692 PMCID: PMC8701782 DOI: 10.3390/foods10123141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses on some foods can be inactivated by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. This green technology has little impact on product quality and, thus, could be used to increase food safety. While its bactericidal effect has been studied extensively, little is known about the viricidal effect of UV on foods. The mechanism of viral inactivation by UV results mainly from an alteration of the genetic material (DNA or RNA) within the viral capsid and, to a lesser extent, by modifying major and minor viral proteins of the capsid. In this review, we examine the potential of UV treatment as a means of inactivating viruses on food processing surfaces and different foods. The most common foodborne viruses and their laboratory surrogates; further explanation on the inactivation mechanism and its efficacy in water, liquid foods, meat products, fruits, and vegetables; and the prospects for the commercial application of this technology are discussed. Lastly, we describe UV’s limitations and legislation surrounding its use. Based on our review of the literature, viral inactivation in water seems to be particularly effective. While consistent inactivation through turbid liquid food or the entire surface of irregular food matrices is more challenging, some treatments on different food matrices seem promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente M. Gómez-López
- Catedra Alimentos para la Salud, Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, Campus de los Jerónimos, E-30107 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Eric Jubinville
- Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Département des Sciences des Aliments, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (E.J.); (M.T.-F.); (S.B.)
| | - María Isabel Rodríguez-López
- Departamento de Tecnología de la Alimentación y Nutrición, Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, Campus de los Jerónimos, E-30107 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Mathilde Trudel-Ferland
- Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Département des Sciences des Aliments, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (E.J.); (M.T.-F.); (S.B.)
| | - Simon Bouchard
- Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Département des Sciences des Aliments, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (E.J.); (M.T.-F.); (S.B.)
| | - Julie Jean
- Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Département des Sciences des Aliments, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (E.J.); (M.T.-F.); (S.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-418-656-2131 (ext. 413849)
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Tan MTH, Xue L, Wang D, Eshaghi Gorji M, Li Y, Gong Z, Li D. The globally re-emerging norovirus GII.2 manifests higher heat resistance than norovirus GII.4 and Tulane virus. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 132:2441-2449. [PMID: 34821445 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To compare the heat stability of two globally prevalent human norovirus (HuNoV) strains (GII.2[P16] and GII.4[P16]) and a commonly used HuNoV surrogate, Tulane virus (TV). METHODS AND RESULTS With the use of a newly developed zebrafish larvae platform, we measured the change of infectivity of HuNoV GII.2[P16] and GII.4[P16] toward mild heat treatment at 55°C for 5 min. TV was tested with the same experimental design. As a result, the virus infectivity measurement clearly indicated the higher heat resistance of HuNoV GII.2[P16] (no reduction) than GII.4[P16] (>0.8-log TCID50 ml-1 reduction) and TV (2.5-log TCID50 ml-1 reduction). Further exploration revealed higher virus structural stability of HuNoV GII.2 than GII.4 strains by the use of different clinical samples with different evaluation methods. CONCLUSION The inactivation data generated from the surrogate virus TV cannot be used directly to describe the inactivation of HuNoV. The phylogenetic classification of HuNoVs may correlate with the virus stability and/or circulation dynamics. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This study is expected to serve as an important reference when revisiting the numerous previous data evaluating HuNoV inactivation conditions in foods with the use of TV as the cultivable surrogate or with genuine HuNoV but using molecular methods. The higher resistance of NoV GII.2 strains than GII.4 strains toward inactivation treatment supplies a possible explanation for the global re-emerging of NoV GII.2 epidemic in recent years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm Turk Hsern Tan
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Liang Xue
- Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dapeng Wang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mohamad Eshaghi Gorji
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zhiyuan Gong
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Physicochemical Parameters Affecting Norovirus Adhesion to Ready-To-Eat Foods. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0139621. [PMID: 34550762 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01396-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The adhesion of noroviruses to strawberry, turkey slices, ham, and cheddar cheese was studied using murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) as a surrogate for human norovirus (NoV). Based on plaque assay, the recovery and adhesion of MNV-1 depended on the food type (turkey versus strawberry), pH of the initial suspension buffer (pH 4 versus pH 7), and food fat composition (C8 versus C18). Recovery of infectious particles from turkey was 68% compared to 9.4% from strawberry. On turkey, adhesion of MNV-1 was lower at pH 7 (pH of fecal matter), and virus particles adhered to this pH were recovered more easily (33,875 PFU) than at pH 4 (pH of vomitus). The presence of fat and the composition of fatty acids seemed to increase MNV-1 recovery and adherent viral particles recovered but did not affect adhesion (68% on fat-free turkey and regular turkey). Adherent MNV-1 particles recovered from stainless steel coated with saturated fatty acid (C8, C14, C18) increased significantly with chain length (P < 0.05), but adhesion did not seem to change. Using liquid droplet contact angle to measure surface energy, it was deduced that hydrophobic interactions contribute considerably to the adhesion of MNV-1 to stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride, and high-density polyethylene. IMPORTANCE Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods are major vehicles of transmission of foodborne viral pathogens, including NoV. The high incidence of gastroenteritis caused by viruses is due largely to their persistence in the environment and adhesion to different kinds of surfaces in the food industry, including the foods themselves. Compared with bacteria, adhesion of viruses to surfaces is poorly understood. Better knowledge of the physicochemical parameters involved in the adhesion of NoV to ready-to-eat foods is essential to devising effective strategies for reducing the persistence and, thus, the transmission of this virus.
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Boone I, Rosner B, Lachmann R, D'Errico ML, Iannetti L, Van der Stede Y, Boelaert F, Ethelberg S, Eckmanns T, Stark K, Haller S, Wilking H. Healthcare-associated foodborne outbreaks in high-income countries: a literature review and surveillance study, 16 OECD countries, 2001 to 2019. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 26. [PMID: 34651575 PMCID: PMC8518306 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2021.26.41.2001278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BackgroundHealthcare-associated foodborne outbreaks (HA-FBO) may have severe consequences, especially in vulnerable groups.AimThe aim was to describe the current state of HA-FBO and propose public health recommendations for prevention.MethodsWe searched PubMed, the Outbreak Database (Charité, University Medicine Berlin), and hand-searched reference lists for HA-FBO with outbreak onset between 2001 and 2018 from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and HA-FBO (2012-2018) from the German surveillance system. Additionally, data from the European Food Safety Authority were analysed.ResultsThe literature search retrieved 57 HA-FBO from 16 OECD countries, primarily in the US (n = 11), Germany (n = 11) and the United Kingdom (n = 9). In addition, 28 HA-FBO were retrieved from the German surveillance system. Based on the number of outbreaks, the top three pathogens associated with the overall 85 HA-FBO were Salmonella (n = 24), norovirus (n = 22) and Listeria monocytogenes (n = 19). Based on the number of deaths, L. monocytogenes was the main pathogen causing HA-FBO. Frequently reported implicated foods were 'mixed foods' (n = 16), 'vegetables and fruits' (n = 15) and 'meat and meat products' (n = 10). Consumption of high-risk food by vulnerable patients, inadequate time-temperature control, insufficient kitchen hygiene and food hygiene and carriers of pathogens among food handlers were reported as reasons for HA-FBO.ConclusionTo prevent HA-FBO, the supply of high-risk food to vulnerable people should be avoided. Well working outbreak surveillance facilitates early detection and requires close interdisciplinary collaboration and exchange of information between hospitals, food safety and public health authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Idesbald Boone
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bettina Rosner
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Raskit Lachmann
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michele Luca D'Errico
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Luigi Iannetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise G. Caporale, National Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Teramo, Italy
| | | | | | - Steen Ethelberg
- Statens Serum Institut, Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Prevention, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tim Eckmanns
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Stark
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Haller
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hendrik Wilking
- Robert Koch Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
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14
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Identification of the source of a Listeria monocytogenes outbreak by investigational tracing. J Verbrauch Lebensm 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00003-021-01336-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe number of identified listeriosis outbreaks has increased since the sequence typing of Listeria monocytogenes isolates was established in Germany. Due to the nature of the disease, listeriosis outbreaks are difficult to solve. We present investigational tracing as a simple and rapid method to conduct outbreak investigations. The method was applied in 2019 to stop a prolonged listeriosis outbreak in Germany. The starting point for the investigational tracing was nine health care facilities (HCF). Single cases developed listeriosis while they were staying at the nine facilities. Data were collected from companies that delivered foods to HCF and from ready-to-eat (RTE) foods that were consumed there. Following a step-wise approach, data analysis identified similarities in the food supply of the HCF. Food data were heterogeneous and needed to be standardised. Own brands and changing article numbers were challenging aspects during the identification of manufacturers. The analysis of the delivering companies revealed no similarities. Detailed information about the consumed risk foods for Listeria contamination became available for six HCF. All facilities served a wide variety of cold cut meat products to their in-patients. Investigational tracing revealed that only meat products from one out of 29 food business operators had been consumed in all six HCF. Further activities of the authorities enabled the identification of the outbreak strain on food products and in the processing environment of this company. A product recall and the measures taken stopped the listeriosis outbreak. Thus, investigational tracing can be crucial for the clarification of listeriosis outbreaks.
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15
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Savelli CJ, Garcia Acevedo RF, Simpson J, Mateus C. The utilisation of tools to facilitate cross-border communication during international food safety events, 1995-2020: a realist synthesis. Global Health 2021; 17:65. [PMID: 34167571 PMCID: PMC8222958 DOI: 10.1186/s12992-021-00715-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficient communication and coordination are needed between countries to prevent, detect and respond to international food safety events. While communication tools, networks and systems exist, current evidence suggests that they are only useful within particular contexts and several only target specific geographic areas. There is a need to unpack and explore the mechanisms of how and in what context such communication tools and their components are effective at facilitating international communication and coordination to keep food safe and mitigate the burden of foodborne disease around the world. A realist synthesis was undertaken to understand how and why certain processes and structures of communication tools, used during international food safety events, influence their utility and effectiveness according to different contextual factors. The focus of this review was explanatory and aimed to develop and refine theory regarding how contextual factors trigger specific processes and mechanisms to produce outcomes. Using the realist context–mechanism–outcome configuration of theory development, a range of sources was used to develop an initial programme theory, including the authors’ experience, a scoping review of published papers and grey literature and input from an expert reference committee. Literature was then systematically located and synthesised from several databases with input from the expert reference committee to refine the programme theory. The programme theory developed indicates that when a country has interests in food import or export, has the technical infrastructure to detect and respond to food safety events, and is governed in accordance with regional and/or global laws and regulations relating to food control and global health security, then specific mechanisms will facilitate various outcomes. Mechanisms include trust, experience, support, awareness, understanding, a sense of community, standardisation and intersectoral collaboration. The outcomes include using communication tools to relay information abroad and the prevention of foodborne diseases, among others. Components of such communication tools may be adapted according to different contextual factors to promote, support and improve their use. Improving international coordination and communication during international food safety events is in the interest of global health security and can mitigate the global burden of foodborne disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Joseph Savelli
- World Health Organization, Nutrition and Food Safety, Avenue Appia 20, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland. .,Lancaster University, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Division of Health Research, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4YW, UK.
| | | | - Jane Simpson
- Lancaster University, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Division of Health Research, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4YW, UK
| | - Céu Mateus
- Lancaster University, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Division of Health Research, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4YW, UK
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16
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Kim JG, Kim JS, Kim JG. Characteristics of Norovirus Food Poisoning Outbreaks in Korea in the 2000s. J Food Prot 2021; 84:472-480. [PMID: 33108448 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-20-093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Norovirus food poisoning outbreaks in Korea (South) appeared in the 2000s and have been increasing since then. We aimed to investigate the epidemiological features of norovirus food poisoning outbreaks in Korea from 2002 to 2017, on the basis of official food poisoning statistics and publically reliable reports, and to find any associations with climate factors. Norovirus was the most common cause of food poisoning among known causative substances in Korea during the study period. More than one-third of the outbreaks occurred in group meal service facilities, including school lunch programs. A few of these facilities used groundwater contaminated with noroviruses to wash or cook food, which contributed to outbreaks. Norovirus occurrences showed strong seasonality: cold and relatively dry winter air may help norovirus to flourish. Both norovirus genotypes GI and GII that are infectious to humans were detected, with GII becoming more prevalent than GI. According to our correlation analysis in connection with climate factors, average temperatures, the highest and lowest temperatures, precipitation, the number of rain days, and humidity showed a significant negative correlation with a monthly norovirus occurrence (P < 0.05). The lowest temperature and average temperature had higher coefficients of correlation, -0.377 and -0.376, respectively. The norovirus outbreaks in Korea showed complex etiological characteristics, although more prevailed in wintertime, and are now a major public health problem. The use of groundwater in group meal service settings is a public health issue, as well as a norovirus concern; therefore, groundwater used in food service facilities and businesses should be treated for safety. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Gyu Kim
- Faculty of Food and Health Sciences, Keimyung University, 1095 Dalgubeol-daero, Dalseo-gu, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7310-1492 [Jong-Gyu Kim])
| | - Joong-Soon Kim
- Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Gyoo Kim
- School of Games (Software), Hongik University, Sejong 30016, Republic of Korea
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17
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Trudel-Ferland M, Jubinville E, Jean J. Persistence of Hepatitis A Virus RNA in Water, on Non-porous Surfaces, and on Blueberries. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:618352. [PMID: 33613487 PMCID: PMC7890088 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.618352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses, such as human norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV), are the leading cause of transmissible foodborne illness. Fresh produce such as berries are often contaminated by infected food handlers, soiled water, or food contact surfaces. The gold-standard method for virus detection throughout the food chain is RT-qPCR, which detects portions of genomes including non-infectious viral particles and naked viral RNA. The aim of this study was to evaluate the persistence of heat-inactivated HAV in water, phosphate-buffered saline, on stainless steel and polyvinyl chloride, and on blueberries at −80°C, −20°C, 4°C, and room temperature. In water and phosphate-buffered saline, viral RNA could be detected for up to 90 days regardless of temperature when the initial load was 2.5 × 104 or 2.5 × 106 genome copies. It was detected on polyvinyl chloride and blueberries under most conditions. On stainless steel, the large initial load persisted for 90 days, while the medium-level load was detected only up to 16 days at room temperature or 60 days at 4°C. The detection of non-infectious viral RNA can confound investigations of gastroenteritis outbreaks. Pretreatments that discriminate between naked RNA, non-infectious virions and infectious virions need to be included in the RT-qPCR method in order to reduce the risk of positive results associated with non-infectious viral particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Trudel-Ferland
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Eric Jubinville
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Julie Jean
- Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada
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18
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Abstract
This report of the EFSA and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control presents the results of zoonoses monitoring activities carried out in 2019 in 36 European countries (28 Member States (MS) and eight non-MS). The first and second most reported zoonoses in humans were campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis, respectively. The EU trend for confirmed human cases of these two diseases was stable (flat) during 2015-2019. The proportion of human salmonellosis cases due to Salmonella Enteritidis acquired in the EU was similar to that in 2017-2018. Of the 26 MS reporting on Salmonella control programmes in poultry, 18 met the reduction targets, whereas eight failed to meet at least one. The EU prevalence of Salmonella target serovar-positive flocks has been stable since 2015 for breeding hens, laying hens, broilers and fattening turkeys, with fluctuations for breeding turkey flocks. Salmonella results from competent authorities for pig carcases and for poultry tested through national control programmes were more frequently positive than those from food business operators. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) infection was the third most reported zoonosis in humans and increased from 2015 to 2019. Yersiniosis was the fourth most reported zoonosis in humans in 2019 with a stable trend in 2015-2019. The EU trend of confirmed listeriosis cases remained stable in 2015-2019 after a long period of increase. Listeria rarely exceeded the EU food safety limit tested in ready-to-eat food. In total, 5,175 food-borne outbreaks were reported. Salmonella remained the most detected agent but the number of outbreaks due to S. Enteritidis decreased. Norovirus in fish and fishery products was the agent/food pair causing the highest number of strong-evidence outbreaks. The report provides further updates on bovine tuberculosis, Brucella, Trichinella, Echinococcus, Toxoplasma, rabies, West Nile virus, Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) and tularaemia.
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19
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Ruscher C, Faber M, Werber D, Stark K, Bitzegeio J, Michaelis K, Sagebiel D, Wenzel JJ, Enkelmann J. Resurgence of an international hepatitis A outbreak linked to imported frozen strawberries, Germany, 2018 to 2020. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 25. [PMID: 32945256 PMCID: PMC7502883 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.37.1900670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Following outbreaks linked to frozen strawberries in Sweden and Austria in 2018, 65 cases linked to the same hepatitis A virus strain were detected in Germany between October 2018 and January 2020, presenting in two waves. Two case–control studies and a comparison of cases’ consumption frequencies with purchase data from a large consumer panel provided strong evidence for frozen strawberry cake as the main vehicle of transmission. Of 46 cases interviewed, 27 reported consuming frozen strawberry cake and 25 of these identified cake(s) from brand A spontaneously or in product picture-assisted recall. Trace back investigations revealed that the Polish producer involved in the previous outbreaks in Sweden and Austria had received frozen strawberries from Egypt via a wholesaler that also delivered frozen strawberries to manufacturer of brand A. Phylogenetic analyses linked the outbreak strain to similar strains formerly isolated from sewage, stool and strawberries in Egypt. Complete trace back and timely recall of products with strong evidence of contamination is important to control an outbreak and prevent later resurgence, particularly for food items with a long shelf life. Continued molecular surveillance of hepatitis A is needed to identify outbreaks and monitor the success of food safety interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Ruscher
- State Office for Health and Social Affairs (LAGeSo), Berlin, Germany
| | - Mirko Faber
- Robert Koch Institute, Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dirk Werber
- State Office for Health and Social Affairs (LAGeSo), Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Stark
- Robert Koch Institute, Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia Bitzegeio
- State Office for Health and Social Affairs (LAGeSo), Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Michaelis
- Robert Koch Institute, Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Sagebiel
- State Office for Health and Social Affairs (LAGeSo), Berlin, Germany
| | - Jürgen J Wenzel
- National Consultant Laboratory for Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus, Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Julia Enkelmann
- Robert Koch Institute, Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Berlin, Germany
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20
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Willis C, McLauchlin J, Aird H, Amar C, Barker C, Dallman T, Elviss N, Lai S, Sadler-Reeves L. Occurrence of Listeria and Escherichia coli in frozen fruit and vegetables collected from retail and catering premises in England 2018–2019. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 334:108849. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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21
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Variations among Viruses in Influent Water and Effluent Water at a Wastewater Plant over One Year as Assessed by Quantitative PCR and Metagenomics. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:AEM.02073-20. [PMID: 33036988 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02073-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Influent wastewater and effluent wastewater at the Rya treatment plant in Gothenburg, Sweden, were continuously monitored for enteric viruses by quantitative PCR (qPCR) during 1 year. Viruses in effluent wastewater were also identified by next-generation sequencing (NGS) in samples collected during spring, early summer, and winter. Samples of incoming wastewater were collected every second week. Seasonal variations in viral concentrations in incoming wastewater were found for noroviruses GII, sapovirus, rotavirus, parechovirus, and astrovirus. Norovirus GI and GIV and Aichi virus were present in various amounts during most weeks throughout the year, while hepatitis A virus, enterovirus, and adenovirus were identified less frequently. Fluctuations in viral concentrations in incoming wastewater were related to the number of diagnosed patients. The viruses were also detected in treated wastewater, however, with a 3- to 6-log10 reduction in concentration. Seven different hepatitis E virus (HEV) strains were identified in the effluents. Five of these strains belonged to genotype 3 and have been isolated in Sweden from swine, wild boars, and humans and in drinking water. The other two strains were divergent and had not been identified previously. They were similar to strains infecting rats and humans. Surveillance of enteric viruses in wastewater is a tool for early detection and follow-up of gastroenteritis outbreaks in society and for the identification of new viruses that can cause infection in humans.IMPORTANCE Both influent wastewater and treated wastewater at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) contain a high variety of human viral pathogens with seasonal variability when followed for 1 year. The peak of the amount of 11 different viruses in the inlet wastewater preceded the peak of the number of diagnosed patients by 2 to 4 weeks. The treatment of wastewater reduced viral concentrations by 3 to 6 log10 Despite the treatment of wastewater, up to 5 log10 virus particles per liter were released from into the surrounding river. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) strains previously identified in drinking water and two new strains, similar to those infecting rats and humans, were identified in the treated wastewater released from the WWTP.
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22
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Detection of norovirus, hepatitis A and hepatitis E viruses in multicomponent foodstuffs. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 337:108931. [PMID: 33188986 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Among the enteric viruses implicated in foodborne outbreaks, the human norovirus and hepatitis viruses A and E (HAV and HEV) represent a serious public health concern. International standard ISO 15216 proposes methods for detecting HAV and norovirus (genogroups I and II) RNA from soft fruit, leaf, stem and bulb vegetables, bottled water or food surfaces. These methods had not previously been validated for detecting the targeted viruses in other foodstuffs such as multicomponent foods, nor for detecting other viruses in foodstuffs. The aim of this study was to characterise a method derived from the vegetable method described in ISO 15216 to detect HAV, HEV and norovirus in artificially-contaminated multicomponent foodstuffs according to the recent international standard ISO 16140-4. Results showed that the mean recovery rates for all settings did not differ according to the operator. The mean extraction yields ranged from 0.35% to 40.44% for HAV, 5.19% to 100% for HEV, 0.10% to 40.61% for norovirus GI and 0.88% to 69.16% for norovirus GII. The LOD95 was 102 genome copies/g for HAV, HEV and norovirus GII and 103 genome copies/g for norovirus GI. The LOQ was 2.90 × 104, 1.40 × 103, 1.60 × 104 and 1.30 × 104 genome copies/g for HAV, HEV, norovirus GI and norovirus GII respectively. The MNV-1 process control was detected in 120 out of 128 RNA extracts analysed and was recovered with an efficiency of between 3.83% and 50.22%. The mean inhibition rates of quantitative real-time RT-PCR reaction ranged from 3.25% to 28.70% and varied significantly with the type of food matrix. The described method could be used to detect viruses in composite food products for routine diagnosis needs.
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23
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Bridges DF, Bilbao‐Sainz C, Powell‐Palm MJ, Williams T, Wood D, Sinrod AJG, Ukpai G, McHugh TH, Rubinsky B, Wu VCH. Viability of
Listeria monocytogenes
and
Salmonella
Typhimurium after isochoric freezing. J Food Saf 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David F. Bridges
- United States Department of Agriculture Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
| | - Cristina Bilbao‐Sainz
- United States Department of Agriculture Healthy Processed Foods Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
| | | | - Tina Williams
- United States Department of Agriculture Bioproducts Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
| | - Delilah Wood
- United States Department of Agriculture Bioproducts Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
| | - Amanda J. G. Sinrod
- United States Department of Agriculture Healthy Processed Foods Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
| | - Gideon Ukpai
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of California Berkeley California USA
| | - Tara H. McHugh
- United States Department of Agriculture Healthy Processed Foods Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
| | - Boris Rubinsky
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of California Berkeley California USA
| | - Vivian C. H. Wu
- United States Department of Agriculture Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service Albany California USA
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24
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Saupe AA, Rounds J, Sorenson A, Hedeen N, Bagstad E, Reinberg R, Wagley AG, Cebelinski E, Smith K. Outbreak of Norovirus Gastroenteritis Associated with Ice Cream Contaminated by Frozen Raspberries from China; Minnesota, USA, 2016. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 73:e3701-e3707. [PMID: 32564069 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Noroviru is the etiology for about 60% of foodborne outbreaks identified in Minnesota. Contamination of food during preparation by food handlers is by far the most common cause of these outbreaks. Norovirus outbreaks due to commercially distributed foods are rarely reported in the United States, and only two have been previously identified in Minnesota, both due to oysters. METHODS In August 2016, we investigated an outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis in Minnesota that was linked to consumption of commercially distributed ice cream at multiple venues. Sanitarians from local public health agencies visited the facilities involved for follow-up, and case-control studies were conducted. The outbreak was identified by linking multiple independent illness reports to a centralized foodborne illness complaint system and subsequently confirmed though genotyping of stool specimens. RESULTS A total of 15 cases from four venues were reported. Raspberry chocolate chip ice cream was statistically associated with illness in two analytic studies (6 of 7 cases vs. 0 of 7 controls; odds ratio, undefined; p = 0.005). Norovirus GII.17[P17] (GII.17 Kawasaki) strains from case stool specimens matched norovirus found in frozen raspberries imported from China that were used to make the implicated ice cream. CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge, this is the first norovirus outbreak due to commercially distributed frozen berries identified in the United States. To detect norovirus outbreaks associated with commercially distributed food vehicles, investigators should thoroughly investigate all norovirus outbreaks (including stool testing and genotyping), coordinate complaint and response activities across agencies and jurisdictions, and consider testing food for norovirus when appropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy A Saupe
- Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Joshua Rounds
- Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Alida Sorenson
- Minnesota Department of Agriculture, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Nicole Hedeen
- Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Erica Bagstad
- Hennepin County Human Services and Public Health Department, Hopkins, Minnesota, USA
| | - Roee Reinberg
- City of Minneapolis Health Department, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - A Gail Wagley
- United States Food and Drug Administration, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Kirk Smith
- Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
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25
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Microbial Contamination, an Increasing Threat to the Consumption of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables in Today's World. Int J Microbiol 2020; 2020:3029295. [PMID: 32565813 PMCID: PMC7269610 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3029295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes are found all over the globe with some few exceptions, including sterilized surfaces. They include normal flora that is nonpathogenic, which contribute to the larger percentage, and pathogenic species which are few. Hence, the activities of humans cannot be completely separated from microbes. Thus, many pathogenic microbes have found their way into fresh fruits and vegetables which are a great source of a healthy diet for humans. The growing demand for fresh fruits and vegetables has necessitated larger production. The larger production of vegetables within the shortest possible time to meet the growing demand has placed them at a higher risk of contamination with the pathogenic microbes, making the safety of consumers uncertain. Study of sources of contamination and type of pathogenic etiological agents isolated from fresh fruits and vegetables includes Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium botulinum, E. coli O157: H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Shigella, Staphylococcus, and Vibrio cholera. Several measures have proven to be effective in controlling contamination of microbes and they include the establishment of surveillance systems to monitor the production chain and thoroughly washing vegetables with vinegar water. Saltwater and other washing techniques are effective but caution should be taken to make sure one does not use one cycle of water for washing all vegetables. The consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables is still encouraged by this review but significant measures must be taken to check the safety of these products before consumption.
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26
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Hofmann FM, Olawumi E, Michaelis M, Stößel U, Hofmann F. Significance of norovirus in occupational health: a review of published norovirus outbreaks in Central and Northern Europe. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2020; 93:911-923. [PMID: 32358716 PMCID: PMC7222890 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-020-01543-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Objectives Globally, norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of gastroenteritis infection among all ages. The development of prevention strategies in the field of occupational health requires a detailed knowledge about the impact of the disease on employees. This review article aims not only at evaluating the burden of NoV outbreaks on staff but also at discussing implications for future prevention strategies. Methods Published NoV outbreaks in Central and Northern Europe were identified via a systematic literature search. Additionally, published NoV outbreaks in Germany were detected via a manual literature search. Key epidemiological data, as the number of symptomatic staff, was then extracted. The proportion of affected employees was calculated for each dataset (single NoV outbreaks or aggregated data of multiple outbreaks). Results Overall, 116 datasets were extracted from 72 relevant articles. 144,852 persons were affected by NoV gastroenteritis, 25,408 out of them (17.5%) were employees. 23,874 (94.0%) of them fell sick during outbreaks in hospitals and related settings. NoV cases among personnel in food establishments were reported only sporadically (mean ratio: 0.01). Conclusions Employees in hospitals and community facilities seem quantitatively to be most vulnerable towards NoV epidemics. Therefore, high quality of prevention measures in these settings, respective compliance with prevention strategies should have the highest priority. The disease can be considered as an occupational disease, even regularly without long-term consequences. Following work safety rules, a vaccination for vulnerable groups should be recommended if the vaccine development turns out to be successful. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00420-020-01543-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Martin Hofmann
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), Bertoldstraße 63, 79098, Freiburg, Germany. .,Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 23b, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Edward Olawumi
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), Bertoldstraße 63, 79098, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Martina Michaelis
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), Bertoldstraße 63, 79098, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Stößel
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), Bertoldstraße 63, 79098, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Friedrich Hofmann
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), Bertoldstraße 63, 79098, Freiburg, Germany
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Environmental and Adaptive Changes Necessitate a Paradigm Shift for Indicators of Fecal Contamination. Microbiol Spectr 2020. [DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.erv-0001-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Changes in the occurrence, distribution, and seasonal variation of waterborne pathogens due to global climate change may increase the risk of human exposure to these microorganisms, thus heightening the need for more reliable surveillance systems. Routine monitoring of drinking water supplies and recreational waters is performed using fecal indicator microorganisms, such as
Escherichia coli
,
Enterococcus
spp., and coliphages. However, the presence and numbers of these indicators, especially
E. coli
and
Enterococcus
spp., do not correlate well with those of other pathogens, especially enteric viruses, which are a major cause of waterborne outbreaks associated with contaminated water and food, and recreational use of lakes, ponds, rivers, and estuarine waters. For that reason, there is a growing need for a surveillance system that can detect and quantify viral pathogens directly in water sources to reduce transmission of pathogens associated with fecal transmission. In this review, we present an updated overview of relevant waterborne enteric viruses that we believe should be more commonly screened to better evaluate water quality and to determine the safety of water use and reuse and of epidemiological data on viral outbreaks. We also discuss current methodologies that are available to detect and quantify these viruses in water resources. Finally, we highlight challenges associated with virus monitoring. The information presented in this review is intended to aid in the assessment of human health risks due to contact with water sources, especially since current environmental and adaptive changes may be creating the need for a paradigm shift for indicators of fecal contamination.
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28
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Quantitative PCR Detection of Enteric Viruses in Wastewater and Environmental Water Sources by the Lisbon Municipality: A Case Study. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12020544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Current regulations and legislation require critical revision to determine safety for alternative water sources and water reuse as part of the solution to global water crisis. In order to fulfill those demands, Lisbon municipality decided to start water reuse as part of a sustainable hydric resources management, and there was a need to confirm safety and safeguard for public health for its use in this context. For this purpose, a study was designed that included a total of 88 samples collected from drinking, superficial, underground water, and wastewater at three different treatment stages. Quantitative Polimerase Chain Reaction (PCR) detection (qPCR) of enteric viruses Norovirus (NoV) genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) and Hepatitis A (HepA) was performed, and also FIB (E. coli, enterococci and fecal coliforms) concentrations were assessed. HepA virus was only detected in one untreated influent sample, whereas NoV GI/ NoV GI were detected in untreated wastewater (100/100%), secondary treated effluent (47/73%), and tertiary treated effluent (33/20%). Our study proposes that NoV GI and GII should be further studied to provide the support that they may be suitable indicators for water quality monitoring targeting wastewater treatment efficiency, regardless of the level of treatment.
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Bozkurt H, Phan-Thien KY, van Ogtrop F, Bell T, McConchie R. Outbreaks, occurrence, and control of norovirus and hepatitis a virus contamination in berries: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 61:116-138. [PMID: 32008374 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1719383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne enteric viruses, in particular HuNoV and HAV, are the most common cause of the berry-linked viral diseases, and outbreaks around the world, and have become an important concern for health authorities. Despite the increased importance of berry fruits as a vehicle for foodborne viruses, there is limited information concerning the fate of foodborne viruses in the berry supply chain from farm to consumer. A comprehensive understanding of berry-associated viral outbreaks - with a focus on contamination sources, persistence, survival, and the effects of current postharvest and processing interventions and practices - is essential for the development of effective preventative strategies to reduce risk of illness. The purpose of this paper is twofold; (i) to critically review the published literature on the current state of knowledge regarding berry-associated foodborne viral outbreaks and the efficiency of berry processing practices and (ii) to identify and prioritize research gaps regarding practical and effective mechanism to reduce viral contamination of berries. The review found that fecally infected food handlers were the predominant source of preharvest and postharvest pathogenic viral contamination. Current industrial practices applied to fresh and frozen berries demonstrated limited efficacy for reducing the viral load. While maintaining best practice personal and environmental hygiene is a key intervention, the optimization of processing parameters (i.e., freezing, frozen storage, and washing) and/or development of alternative processing technologies to induce sufficient viral inactivation in berries along with retaining sensory and nutritional quality, is also an important direction for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayriye Bozkurt
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Food Safety in the Fresh Produce Industry, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Kim-Yen Phan-Thien
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Food Safety in the Fresh Produce Industry, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Floris van Ogtrop
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Food Safety in the Fresh Produce Industry, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Tina Bell
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Food Safety in the Fresh Produce Industry, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Robyn McConchie
- ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Food Safety in the Fresh Produce Industry, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Ortiz-Solà J, Viñas I, Colás-Medà P, Anguera M, Abadias M. Occurrence of selected viral and bacterial pathogens and microbiological quality of fresh and frozen strawberries sold in Spain. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 314:108392. [PMID: 31698282 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Strawberry production and exports have been increasing in Spain in recent decades. However, little information is available about their microbiological quality. Due to the growing concern about the microbial safety of these fruits, the objective of this investigation was to study the microbiological quality and the prevalence of the main foodborne pathogens on strawberries sold in Spain. Fresh (n = 152) and frozen (n = 31) samples were obtained from marketplaces and fields in 2017 and 2018. The samples were assayed for total aerobic mesophilic microorganisms (TAM), moulds and yeasts (M&Y), total coliforms (TC), Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes as well as Norovirus (NoV) GI and GII. The microbiological counts ranged from <1.70 (detection limit, dl) - 5.89 log10 CFU/g (mean 3.78 log10 CFU/g) for TAM; 2.10-5.86 log10 CFU/g (mean 3.80 log10 CFU/g) for M&Y; and <0.70 (dl) - 4.91 log10 CFU/g (mean 2.15 log10 CFU/g) for TC in fresh strawberries. In frozen strawberries, the counts were <1.70 (dl) - 3.66 log10 CFU/g (mean 2.30 log10 CFU/g) for TAM; <1.70 (dl) - 2.76 log10 CFU/g (mean 1.82 log10 CFU/g) for M&Y; and <0.70(dl) - 1.74 log10 CFU/g (mean 0.77 log10 CFU/g) for TC. All the samples in this study tested negative for Salmonella spp., L. monocytogenes. E. coli and NoV GI and GII genome. A global overview of all the data was executed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and the results showed that the scores and loadings according to principal components 1 (PC1) and 2 (PC2) accounted for 75.9% of the total variance, allowing a distinction between fresh and frozen samples. The presence of moulds was significantly higher in the supermarket samples whereas the presence of total coliforms was significantly higher in the field samples (p < 0.05). Although pathogenic microorganisms were not found, preventative measures and prerequisites in the strawberry production chain must be considered in order to avoid possible foodborne diseases related to the microbiological quality of the fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ortiz-Solà
- Universitat de Lleida, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, XaRTA-Postharvest, Centro Agrotecnio, Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - I Viñas
- Universitat de Lleida, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, XaRTA-Postharvest, Centro Agrotecnio, Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain.
| | - P Colás-Medà
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), XaRTA-Postharvest, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic i Tecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Parc de Gardeny, 25003 Lleida, Spain
| | - M Anguera
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), XaRTA-Postharvest, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic i Tecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Parc de Gardeny, 25003 Lleida, Spain
| | - M Abadias
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), XaRTA-Postharvest, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic i Tecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Parc de Gardeny, 25003 Lleida, Spain.
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Hofmann FM, Olawumi E, Michaelis M, Hofmann F, Stößel U. Challenges in Infection Epidemiology: On the Underreporting of Norovirus Gastroenteritis Cases in Germany. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E314. [PMID: 31906431 PMCID: PMC6982019 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17010314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is commonly accepted that the number of officially reported incidences of norovirus (NoV) according to the German Protection against Infection Act (Infektionsschutzgesetz) does not reflect the 'true' incidence of NoV in Germany. This study aims to reveal the reasons for the underreporting of NoV cases by comparing secondary data. METHODS NoV incidence (cases per 100,000 reference persons) in the age group 18-65 was derived from register data of four different sources in the German public health system (2011-2015): Statutory health insurance in the federal state of Lower Saxony (AOK; in- and outpatient cases), the Research Institute of Ambulatory Health Care in Germany (ZI; outpatient cases), the German Federal Statistical Office (inpatient cases; DESTATIS), and the Robert Koch Institute (RKI SurvStat; health reporting data). RESULTS the incidence derived from the AOK in Lower Saxony varied between 49 and 66 NoV cases per 100,000 persons and was thus lower than at the federal level. Incidences of all inpatient and outpatient data were lower than the incidence according to the RKI in the last 2-3 years of the observation period. CONCLUSIONS the disagreement between NoV incidences calculated from secondary inpatient and outpatient data and the respective numbers published by the RKI can be regarded as an indication that not all NoV cases were reported to public health authorities. This might be due to missed cases during the notification procedure or misclassification of gastroenteritis cases by general practitioners. Considering the limitations associated with analyzing secondary data, the appropriateness of these assumptions should be verified in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Martin Hofmann
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), 79098 Freiburg, Germany; (E.O.); (M.M.); (F.H.); (U.S.)
- Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Edward Olawumi
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), 79098 Freiburg, Germany; (E.O.); (M.M.); (F.H.); (U.S.)
| | - Martina Michaelis
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), 79098 Freiburg, Germany; (E.O.); (M.M.); (F.H.); (U.S.)
| | - Friedrich Hofmann
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), 79098 Freiburg, Germany; (E.O.); (M.M.); (F.H.); (U.S.)
| | - Ulrich Stößel
- Research Centre for Occupational and Social Medicine (FFAS), 79098 Freiburg, Germany; (E.O.); (M.M.); (F.H.); (U.S.)
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32
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Savelli CJ, Mateus C. Utilisation of tools to facilitate cross-border communication during international food safety events, 1995-2019: a realist synthesis protocol. BMJ Open 2019; 9:e030593. [PMID: 31662374 PMCID: PMC6830981 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Efficient communication and coordination between countries is needed for prevention, detection and response to international food safety events. While communication tools exist, current evidence suggests that they are only effective within certain contexts and only cover certain geographic areas. There is a need to unpack and explore the mechanisms of how and in what context such communication tools and their components are effective at facilitating international communication and coordination to keep food safe and mitigate the burden of foodborne disease around the globe. METHODS AND ANALYSIS A realist synthesis will be undertaken to understand how and why certain processes and structures of communication tools, used during international food safety events, influence their utility and effectiveness according to different contextual factors. The focus of this review is explanatory and aims to develop and refine theory regarding how contextual factors trigger specific processes and mechanisms to produce outcomes. Using the realist context-mechanism-outcome configuration of theory development, a range of sources have been used to develop the initial programme theory, including the author's experience, a scoping review of published papers and grey literature and input from an expert reference committee. To support, expand or refute the initial theory, data will be synthesised from published literature and input from the expert reference committee. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION Ethical approval is not required for this review as it does not involve primary research. However, it will be conducted according to the appropriate ethical standards of accuracy, utility, usefulness, accountability, feasibility and propriety. The RAMESES publication standards will be followed to report the findings of this review. On completion, the final manuscript will be shared with members of the FAO/WHO International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) and published in a peer-reviewed journal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Joseph Savelli
- Food Safety and Zoonoses, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
- Division of Health Research, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Ceu Mateus
- Division of Health Research, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
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33
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Bovi GG, Fröhling A, Pathak N, Valdramidis VP, Schlüter O. Safety Control of Whole Berries by Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Processing: A Review. J Food Prot 2019; 82:1233-1243. [PMID: 31233355 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
HIGHLIGHTS CAPP technology has high application potential for decontamination of berries. Impacts of CAPP in aspects of food safety and security still need to be addressed. Optimized treatment parameters need to be investigated for each berry type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graziele G Bovi
- 1 Quality and Safety of Food and Feed, Department of Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), 14469 Potsdam, Germany (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8610-6583 [G.G.B.])
| | - Antje Fröhling
- 1 Quality and Safety of Food and Feed, Department of Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), 14469 Potsdam, Germany (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8610-6583 [G.G.B.])
| | - Namrata Pathak
- 1 Quality and Safety of Food and Feed, Department of Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), 14469 Potsdam, Germany (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8610-6583 [G.G.B.])
| | - Vasilis P Valdramidis
- 2 Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080, Malta.,3 Centre for Molecular Medicine and Biobanking
| | - Oliver Schlüter
- 1 Quality and Safety of Food and Feed, Department of Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), 14469 Potsdam, Germany (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8610-6583 [G.G.B.])
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35
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Guix S, Pintó RM, Bosch A. Final Consumer Options to Control and Prevent Foodborne Norovirus Infections. Viruses 2019; 11:E333. [PMID: 30970561 PMCID: PMC6520945 DOI: 10.3390/v11040333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) causes about one-fifth of all cases of foodborne diseases and is a foremost cause of domestically acquired foodborne acute gastroenteritis and outbreaks. NoV infections are often associated with the consumption of contaminated fresh and ready-to-eat produce, fresh and frozen berries, raw/undercooked bivalve mollusks and products which become contaminated during handling. Despite many industrial efforts to control and prevent NoV contamination of foods, the prevalence of NoV in high-risk foodstuffs at retail is still significant. Although certain consumer behaviors may even increase the risk of virus transmission, interventions aiming at changing/implementing consumer habits may be considered as opportunities for risk mitigation. This review aims at providing an update on the progress made in characterizing the effect that consumer habits, which are most critical to prevent NoV transmission (food choice and hygiene, disinfection and cooking during food preparation), may have on reducing the risk of NoV infection. A better understanding of the options for NoV control and prevention may be translated into innovative educational, social or even technological tools targeting consumers with the objective of mitigating the risk of NoV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Guix
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, 08291 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
| | - Rosa M Pintó
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, 08291 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
| | - Albert Bosch
- Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety (INSA·UB), University of Barcelona, 08291 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain.
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Jacobs R, Lesaffre E, Teunis PFM, Höhle M, van de Kassteele J. Identifying the source of food-borne disease outbreaks: An application of Bayesian variable selection. Stat Methods Med Res 2019; 28:1126-1140. [PMID: 29241399 PMCID: PMC6448052 DOI: 10.1177/0962280217747311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Early identification of contaminated food products is crucial in reducing health burdens of food-borne disease outbreaks. Analytic case-control studies are primarily used in this identification stage by comparing exposures in cases and controls using logistic regression. Standard epidemiological analysis practice is not formally defined and the combination of currently applied methods is subject to issues such as response misclassification, missing values, multiple testing problems and small sample estimation problems resulting in biased and possibly misleading results. In this paper, we develop a formal Bayesian variable selection method to account for misclassified responses and missing covariates, which are common complications in food-borne outbreak investigations. We illustrate the implementation and performance of our method on a Salmonella Thompson outbreak in the Netherlands in 2012. Our method is shown to perform better than the standard logistic regression approach with respect to earlier identification of contaminated food products. It also allows relatively easy implementation of otherwise complex methodological issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rianne Jacobs
- Department of Statistics, Informatics
and Modelling,
RIVM,
Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | | | - Peter FM Teunis
- Centre for Zoonoses and Environmental
Microbiology,
RIVM,
Bilthoven, Netherlands
- Hubert Department of Global Health,
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Michael Höhle
- Department of Mathematics,
Stockholm
University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan van de Kassteele
- Department of Statistics, Informatics
and Modelling,
RIVM,
Bilthoven, Netherlands
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Amarasiri M, Sano D. Specific Interactions between Human Norovirus and Environmental Matrices: Effects on the Virus Ecology. Viruses 2019; 11:E224. [PMID: 30841581 PMCID: PMC6466409 DOI: 10.3390/v11030224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus is the major cause of non-bacterial epidemic gastroenteritis. Human norovirus binds to environmental solids via specific and non-specific interactions, and several specific receptors for human norovirus have been reported. Among them, histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) are the most studied specific receptor. Studies have identified the presence of HBGA-like substances in the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of human enteric bacteria present in aquatic environments, gastrointestinal cells, gills, and palps of shellfish, and cell walls, leaves, and veins of lettuce. These HBGA-like substances also interact with human norovirus in a genotype-dependent manner. Specific interactions between human norovirus and environmental matrices can affect norovirus removal, infectivity, inactivation, persistence, and circulation. This review summarizes the current knowledge and future directions related to the specific interactions between human norovirus and HBGA-like substances in environmental matrices and their possible effects on the fate and circulation of human norovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohan Amarasiri
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
- Department of Frontier Science for Advanced Environment, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
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Gao X, Wang Z, Wang Y, Liu Z, Guan X, Ma Y, Zhou H, Jiang Y, Cui W, Wang L, Xu Y. Surveillance of norovirus contamination in commercial fresh/frozen berries from Heilongjiang Province, China, using a TaqMan real-time RT-PCR assay. Food Microbiol 2019; 82:119-126. [PMID: 31027765 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2019.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV), a major food-borne virus, causes non-bacterial acute gastroenteritis in humans. Berries are generally harvested from low-growing bushes by hand and are minimally processed before being sold to consumers. Therefore, the consumption of berries has been linked to numerous food-borne gastroenteritis outbreaks caused by NoV in many countries. We performed a survey of NoV contamination in commercial fresh/frozen berry fruits collected from 2016 to 2017 in the Heilongjiang Province, the main berry-producing area in China, using a TaqMan-based real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay. Among 900 frozen and 900 fresh domestic retail berry samples, the prevalence of NoV was 9% (81/900) and 12.11% (109/900), including 35.80% (29/81) and 29.36% (32/109) of genotype GI alone, 54.32% (44/81) and 60.55% (66/109) of GII alone, and 9.88% (8/81) and 10.09% (11/109) of both GI and GII, respectively. No NoV was detected among the 677 frozen berry samples for export. Thus, the occurrence of NoV contamination was significantly higher in domestic berries than in exported berries and higher in fresh berries than in frozen berries. This study highlights the need for further risk surveillance for NoV contamination in berries produced in the Heilongjiang Province and recommends region-extended monitoring of retail berries for NoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuwen Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Ziwei Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Yixin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Zhongmei Liu
- Technology Center, Heilongjiang Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Harbin, China
| | - Xueting Guan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Yingying Ma
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Han Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Yanping Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Wen Cui
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Li Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China; Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Pharmaceutical Development, China.
| | - Yigang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China; Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Pharmaceutical Development, China.
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Bosch A, Gkogka E, Le Guyader FS, Loisy-Hamon F, Lee A, van Lieshout L, Marthi B, Myrmel M, Sansom A, Schultz AC, Winkler A, Zuber S, Phister T. Foodborne viruses: Detection, risk assessment, and control options in food processing. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 285:110-128. [PMID: 30075465 PMCID: PMC7132524 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In a recent report by risk assessment experts on the identification of food safety priorities using the Delphi technique, foodborne viruses were recognized among the top rated food safety priorities and have become a greater concern to the food industry over the past few years. Food safety experts agreed that control measures for viruses throughout the food chain are required. However, much still needs to be understood with regard to the effectiveness of these controls and how to properly validate their performance, whether it is personal hygiene of food handlers or the effects of processing of at risk foods or the interpretation and action required on positive virus test result. This manuscript provides a description of foodborne viruses and their characteristics, their responses to stress and technologies developed for viral detection and control. In addition, the gaps in knowledge and understanding, and future perspectives on the application of viral detection and control strategies for the food industry, along with suggestions on how the food industry could implement effective control strategies for viruses in foods. The current state of the science on epidemiology, public health burden, risk assessment and management options for viruses in food processing environments will be highlighted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Bosch
- University of Barcelona, Enteric Virus Laboratory, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, and Institute of Nutrition and Food Safety, Diagonal 643, 8028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Elissavet Gkogka
- Arla Innovation Centre, Arla R&D, Agro Food Park 19, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark,.
| | - Françoise S Le Guyader
- IFREMER, Environment and Microbiology Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21103, 44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Fabienne Loisy-Hamon
- bioMérieux, Centre Christophe Mérieux, 5 rue des berges, 38025 Grenoble, France.
| | - Alvin Lee
- Illinois Institute of Technology, Moffett Campus, 6502 South Archer Road, 60501-1957 Bedford Park, IL, United States.
| | - Lilou van Lieshout
- The International Life Sciences Institute, Av. E. Mounier 83/B.6, 1200 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Balkumar Marthi
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, 3133 AT Vlaardingen, The Netherlands; DaQsh Consultancy Services, 203, Laxmi Residency, Kothasalipeta, Visakhapatnam 530 002, India
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, P.O. Box 8146, 0033 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Annette Sansom
- Campden BRI Group, Station Road, Chipping Campden, GL55 6LD Gloucestershire, United Kingdom.
| | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, Building H, Room 204, 2860 Søborg, Denmark.
| | - Anett Winkler
- Cargill Deutschland GmbH, Cerestarstr. 2, 47809 Krefeld, Germany.
| | - Sophie Zuber
- Nestlé Research Centre, Institute of Food Safety and Analytical Science, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Box 44, 1000 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Trevor Phister
- PepsiCo Europe, Beaumont Park 4, Leycroft Road, LE4 1ET Leicester, United Kingdom.
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Yeargin T, Gibson KE. Key characteristics of foods with an elevated risk for viral enteropathogen contamination. J Appl Microbiol 2018; 126:996-1010. [PMID: 30244501 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Viral enteropathogens are one of the leading causative agents of foodborne illnesses in both the United States and the European Union. While human noroviruses and hepatitis A virus cause the vast majority of outbreaks and illnesses, there are handful of human enteric viruses that contribute to sporadic outbreaks worldwide including astrovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, enterovirus and Aichi virus. In addition, hepatitis E virus is increasingly being recognized as an emerging zoonotic threat within the food supply. This review aims to briefly describe the primary human enteric viruses of concern with respect to foodborne transmission. Next, we focus on the contamination and persistence of these viruses within three high-risk food commodities-leafy greens, soft red fruits and bivalve mollusks. As opposed to detailing the specific routes by which these foods can be contaminated with enteric viruses, we have chosen to focus on their persistence and specific interactions within the food itself. Therefore, the processes of attachment and internalization of the viruses in foods have been emphasized. Looking forward, the implications of these specific interactions of human enteric viruses with leafy greens, soft red fruits and bivalve mollusks are briefly considered within the context of future prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Yeargin
- Division of Agriculture, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - K E Gibson
- Division of Agriculture, Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
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Zhou Z, Zuber S, Cantergiani F, Sampers I, Devlieghere F, Uyttendaele M. Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens and Their Surrogates on Fresh and Frozen Strawberries Using Gaseous Ozone. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2018.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
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Alegbeleye OO, Singleton I, Sant'Ana AS. Sources and contamination routes of microbial pathogens to fresh produce during field cultivation: A review. Food Microbiol 2018; 73:177-208. [PMID: 29526204 PMCID: PMC7127387 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 12/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne illness resulting from the consumption of contaminated fresh produce is a common phenomenon and has severe effects on human health together with severe economic and social impacts. The implications of foodborne diseases associated with fresh produce have urged research into the numerous ways and mechanisms through which pathogens may gain access to produce, thereby compromising microbiological safety. This review provides a background on the various sources and pathways through which pathogenic bacteria contaminate fresh produce; the survival and proliferation of pathogens on fresh produce while growing and potential methods to reduce microbial contamination before harvest. Some of the established bacterial contamination sources include contaminated manure, irrigation water, soil, livestock/ wildlife, and numerous factors influence the incidence, fate, transport, survival and proliferation of pathogens in the wide variety of sources where they are found. Once pathogenic bacteria have been introduced into the growing environment, they can colonize and persist on fresh produce using a variety of mechanisms. Overall, microbiological hazards are significant; therefore, ways to reduce sources of contamination and a deeper understanding of pathogen survival and growth on fresh produce in the field are required to reduce risk to human health and the associated economic consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ian Singleton
- School of Applied Sciences, Sighthill Campus, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Anderson S Sant'Ana
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Bartsch C, Höper D, Mäde D, Johne R. Analysis of frozen strawberries involved in a large norovirus gastroenteritis outbreak using next generation sequencing and digital PCR. Food Microbiol 2018; 76:390-395. [PMID: 30166165 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Virus-contaminated frozen berries have been frequently identified as cause of foodborne disease outbreaks. To provide new tools for virus detection and characterization in berries, next generation sequencing (NGS) and reverse transcription-digital PCR (RT-dPCR) techniques were tested here with strawberries previously involved in a large-scale norovirus (NoV) gastroenteritis outbreak in Germany. By NGS, about 29 million sequence reads were generated, which mainly showed identities to sequences from the plant matrix and from the bacterial flora. Most abundant virus sequences originated from plant-specific viruses, whereas sequences with high identity to human viruses were rare. Only two sequence reads showed homologies to human NoV. They were identical to GII.P16/GII.13 NoV sequences from patients and a strawberry sample independently analyzed during the outbreak. Quantification of the GII NoV RNA of the berries using RT-dPCR confirmed a low mean virus amount of 185 copies/25 g, which is similar to independently assessed RT-qPCR results (257 copies/25 g). The study shows that identification of human-pathogenic viruses in naturally contaminated frozen berries is possible using NGS technologies. However, the method needs to be further optimized in order to enable convenient and reproducible detection of a low amount of human-pathogenic virus sequences in a background of highly abundant nucleic acids of other sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Bartsch
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dirk Höper
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald (Insel Riems), Germany
| | - Dietrich Mäde
- State Office for Consumer Protection, Freiimfelder Str. 68, 06112, Halle (Saale), Saxony-Anhalt, Germany
| | - Reimar Johne
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
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Li M, Baker CA, Danyluk MD, Belanger P, Boelaert F, Cressey P, Gheorghe M, Polkinghorne B, Toyofuku H, Havelaar AH. Identification of Biological Hazards in Produce Consumed in Industrialized Countries: A Review. J Food Prot 2018; 81:1171-1186. [PMID: 29939791 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Microbial contamination of fresh produce (fresh fruits and vegetables) poses serious public health concerns worldwide. This study was conducted as a comprehensive analysis of biological hazards in the global fresh produce chain. Data about produce-related outbreaks and illness were collected from the annual reports and databases of foodborne outbreak surveillance systems in different regions and countries from 2010 to 2015. The global patterns of and regional differences in documented outbreaks and cases were analyzed, and produce commodities and pathogens of greatest concern were identified. Data on sporadic illnesses were also collected through a comprehensive literature review of case-control studies. We found 988 produce-related outbreaks (with known agents) and 45,723 cases in all regions and countries. The numbers of produce-related outbreaks per million person-years were approximately 0.76, 0.26, 0.25, 0.13, 0.12, and 0.05 in New Zealand, Australia, the United States, the European Union, Canada, and Japan, respectively. The top three food categories and pathogens contributing to produce-related outbreaks were vegetables and nonfruits (i.e., food other than fruits; 27.0%), unspecified vegetables (12.2%), and vegetable row crops (11.7%) and norovirus (42.4%), Salmonella enterica (19.9%), and Staphylococcus aureus (7.9%), respectively. Produce consumption was identified as a protective factor, a risk factor, and either a protective or risk factor for sporadic illnesses in 11, 5, and 5 studies, respectively, among 21 case-control studies. Risks associated with produce consumption in the United States and the European Union have been linked to various factors such as irrigation water, cross-contamination, storage time and temperature abuse, infected food handlers, and unprocessed contaminated ingredients. The results of the current study indicate the complexity of produce products consumed across the globe and the difficulty in tracing illnesses back to specific food ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- 1 Emerging Pathogens Institute, Institute for Sustainable Food Systems, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA (ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6456-5460 [A.H.H.])
| | - Christopher A Baker
- 2 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Michelle D Danyluk
- 2 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.,3 Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA
| | | | | | - Peter Cressey
- 6 Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Mihaela Gheorghe
- 7 Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K2E 7L9
| | - Ben Polkinghorne
- 8 Department of Health, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Hajime Toyofuku
- 9 Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Arie H Havelaar
- 1 Emerging Pathogens Institute, Institute for Sustainable Food Systems, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA (ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6456-5460 [A.H.H.])
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Oshiki M, Miura T, Kazama S, Segawa T, Ishii S, Hatamoto M, Yamaguchi T, Kubota K, Iguchi A, Tagawa T, Okubo T, Uemura S, Harada H, Kobayashi N, Araki N, Sano D. Microfluidic PCR Amplification and MiSeq Amplicon Sequencing Techniques for High-Throughput Detection and Genotyping of Human Pathogenic RNA Viruses in Human Feces, Sewage, and Oysters. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:830. [PMID: 29755444 PMCID: PMC5934477 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection and genotyping of pathogenic RNA viruses in human and environmental samples are useful for monitoring the circulation and prevalence of these pathogens, whereas a conventional PCR assay followed by Sanger sequencing is time-consuming and laborious. The present study aimed to develop a high-throughput detection-and-genotyping tool for 11 human RNA viruses [Aichi virus; astrovirus; enterovirus; norovirus genogroup I (GI), GII, and GIV; hepatitis A virus; hepatitis E virus; rotavirus; sapovirus; and human parechovirus] using a microfluidic device and next-generation sequencer. Microfluidic nested PCR was carried out on a 48.48 Access Array chip, and the amplicons were recovered and used for MiSeq sequencing (Illumina, Tokyo, Japan); genotyping was conducted by homology searching and phylogenetic analysis of the obtained sequence reads. The detection limit of the 11 tested viruses ranged from 100 to 103 copies/μL in cDNA sample, corresponding to 101–104 copies/mL-sewage, 105–108 copies/g-human feces, and 102–105 copies/g-digestive tissues of oyster. The developed assay was successfully applied for simultaneous detection and genotyping of RNA viruses to samples of human feces, sewage, and artificially contaminated oysters. Microfluidic nested PCR followed by MiSeq sequencing enables efficient tracking of the fate of multiple RNA viruses in various environments, which is essential for a better understanding of the circulation of human pathogenic RNA viruses in the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamoru Oshiki
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Takayuki Miura
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, Wako, Japan
| | - Shinobu Kazama
- Center for Simulation Sciences and Informational Biology, Ochanomizu University, Bunkyô, Japan
| | - Takahiro Segawa
- Center for Life Science Research, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ishii
- Department of Soil, Water and Climate, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Masashi Hatamoto
- Department of Environmental Systems Engineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Takashi Yamaguchi
- Department of Science of Technology Innovation, Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Kengo Kubota
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Akinori Iguchi
- Faculty of Applied Life Sciences, Niigata University of Pharmacy and Applied Life Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tadashi Tagawa
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Okubo
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Shigeki Uemura
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Hideki Harada
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Naohiro Kobayashi
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Nobuo Araki
- Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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UV-C inactivation of foodborne bacterial and viral pathogens and surrogates on fresh and frozen berries. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 275:8-16. [PMID: 29604491 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks of foodborne illness associated with berries often involve contamination with hepatitis A virus (HAV) and norovirus but also bacteria such as Escherichia coli O157:H7 and parasites such as Cyclospora caytanensis. We evaluated the applicability of UV-C to the inactivation of pathogens on strawberries, raspberries and blueberries. Our three-step approach consisted of assessing the chemical safety of UV-C-irradiated berries, evaluating the sensory quality after UV-C treatment and finally studying the inactivation of the target microorganisms. Treatments lasting up to 9 min (4000 mJ cm-2) did not produce detectable levels of furan (<5 μg/kg), a known photolysis product of fructose with genotoxic activity and thus were assessed to be toxicologically safe. No effect on taste or appearance was observed, unless treatment was excessively long. 20 s of treatment (an average fluence of ~ 212 mJ cm-2) reduced active HAV titer by >1 log10 unit in 95% of cases except on frozen raspberries, while 120 s were required to inactivate murine norovirus to this extent on fresh blueberries. The mean inactivation of HAV and MNV was greater on blueberries (2-3 log10) than on strawberries and raspberries (<2 log10). MNV was more sensitive on fresh than on frozen berries, unlike HAV. Inactivation of Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes was poor on all three berries, no treatment reducing viable counts by >1 log10 unit. In most matrices, prolonging the treatment did not improve the result to any significant degree. The effect was near its plateau after 20 s of treatment. These results provide insight into the effectiveness of UV-C irradiation for inactivating bacterial and viral pathogens and surrogates on fresh and frozen berries having different surface types, under different physical conditions and at different levels of contamination. Overall they show that UV-C as single processing step is unsuitable to inactivate significant numbers of foodborne pathogens on berries.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The purpose of this review is to provide an update on recent literature and findings concerning selected foodborne viruses. Two groups of viruses were selected: (a) the most important viruses contaminating food, based on numbers of publications in the last 5 years and (b) viruses infecting sources of food that might have an impact on human health. RECENT FINDINGS Important foodborne viruses such as norovirus, hepatitis A and rotavirus are usually "only" contaminating food and are detected on the surface of foodstuffs. However, they are threats to human public health and make up for the majority of cases. In contrast, the meaning of viruses born from within the food such as natural animal and plant viruses is still in many cases unknown. An exception is Hepatitis E virus that is endemic in pigs, transmitted via pork meat and is recognised as an emerging zoonosis in industrialised countries. SUMMARY Even though the clinical meaning of "new" foodborne viruses, often detected by next generation sequencing, still needs clarification, the method has great potential to enhance surveillance and detection particularly in view of an increasingly globalised food trade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Bachofen
- Institute of Virology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 266a, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
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Shrestha S, Shrestha S, Shindo J, Sherchand JB, Haramoto E. Virological Quality of Irrigation Water Sources and Pepper Mild Mottle Virus and Tobacco Mosaic Virus as Index of Pathogenic Virus Contamination Level. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:107-120. [PMID: 29098656 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9324-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Irrigation water is a doorway for the pathogen contamination of fresh produce. We quantified pathogenic viruses [human adenoviruses, noroviruses of genogroups I and II, group A rotaviruses, Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1), enteroviruses (EnVs), and salivirus (SaliV)] and examined potential index viruses [JC and BK polyomaviruses (JCPyVs and BKPyVs), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)] in irrigation water sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. River, sewage, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, pond, canal, and groundwater samples were collected in September 2014, and in April and August 2015. Viruses were concentrated using an electronegative membrane-vortex method and quantified using TaqMan (MGB)-based quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays with murine norovirus as a molecular process control to determine extraction-reverse transcription-qPCR efficiency. Tested pathogenic viruses were prevalent with maximum concentrations of 5.5-8.8 log10 copies/L, and there was a greater abundance of EnVs, SaliV, and AiV-1. Virus concentrations in river water were equivalent to those in sewage. Canal, pond, and groundwater samples were found to be less contaminated than river, sewage, and WWTP effluent. Seasonal dependency was clearly evident for most of the viruses, with peak concentrations in the dry season. JCPyVs and BKPyVs had a poor detection ratio and correspondence with pathogenic viruses. Instead, the frequently proposed PMMoV and the newly proposed TMV were strongly predictive of the pathogen contamination level, particularly in the dry season. We recommend utilizing canal, pond, and groundwater for irrigation to minimize deleterious health effects and propose PMMoV and TMV as indexes to elucidate pathogenic virus levels in environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadhana Shrestha
- Interdisciplinary Centre for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan.
| | - Shankar Shrestha
- Interdisciplinary Centre for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
| | - Junko Shindo
- Interdisciplinary Centre for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
| | - Jeevan B Sherchand
- Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Maharajgunj, P.O.Box 1524, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Eiji Haramoto
- Interdisciplinary Centre for River Basin Environment, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
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50
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Fernandez-Cassi X, Timoneda N, Gonzales-Gustavson E, Abril JF, Bofill-Mas S, Girones R. A metagenomic assessment of viral contamination on fresh parsley plants irrigated with fecally tainted river water. Int J Food Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28646670 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Microbial food-borne diseases are still frequently reported despite the implementation of microbial quality legislation to improve food safety. Among all the microbial agents, viruses are the most important causative agents of food-borne outbreaks. The development and application of a new generation of sequencing techniques to test for viral contaminants in fresh produce is an unexplored field that allows for the study of the viral populations that might be transmitted by the fecal-oral route through the consumption of contaminated food. To advance this promising field, parsley was planted and grown under controlled conditions and irrigated using contaminated river water. Viruses polluting the irrigation water and the parsley leaves were studied by using metagenomics. To address possible contamination due to sample manipulation, library preparation, and other sources, parsley plants irrigated with nutritive solution were used as a negative control. In parallel, viruses present in the river water used for plant irrigation were analyzed using the same methodology. It was possible to assign viral taxons from 2.4 to 74.88% of the total reads sequenced depending on the sample. Most of the viral reads detected in the river water were related to the plant viral families Tymoviridae (66.13%) and Virgaviridae (14.45%) and the phage viral families Myoviridae (5.70%), Siphoviridae (5.06%), and Microviridae (2.89%). Less than 1% of the viral reads were related to viral families that infect humans, including members of the Adenoviridae, Reoviridae, Picornaviridae and Astroviridae families. On the surface of the parsley plants, most of the viral reads that were detected were assigned to the Dicistroviridae family (41.52%). Sequences related to important viral pathogens, such as the hepatitis E virus, several picornaviruses from species A and B as well as human sapoviruses and GIV noroviruses were detected. The high diversity of viral sequences found in the parsley plants suggests that irrigation on fecally-tainted food may have a role in the transmission of a wide diversity of viral families. This finding reinforces the idea that the best way to avoid food-borne viral diseases is to introduce good field irrigation and production practices. New strains have been identified that are related to the Picornaviridae and distantly related to the Hepeviridae family. However, the detection of a viral genome alone does not necessarily indicate there is a risk of infection or disease development. Thus, further investigation is crucial for correlating the detection of viral metagenomes in samples with the risk of infection. There is also an urgent need to develop new methods to improve the sensitivity of current Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) techniques in the food safety area.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Fernandez-Cassi
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - N Timoneda
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; Computational Genomics Lab, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - E Gonzales-Gustavson
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - J F Abril
- Computational Genomics Lab, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - S Bofill-Mas
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - R Girones
- Laboratory of Virus Contaminants of Water and Food, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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