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Balzano T, Del Rey NLG, Esteban-García N, Reinares-Sebastián A, Pineda-Pardo JA, Trigo-Damas I, Obeso JA, Blesa J. Neurovascular and immune factors of vulnerability of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons in non-human primates. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2024; 10:118. [PMID: 38886348 PMCID: PMC11183116 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-024-00735-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tier of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) degenerate prominently in Parkinson's disease (PD), while those in the dorsal tier and ventral tegmental area are relatively spared. The factors determining why these neurons are more vulnerable than others are still unrevealed. Neuroinflammation and immune cell infiltration have been demonstrated to be a key feature of neurodegeneration in PD. However, the link between selective dopaminergic neuron vulnerability, glial and immune cell response, and vascularization and their interactions has not been deciphered. We aimed to investigate the contribution of glial cell activation and immune cell infiltration in the selective vulnerability of ventral dopaminergic neurons within the midbrain in a non-human primate model of PD. Structural characteristics of the vasculature within specific regions of the midbrain were also evaluated. Parkinsonian monkeys exhibited significant microglial and astroglial activation in the whole midbrain, but no major sub-regional differences were observed. Remarkably, the ventral substantia nigra was found to be typically more vascularized compared to other regions. This feature might play some role in making this region more susceptible to immune cell infiltration under pathological conditions, as greater infiltration of both T- and B- lymphocytes was observed in parkinsonian monkeys. Higher vascular density within the ventral region of the SNc may be a relevant factor for differential vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. The increased infiltration of T- and B- cells in this region, alongside other molecules or toxins, may also contribute to the susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziano Balzano
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain.
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA.
| | - Natalia López-González Del Rey
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- PhD Program in Neuroscience Autónoma de Madrid University-Cajal Institute, Madrid, Spain
| | - Noelia Esteban-García
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- PhD Program in Neuroscience Autónoma de Madrid University-Cajal Institute, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Reinares-Sebastián
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- Network Center for Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A Pineda-Pardo
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- Network Center for Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Trigo-Damas
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- Network Center for Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Facultad HM de Ciencias de la Salud de la Universidad Camilo José Cela, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A Obeso
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- Network Center for Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Blesa
- HM CINAC (Centro Integral de Neurociencias Abarca Campal), Hospital Universitario HM Puerta del Sur, HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain.
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA.
- Network Center for Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
- Facultad HM de Ciencias de la Salud de la Universidad Camilo José Cela, Madrid, Spain.
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Abbaoui A, Fatoba O, Yamashita T. Meningeal T cells function in the central nervous system homeostasis and neurodegenerative diseases. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1181071. [PMID: 37608988 PMCID: PMC10440440 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1181071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, a rising interest is given to neuroimmune communication in physiological and neuropathological conditions. Meningeal immunity is a complex immune environment housing different types of immune cells. Here, we focus on meningeal T cells, possibly the most explored aspect of neuro-immune cell interactions. Emerging data have shown that meningeal T cells play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases. This review highlights how meningeal T cells may contribute to immune surveillance of the central nervous system (CNS) and regulate neurobehavioral functions through the secretion of cytokines. Overall, this review assesses the recent knowledge of meningeal T cells and their effects on CNS functioning in both health and disease conditions and the underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdellatif Abbaoui
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- World Premier International (WPI)-Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Oluwaseun Fatoba
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- World Premier International (WPI)-Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Toshihide Yamashita
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- World Premier International (WPI)-Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Neuro-Medical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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3
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Abstract
The notion that autoimmune responses to α-synuclein may be involved in the pathogenesis of this disorder stems from reports that mutations in α-synuclein or certain alleles of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are associated with the disease and that dopaminergic and norepinephrinergic neurons in the midbrain can present antigenic epitopes. Here, we discuss recent evidence that a defined set of peptides derived from α-synuclein act as antigenic epitopes displayed by specific MHC alleles and drive helper and cytotoxic T cell responses in patients with PD. Moreover, phosphorylated α-synuclein may activate T cell responses in a less restricted manner in PD. While the roles for the acquired immune system in disease pathogenesis remain unknown, preclinical animal models and in vitro studies indicate that T cells may interact with neurons and exert effects related to neuronal death and neuroprotection. These findings suggest that therapeutics that target T cells and ameliorate the incidence or disease severity of inflammatory bowel disorders or CNS autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis may be useful in PD.
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Grembecka B, Glac W, Listowska M, Jerzemowska G, Plucińska K, Majkutewicz I, Badtke P, Wrona D. Subthalamic Deep Brain Stimulation Affects Plasma Corticosterone Concentration and Peripheral Immunity Changes in Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2021; 16:454-469. [PMID: 32648088 PMCID: PMC8087570 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-020-09934-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (DBS-STN) is an effective treatment for advanced motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD). Recently, a connection between the limbic part of the STN and side effects of DBS-STN has been increasingly recognized. Animal studies have shown that DBS-STN influences behavior and provokes neurochemical changes in regions of the limbic system. Some of these regions, which are activated during DBS-STN, are involved in neuroimmunomodulation. The therapeutic effects of DBS-STN in PD treatment are clear, but the influence of DBS-STN on peripheral immunity has not been reported so far. In this study, we examined the effects of unilateral DBS-STN applied in male Wistar rats with 6-hydroxydopamine PD model (DBS-6OHDA) and rats without nigral dopamine depletion (DBS) on corticosterone (CORT) plasma concentration, blood natural killer cell cytotoxicity (NKCC), leukocyte numbers, lymphocyte population and apoptosis numbers, plasma interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) concentration. The same peripheral immune parameters we measured also in non-stimulated rats with PD model (6OHDA). We observed peripheral immunity changes related to PD model. The NKCC and percentage of T cytotoxic lymphocytes were enhanced, while the level of lymphocyte apoptosis was down regulated in 6OHDA and DBS-6OHDA groups. After DBS-STN (DBS-6OHDA and DBS groups), the plasma CORT and TNF-α were elevated, the number of NK cells and percentage of apoptosis were increased, while the number of B lymphocytes was decreased. We also found, changes in plasma IFN-γ and IL-6 levels in all the groups. These results suggest potential peripheral immunomodulative effects of DBS-STN in the rat model of PD. However, further studies are necessary to explain these findings and their clinical implication. Graphical Abstract Influence of deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus on peripheral immunity in rat model of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Grembecka
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Wojciech Glac
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Magdalena Listowska
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Grażyna Jerzemowska
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Karolina Plucińska
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Irena Majkutewicz
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Piotr Badtke
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Gdańsk, 1 Dębinki Str, 80-211, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Danuta Wrona
- Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, 59 Wita Stwosza Str, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland
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Thome AD, Atassi F, Wang J, Faridar A, Zhao W, Thonhoff JR, Beers DR, Lai EC, Appel SH. Ex vivo expansion of dysfunctional regulatory T lymphocytes restores suppressive function in Parkinson's disease. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2021; 7:41. [PMID: 33986285 PMCID: PMC8119976 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-021-00188-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is a pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Chronic pro-inflammatory responses contribute to the loss of neurons in the neurodegenerative process. The present study was undertaken to define the peripheral innate and adaptive immune contributions to inflammation in patients with PD. Immunophenotyping revealed a shift of peripheral myeloid and lymphoid cells towards a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) were reduced in number, and their suppression of T responder proliferation decreased. The PD Tregs did not suppress activated pro-inflammatory myeloid cells. Ex vivo expansion of Tregs from patients with PD restored and enhanced their suppressive functions while expanded Tregs displayed increased expression of foxp3, il2ra (CD25), nt5e (CD73), il10, il13, ctla4, pdcd1 (PD1), and gzmb. Collectively, these findings documented a shift towards a pro-inflammatory peripheral immune response in patients with PD; the loss of Treg suppressive functions may contribute significantly to this response, supporting PD as a disorder with extensive systemic pro-inflammatory responses. The restoration and enhancement of Treg suppressive functions following ex vivo expansion may provide a potential cell therapeutic approach for patients with PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D. Thome
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Farah Atassi
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Jinghong Wang
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Alireza Faridar
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Weihua Zhao
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Jason R. Thonhoff
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - David R. Beers
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Eugene C. Lai
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Stanley H. Appel
- grid.63368.380000 0004 0445 0041Department of Neurology, Houston Methodist Neurological Institute, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
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6
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Williams GP, Schonhoff AM, Jurkuvenaite A, Gallups NJ, Standaert DG, Harms AS. CD4 T cells mediate brain inflammation and neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Brain 2021; 144:2047-2059. [PMID: 33704423 PMCID: PMC8370411 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
α-Synuclein, a key pathological component of Parkinson's disease, has been implicated in the activation of the innate and adaptive immune system. This immune activation includes microgliosis, increased inflammatory cytokines, and the infiltration of T cells into the CNS. More recently, peripherally circulating CD4 and CD8 T cells derived from individuals with Parkinson's disease have been shown to produce Th1/Th2 cytokines in response to α-synuclein, suggesting there may be a chronic memory T cell response present in Parkinson's disease. To understand the potential effects of these α-syn associated T cell responses we used an α-synuclein overexpression mouse model, T cell-deficient mice, and a combination of immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. In this study, we found that α-synuclein overexpression in the midbrain of mice leads to the upregulation of the major histocompatibility complex II (MHCII) protein on CNS myeloid cells as well as the infiltration of IFNγ producing CD4 and CD8 T cells into the CNS. Interestingly, genetic deletion of TCRβ or CD4, as well as the use of the immunosuppressive drug fingolimod, were able to reduce the CNS myeloid MHCII response to α-synuclein. Furthermore, we observed that CD4-deficient mice were protected from the dopaminergic cell loss observed due to α-syn overexpression. These results suggest that T cell responses associated with α-synuclein pathology may be damaging to key areas of the CNS in Parkinson's disease and that targeting these T cell responses could be an avenue for disease modifying treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory P Williams
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Aubrey M Schonhoff
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Asta Jurkuvenaite
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Nicole J Gallups
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - David G Standaert
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Ashley S Harms
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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7
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Farombi EO, Awogbindin IO, Owoeye O, Abah VO, Izomoh ER, Ezekiel IO. Kolaviron ameliorates behavioural deficit and injury to striatal dopaminergic terminals via modulation of oxidative burden, DJ-1 depletion and CD45R + cells infiltration in MPTP-model of Parkinson's disease. Metab Brain Dis 2020; 35:933-946. [PMID: 32430695 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-020-00578-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Currently, the precise pathogenic detail of PD is not entirely clear and first line therapeutics fail to attenuate the progress of the disease. In this study, we examined the neuroprotective effect of kolaviron, a natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory biflavonoid from Garcinia kola seed, on behavioural impairment, neurodegeneration, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in an acute MPTP-induced PD model. Kolaviron mitigated the frequently interrupted MPTP-associated hyperkinesia, inefficient gait, immobility, inability to pay attention to sizable holes on walking path, habitual clockwise rotations characterized with minimal diversion of movements and impaired balance. Also, kolaviron suppressed MPTP-mediated striatal oxidative stress, depletion as well as degeneration of dopaminergic terminals, reduced DJ-1 secretion and upregulated expression of caspase-3. Kolaviron facilitated cytoprotective antioxidant response and prevented MPTP-mediated neuroinflammation by blocking striatal infiltration of peripheral CD45R positive cells. Additionally, kolaviron reversed MPTP-induced inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity. Together, our study provides evidence that the neuroprotective capacity of kolaviron to modulate striatal degeneration, behavioural impairment, antioxidant/redox imbalance and neuroinflammation implicated in the pathogenesis of PD may involve upregulation of DJ-1 secretion and inhibition of CD45R cells infiltration. Our data recommend kolaviron as a possible neuroprotective strategy in the management of Parkinson's disease and the associated behavioural complications, albeit the identity of MPTP-associated striatal CD45R infiltrate needs to be further characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebenezer O Farombi
- Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
| | - Ifeoluwa O Awogbindin
- Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Olatunde Owoeye
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Victoria O Abah
- Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Edirin R Izomoh
- Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Ibukunoluwa O Ezekiel
- Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
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8
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Regulation of immune-driven pathogenesis in Parkinson's disease by gut microbiota. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 87:890-897. [PMID: 31931152 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most significant medical and social burdens of our time. The prevalence of PD increases with age and the number of individuals diagnosed with PD is expected to double from 6.9 million in 2015 to 14.2 million in 2040. To date, no drugs can stop the ongoing neurodegeneration caused by PD due to its unclear and complex pathogenic mechanisms. It has been wildly recognized that both gut microbiota and neuro-immunity are involved in the pathology of PD. In this review, we intend to provide a comprehensive overview of current knowledge on how gut microbiota involved in immune-driven pathogenesis of PD, and its potential as a new target of dietary and/or therapeutic interventions for PD.
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9
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Varešlija D, Tipton KF, Davey GP, McDonald AG. 6-Hydroxydopamine: a far from simple neurotoxin. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 127:213-230. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-019-02133-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Schonhoff AM, Williams GP, Wallen ZD, Standaert DG, Harms AS. Innate and adaptive immune responses in Parkinson's disease. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 252:169-216. [PMID: 32247364 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) has classically been defined as a movement disorder, in which motor symptoms are explained by the aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) and subsequent death of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). More recently, the multisystem effects of the disease have been investigated, with the immune system being implicated in a number of these processes in the brain, the blood, and the gut. In this review, we highlight the dysfunctional immune system found in both human PD and animal models of the disease, and discuss how genetic risk factors and risk modifiers are associated with pro-inflammatory immune responses. Finally, we emphasize evidence that the immune response drives the pathogenesis and progression of PD, and discuss key questions that remain to be investigated in order to identify immunomodulatory therapies in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubrey M Schonhoff
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Gregory P Williams
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Zachary D Wallen
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - David G Standaert
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Ashley S Harms
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.
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11
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Mosley RL, Lu Y, Olson KE, Machhi J, Yan W, Namminga KL, Smith JR, Shandler SJ, Gendelman HE. A Synthetic Agonist to Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Receptor-2 Induces Regulatory T Cell Neuroprotective Activities in Models of Parkinson's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:421. [PMID: 31619964 PMCID: PMC6759633 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A paradigm shift has emerged in Parkinson’s disease (PD) highlighting the prominent role of CD4+ Tregs in pathogenesis and treatment. Bench to bedside research, conducted by others and our own laboratories, advanced a neuroprotective role for Tregs making pharmacologic transformation of immediate need. Herein, a vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor-2 (VIPR2) peptide agonist, LBT-3627, was developed as a neuroprotectant for PD-associated dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Employing both 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and α-synuclein (α-Syn) overexpression models in rats, the sequential administration of LBT-3627 increased Treg activity without altering cell numbers both in naïve animals and during progressive nigrostriatal degeneration. LBT-3627 administration was linked to reductions of inflammatory microglia, increased survival of dopaminergic neurons, and improved striatal densities. While α-Syn overexpression resulted in reduced Treg activity, LBT-3627 rescued these functional deficits. This occurred in a dose-dependent manner closely mimicking neuroprotection. Taken together, these data provide the basis for the use of VIPR2 agonists as potent therapeutic immune modulating agents to restore Treg activity, attenuate neuroinflammation, and interdict dopaminergic neurodegeneration in PD. The data underscore an important role of immunity in PD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Lee Mosley
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Yaman Lu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Katherine E Olson
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Jatin Machhi
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Wenhui Yan
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Krista L Namminga
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Jenell R Smith
- Longevity Biotech, Inc., Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | | | - Howard E Gendelman
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
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12
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Garretti F, Agalliu D, Lindestam Arlehamn CS, Sette A, Sulzer D. Autoimmunity in Parkinson's Disease: The Role of α-Synuclein-Specific T Cells. Front Immunol 2019; 10:303. [PMID: 30858851 PMCID: PMC6397885 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence from a variety of studies implicates a role for the adaptive immune system in Parkinson's disease (PD). Similar to multiple sclerosis (MS) patients who display a high number of T cells in the brain attacking oligodendrocytes, PD patients show higher numbers of T cells in the ventral midbrain than healthy, age-matched controls. Mouse models of the disease also show the presence of T cells in the brain. The role of these infiltrating T cells in the propagation of disease is controversial; however, recent studies indicate that they may be autoreactive in nature, recognizing disease-altered self-proteins as foreign antigens. T cells of PD patients can generate an autoimmune response to α-synuclein, a protein that is aggregated in PD. α-Synuclein and other proteins are post-translationally modified in an environment in which protein processing is altered, possibly leading to the generation of neo-epitopes, or self-peptides that have not been identified by the host immune system as non-foreign. Infiltrating T cells may also be responding to such modified proteins. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have shown associations of PD with haplotypes of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes, and a polymorphism in a non-coding region that may increase MHC class II in PD patients. We speculate that the inflammation observed in PD may play both pathogenic and protective roles. Future studies on the adaptive immune system in neurodegenerative disorders may elucidate steps in disease pathogenesis and assist with the development of both biomarkers and treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Garretti
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Dritan Agalliu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | | | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - David Sulzer
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
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13
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Martinez B, Peplow PV. Neuroprotection by immunomodulatory agents in animal models of Parkinson's disease. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:1493-1506. [PMID: 30127102 PMCID: PMC6126123 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.237108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease for which the characteristic motor symptoms emerge after an extensive loss of dopamine containing neurons. The cell bodies of these neurons are present in the substantia nigra, with the nerve terminals being in the striatum. Both innate and adaptive immune responses may contribute to dopaminergic neurodegeneration and disease progression is potentially linked to these. Studies in the last twenty years have indicated an important role for neuroinflammation in PD through degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway. Characteristic of neuroinflammation is the activation of brain glial cells, principally microglia and astrocytes that release various soluble factors. Many of these factors are proinflammatory and neurotoxic and harmful to nigral dopaminergic neurons. Recent studies have identified several different agents with immunomodulatory properties that protected dopaminergic neurons from degeneration and death in animal models of PD. All of the agents were effective in reducing the motor deficit and alleviating dopaminergic neurotoxicity and, when measured, preventing the decrease of dopamine upon being administered therapeutically after 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, 6-hydroxydopamine, rotenone-lesioning or delivery of adeno-associated virus-α-synuclein to the ventral midbrain of animals. Some of these agents were shown to exert an anti-inflammatory action, decrease oxidative stress, and reduce lipid peroxidation products. Activation of microglia and astrocytes was also decreased, as well as infiltration of T cells into the substantia nigra. Pretreatment with fingolimod, tanshinoine I, dimethyl fumarate, thalidomide, or cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide as a preventive strategy ameliorated motor deficits and nigral dopaminergic neurotoxicity in brain-lesioned animals. Immunomodulatory agents could be used to treat patients with early clinical signs of the disease or potentially even prior to disease onset in those identified as having pre-disposing risk, including genetic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Martinez
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology, University of California, Merced, CA; Department of Medicine, St. Georges University School of Medicine, Grenada; Department of Physics and Engineering, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
| | - Philip V Peplow
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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14
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Hao Y, Shabanpoor A, Metz GA. Stress and corticosterone alter synaptic plasticity in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 2017; 651:79-87. [PMID: 28473257 PMCID: PMC5534221 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.04.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
As a major influence on neuronal function and plasticity, chronic stress can affect the progression and symptoms of neurodegenerative conditions, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Here we investigated the influence of unilateral dopamine depletion and stress on dopamine-related hallmarks of stress response and neuronal plasticity in a rat model of PD. Animals received either restraint stress or a combination of adrenalectomy and corticosterone (CORT) supplementation to clamp circulating glucocorticoid levels for three weeks prior to unilateral nigrostriatal dopamine depletion. Rats were tested in skilled and non-skilled motor function up to three weeks post-lesion. Midbrain mRNA expression assessments included markers of dopamine function and neuroplasticity, such as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), synaptophysin (SYN), calcyon, and glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Along with impaired motor performance, stress and clamped CORT partially preserved TH expression in both substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA), but differentially modulated the expression of SYN, calcyon, and GR mRNA in midbrain and cortical areas. Stress reduced synaptophysin mRNA expression in SN/VTA, and elevated calcyon mRNA optical density in both non-lesion and lesion hemispheres. Stress and CORT increased GR mRNA in the non-lesion SN/VTA, while in the lesion hemisphere GR mRNA was only elevated by CORT. In the motor cortex and striatum, however, GR was higher in both hemispheres under both experimental conditions. These findings suggest that stress and stress hormones differentially affect dopaminergic function and neuroplasticity in a rat model of PD. The findings suggest a role for stress in motor and non-motor symptoms of PD and stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- YongXin Hao
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, T1K3M4, Canada
| | - Aref Shabanpoor
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, T1K3M4, Canada
| | - Gerlinde A Metz
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, T1K3M4, Canada.
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15
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Ambrosi G, Kustrimovic N, Siani F, Rasini E, Cerri S, Ghezzi C, Dicorato G, Caputo S, Marino F, Cosentino M, Blandini F. Complex Changes in the Innate and Adaptive Immunity Accompany Progressive Degeneration of the Nigrostriatal Pathway Induced by Intrastriatal Injection of 6-Hydroxydopamine in the Rat. Neurotox Res 2017; 32:71-81. [PMID: 28285346 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-017-9712-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We investigated changes in innate and adaptive immunity paralleling the progressive nigrostriatal damage occurring in a neurotoxic model of Parkinson's disease (PD) based on unilateral infusion of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the rat striatum. A time-course analysis was conducted to assess changes in morphology (activation) and cell density of microglia and astrocytes, microglia polarization (M1 vs. M2 phenotype), lymphocyte infiltration in the lesioned substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), and modifications of CD8+ and subsets of CD4+ T cell in peripheral blood accompanying nigrostriatal degeneration. Confirming previous results, we observed slightly different profiles of activation for astrocytes and microglia paralleling nigral neuronal loss. For astrocytes, morphological changes and cell density increases were mostly evident at the latest time points (14 and 28 days post-surgery), while moderate microglia activation was present since the earliest time point. For the first time, in this model, we described the time-dependent profile of microglia polarization. Activated microglia clearly expressed the M2 phenotype in the earlier phase of the experiment, before cell death became manifest, gradually shifting to the M1 phenotype as SNc cell death started. In parallel, a reduction in the percentage of circulating CD4+ T regulatory (Treg) cells, starting as early as day 3 post-6-OHDA injection, was detected in 6-OHDA-injected rats. Our data show that nigrostriatal degeneration is associated with complex changes in central and peripheral immunity. Microglia activation and polarization, Treg cells, and the factors involved in their cross-talk should be further investigated as targets for the development of therapeutic strategies for disease modification in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Ambrosi
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Natasa Kustrimovic
- Center of Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Francesca Siani
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Emanuela Rasini
- Center of Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Silvia Cerri
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Cristina Ghezzi
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Dicorato
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Sofia Caputo
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Franca Marino
- Center of Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Marco Cosentino
- Center of Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Fabio Blandini
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Via Mondino, 2, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
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16
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Hühner L, Rilka J, Gilsbach R, Zhou X, Machado V, Spittau B. Interleukin-4 Protects Dopaminergic Neurons In vitro but Is Dispensable for MPTP-Induced Neurodegeneration In vivo. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:62. [PMID: 28337124 PMCID: PMC5343015 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are involved in physiological as well as neuropathological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). Their functional states are often referred to as M1-like and M2-like activation, and are believed to contribute to neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegeneration or neuroprotection, respectively. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one the most common neurodegenerative disease and is characterized by the progressive loss of midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neurons in the substantia nigra resulting in bradykinesia, tremor, and rigidity. Interleukin 4 (IL4)-mediated M2-like activation of microglia, which is characterized by upregulation of alternative markers Arginase 1 (Arg1) and Chitinase 3 like 3 (Ym1) has been well studied in vitro but the role of endogenous IL4 during CNS pathologies in vivo is not well understood. Interestingly, microglia activation by IL4 has been described to promote neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects, which might be important to slow the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we addressed the role of endogenous and exogenous IL4 during MPP+-induced degeneration of mDA neurons in vitro and further addressed the impact of IL4-deficiency on neurodegeneration in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of PD in vivo. Our results clearly demonstrate that exogenous IL4 is important to protect mDA neurons in vitro, but endogenous IL4 seems to be dispensable for development and maintenance of the nigrostriatal system as well as MPTP-induced loss of TH+ neurons in vivo. These results underline the importance of IL4 in promoting a neuroprotective microglia activation state and strengthen the therapeutic potential of exogenous IL4 for protection of mDA neurons in PD models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hühner
- Department of Molecular Embryology, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jennifer Rilka
- Department of Molecular Embryology, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Gilsbach
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
| | - Xiaolai Zhou
- Department of Molecular Embryology, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, IthacaNY, USA
| | - Venissa Machado
- Department of Molecular Embryology, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
| | - Björn Spittau
- Department of Molecular Embryology, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg, Germany
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17
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Tentillier N, Etzerodt A, Olesen MN, Rizalar FS, Jacobsen J, Bender D, Moestrup SK, Romero-Ramos M. Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of Microglia via CD163-Targeted Glucocorticoids Protects Dopaminergic Neurons in the 6-OHDA Parkinson's Disease Model. J Neurosci 2016; 36:9375-90. [PMID: 27605613 PMCID: PMC6601874 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1636-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Increasing evidence supports a decisive role for inflammation in the neurodegenerative process of Parkinson's disease (PD). The immune response in PD seems to involve, not only microglia, but also other immune cells infiltrated into the brain. Indeed, we observed here the infiltration of macrophages, specifically CD163+ macrophages, into the area of neurodegeneration in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) PD model. Therefore, we investigated the therapeutic potential of the infiltrated CD163+ macrophages to modulate local microglia in the brain to achieve neuroprotection. To do so, we designed liposomes targeted for the CD163 receptor to deliver dexamethasone (Dexa) into the CD163+ macrophages in the 6-OHDA PD model. Our data show that a fraction of the CD163-targeted liposomes were carried into the brain after peripheral intravenous injection. The 6-OHDA-lesioned rats that received repeated intravenous CD163-targeted liposomes with Dexa for 3 weeks exhibited better motor performance than the control groups and had minimal glucocorticoid-driven side effects. Furthermore, these animals showed better survival of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra and an increased number of microglia expressing major histocompatibility complex II. Therefore, rats receiving CD163-targeted liposomes with Dexa were partially protected against 6-OHDA-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration, which correlated with a distinctive microglia response. Altogether, our data support the use of macrophages for the modulation of brain neurodegeneration and specifically highlight the potential of CD163-targeted liposomes as a therapeutic tool in PD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The immune response now evident in the progression of Parkinson's disease comprises both local microglia and other immune cells. We provide evidence that CD163+ macrophages can be a target to modulate brain immune response to achieve neuroprotection in the 6-hydroxydopamine model. To do so, we targeted the CD163+ population, which to a low but significant extent infiltrated in the neurodegenerating area of the brain. Specially designed liposomes targeted for the CD163 receptor were loaded with glucocorticoids and injected peripherally to modify the infiltrated CD163 cells toward an anti-inflammatory profile. This modification of the CD163 population resulted in a distinctive microglial response that correlated with decreased dopaminergic cell death and better motor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noemie Tentillier
- CNS Disease Modeling Group, NEURODIN, Department of Biomedicine, and
| | | | - Mads N Olesen
- CNS Disease Modeling Group, NEURODIN, Department of Biomedicine, and
| | - F Sila Rizalar
- CNS Disease Modeling Group, NEURODIN, Department of Biomedicine, and
| | - Jan Jacobsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, PET Center, Aarhus University Hospital, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark, and
| | - Dirk Bender
- Department of Clinical Medicine, PET Center, Aarhus University Hospital, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark, and
| | - Søren K Moestrup
- Department of Biomedicine, and Department of Cancer and Inflammation Research, Syddansk University, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
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