The influence of different types of preparation (espresso and brew) on coffee aroma and main bioactive constituents

Coffee consumption and risk of kidney function decline in a Dutch population-based cohort

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Whether coffee consumption is associated with changes in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is unknown. We investigated the relationship between coffee consumption and annual eGFR change in a large Dutch population-based study.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This study was performed in 78,346 participants without chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the population-based Lifelines Cohort Study. Coffee consumption was assessed at baseline using food frequency questionnaires. Outcomes were annual eGFR change and a composite kidney outcome (defined as eGFR <60 mL/min per 1.73 m2 or >20 % eGFR decline). Multivariable linear and logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate the associations of coffee consumption (categories and cups/day) with kidney outcomes. Overall, 90 % of the participants drank coffee daily and 36 % drank >2-4 cups/day. Unadjusted mean ± SD annual eGFR change ranged from -2.86 ± 2.96 (for non-coffee drinkers) to -2.35 ± 2.62 (for participants consuming >6 cups/day) mL/min per 1.73 m2. During 3.6 ± 0.9 years follow-up, 11.1 % of participants reached the composite kidney outcome. As compared to non-coffee drinkers, higher coffee consumption was associated with less annual eGFR decline in multivariable models (β [95 % CIs] ranged from 0.15 [0.07, 0.22] for >0-2 cups/day to 0.29 [0.20, 0.38] for >6 cups/day, P-trend <0.001). Consumption of one more cup of coffee per day was associated with a 3 % lower risk of the composite kidney outcome (OR [95%CI], 0.97 [0.96, 0.99]). The inverse association was more pronounced in a subgroup of individuals with diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Coffee consumption was inversely associated with annual eGFR change and CKD risk in a large Dutch population-based cohort.

Metabolomics as a tool for geographic origin assessment of roasted and green coffee beans

Coffee is widely consumed across the globe. The most sought out varieties are Arabica and Robusta which differ significantly in their aroma and taste. Furthermore, varieties cultivated in different regions are perceived to have distinct characteristics encouraging some producers to adopt the denomination of origin label. These differences arise from variations on metabolite content related to edaphoclimatic conditions and post-harvest management among other factors. Although sensory analysis is still standard for coffee brews, instrumental analysis of the roasted and green beans to assess the quality of the final product has been encouraged. Metabolomic profiling has risen as a promising approach not only for quality purposes but also for geographic origin assignment. Many techniques can be applied for sample analysis: chromatography, mass spectrometry, and NMR have been explored. The data collected is further sorted by multivariate analysis to identify similar characteristics among the samples, reduce dimensionality and/or even propose a model for predictive purposes. This review focuses on the evolution of metabolomic profiling for the geographic origin assessment of roasted and green coffee beans in the last 21 years, the techniques that are usually applied for sample analysis and also the most common approaches for the multivariate analysis of the collected data. The prospect of applying a wide range of analytical techniques is becoming an unbiased approach to determine the origin of different roasted and green coffee beans samples with great correlation. Predictive models worked accurately for the geographic assignment of unknown samples once the variety was known.

Caffeine Consumption in Polish Adults: Development and Validation of a Polish Questionnaire for Assessing Caffeine Intake

Objective: Caffeine is one of the oldest natural substances consumed by people. Its consumption in Poland has not been well described. The aim of this study was to design and validate an online food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) on caffeine intake and to use it to estimate caffeine consumption in Polish adults.Method: The FFQ was prepared and validated in a pilot study. The intake assessment was conducted in 2019-2020 on 372 respondents, aged 18 to 60 years. The FFQ included products such as coffee, tea, energy drinks, and carbonated drinks, as well as supplements and chocolate.Results: We showed good repeatability of the FFQ and it was considered a valid tool. The mean total caffeine intake among all participants was 426.7 mg ± 283.4 mg/day of all sources; in women, it was 446.4 mg ± 306.2 mg/day, while in men, it was 394.1 ± 236.4 mg/day. Forty-three percent of the respondents consumed more than 400 mg of caffeine/day. Coffee was the main source of caffeine and contributed to 65% of total caffeine consumption. Women consumed 90% more green tea than men (p < 0.01). Overweight and obese people have 20% greater total caffeine intake (p = 0.01) and consumed 20% more coffee (p = 0.02) and 30% more black tea (p = 0.01) than people of normal weight.Conclusions: Average caffeine consumption among Polish adults slightly exceeds the safe consumption dose established by the European Food Safety Authority. Body weight status can differentiate caffeine intake.

Functional properties and sensory profile of coffee prepared by different brewing methods

Coffee is one of the main sources of antioxidants in the diet of many countries. The purpose of this research was to assess the effect of different brewing methods, particle size, and coffee quality on the total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity (AC), and sensory profile of the beverage. The brewing methods yielded differences in taste with higher bitterness in immersion methods. However, the main factors that influenced coffee extraction and taste were particle size and coffee type. A finer particle size allowed for greater phenolic and caffeine (CA) extraction (2.82 mg GA/mL; 1.01 mg CA/mL), resulting in higher bitterness and astringency. Additionally, the type of coffee resulted in a higher CA content in commercial coffee (Specialty: 0.72 ± 0.10 mg CA/mL; Commercial: 1.13 ± 0.14 mg CA/mL). The results showed that using a ratio of 1:20 and 1:15 for commercial and specialty coffee, respectively, yielded differences in AC using the DPPH method (Specialty: 11.54 ± 1.12 µmol/mL; Commercial: 10.20 ± 1.88 µmol/mL) but not with the ABTS method (Specialty: 10.38 ± 1.23 µmol/mL; Commercial: 10.37 ± 1.13 µmol/mL). Similarly to the ABTS method, no differences in the total phenol content of the coffee cup were observed (Specialty: 2.52 ± 0.40 mg/mL; Commercial: 2.43 ± 0.28 mg/mL). Thus, the findings suggest that specialty coffee offers consumers a more balanced cup with less CA content. This allows for more coffee consumption without an excessive intake of CA. However, consumers can adjust the functionality, sensory profile, and CA content of a coffee cup by modifying the particle size and the brewing method used.

Use of electrochemical methods to determine the effect of brewing techniques (Espresso, Turkish and Filter coffee) and roasting levels on the antioxidant capacity of coffee beverage

Coffee is a complex mixture of chemicals, which provide biologically active compounds with various health benefits. The some biologically active compounds arising from both its natural structure and formed after processing were determined as an antioxidant capacity of coffee beverages. In this study, we aimed to determine how roasting levels of Arabica coffee seed (light, medium, dark) and three brewing techniques-decoction methods (Turkish coffee), infusion method (filter coffee) and pressure methods (Espresso)-affect total antioxidant capacity in a cup of coffee beverage by electrochemical methods such as square wave stripping voltammetry (SWSV), differential pulse stripping voltammetry (DPSV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). Antioxidant capacities of the coffee samples in terms of the equivalent amounts were determined according to standard oxidation peaks of rutin and caffeic acid. The highest antioxidant capacity was found in espresso coffee prepared at light roasting coffee seeds as equivalent the routine and caffeic at 9.4 ± 0.2 g/L and 19.7 ± 0.7 g/L, respectively with SWSV on a carbon paste electrode. As a result, SWSV, DPSV and CV voltammetric methods, fast, reliable, fully validated and without any pretreatment are alternative to conventional analytical methods to evaluation antioxidant values in any food samples.

Medium Roasting and Brewing Methods Differentially Modulate Global Metabolites, Lipids, Biogenic Amines, Minerals, and Antioxidant Capacity of Hawai'i-Grown Coffee (Coffea arabica)

In the United States, besides the US territory Puerto Rico, Hawai'i is the only state that grows commercial coffee. In Hawai'i, coffee is the second most valuable agricultural commodity. Health benefits associated with moderate coffee consumption, including its antioxidant capacity, have been correlated to its bioactive components. Post-harvest techniques, coffee variety, degree of roasting, and brewing methods significantly impact the metabolites, lipids, minerals, and/or antioxidant capacity of brewed coffees. The goal of our study was to understand the impact of roasting and brewing methods on metabolites, lipids, biogenic amines, minerals, and antioxidant capacity of two Hawai'i-grown coffee (Coffea arabica) varieties, "Kona Typica" and "Yellow Catuai". Our results indicated that both roasting and coffee variety significantly modulated several metabolites, lipids, and biogenic amines of the coffee brews. Furthermore, regardless of coffee variety, the antioxidant capacity of roasted coffee brews was higher in cold brews. Similarly, total minerals were higher in "Kona Typica" cold brews followed by "Yellow Catuai" cold brews. Hawai'i-grown coffees are considered "specialty coffees" since they are grown in unique volcanic soils and tropical microclimates with unique flavors. Our studies indicate that both Hawai'i-grown coffees contain several health-promoting components. However, future studies are warranted to compare Hawai'i-grown coffees with other popular brand coffees and their health benefits in vivo.

Coffee consumption, health benefits and side effects: a narrative review and update for dietitians and nutritionists

Coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide; however, its impact on health outcomes and adverse effects is not fully understood. The current review aims to establish an update about the benefits of coffee consumption on health outcomes highlighting its side effects, and finally coming up with an attempt to provide some recommendations on its doses. A literature review using the PubMed/Medline database was carried out and the data were summarized by applying a narrative approach using the available evidence based on the literature. The main findings were the following: first, coffee may contribute to the prevention of inflammatory and oxidative stress-related diseases, such as obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes; second, coffee consumption seems to be associated with a lower incidence of several types of cancer and with a reduction in the risk of all-cause mortality; finally, the consumption of up to 400 mg/day (1-4 cups per day) of caffeine is safe. However, the time gap between coffee consumption and some drugs should be taken into account in order to avoid interaction. However, most of the data were based on cross-sectional or/and observational studies highlighting an association of coffee intake and health outcomes; thus, randomized controlled studies are needed in order to identify a causality link.

Coffee consumption and risk of endometrial cancer: a pooled analysis of individual participant data in the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium (E2C2)

BACKGROUND

Epidemiologic studies suggest that coffee consumption may be inversely associated with risk of endometrial cancer (EC), the most common gynecological malignancy in developed countries. Furthermore, coffee consumption may lower circulating concentrations of estrogen and insulin, hormones implicated in endometrial carcinogenesis. Antioxidants and other chemopreventive compounds in coffee may have anticarcinogenic effects. Based on available meta-analyses, the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) concluded that consumption of coffee probably protects against EC.

OBJECTIVES

Our main aim was to examine the association between coffee consumption and EC risk by combining individual-level data in a pooled analysis. We also sought to evaluate potential effect modification by other risk factors for EC.

METHODS

We combined individual-level data from 19 epidemiologic studies (6 cohort, 13 case-control) of 12,159 EC cases and 27,479 controls from the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium (E2C2). Logistic regression was used to calculate ORs and their corresponding 95% CIs. All models were adjusted for potential confounders including age, race, BMI, smoking status, diabetes status, study design, and study site.

RESULTS

Coffee drinkers had a lower risk of EC than non-coffee drinkers (multiadjusted OR: 0.87; 95% CI: 0.79, 0.95). There was a dose-response relation between higher coffee consumption and lower risk of EC: compared with non-coffee drinkers, the adjusted pooled ORs for those who drank 1, 2-3, and >4 cups/d were 0.90 (95% CI: 0.82, 1.00), 0.86 (95% CI: 0.78, 0.95), and 0.76 (95% CI: 0.66, 0.87), respectively (P-trend < 0.001). The inverse association between coffee consumption and EC risk was stronger in participants with BMI > 25 kg/m2.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the largest analysis to date pooling individual-level data further support the potentially beneficial health effects of coffee consumption in relation to EC, especially among females with higher BMI.

Chemical and sensory characterization of coffee from Coffea arabica cv. Mundo Novo and cv. Catuai Vermelho obtained by four different post-harvest processing methods

BACKGROUND

After the harvest, green coffee beans are dried on the farm using several methods: the wet process, natural process, pulped natural process, or mechanical demucilaging. This study evaluated how the choice of a specific processing method influenced the volatile organic compounds of the coffee beans, before and after roasting, and the sensory characteristics of the beverage. Coffea arabica beans of two varieties (cv. Mundo Novo and cv. Catuai Vermelho) were subjected to these four processing methods on a single farm in the Cerrado area of Brazil.

RESULTS

Analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry headspace solid-phase microextraction identified 40 volatile organic compounds in green coffee beans and 37 in roasted beans. The main difference between post-harvest treatments was that naturally processed green beans of both varieties contained a different profile of alcohols, acids, and lactones. In medium-roasted beans, those differences were not observed. The coffee beverages had similar taste attributes but distinct flavor profiles. Some of the treatments resulted in specialty-grade coffee, whereas others did not.

CONCLUSION

The choice of a specific post-harvest processing method influences the volatile compounds found in green beans, the final beverage's flavor profile, and the cupping score, which can have a significant impact on the profitability of coffee farms' operations. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Non-target bioactive compound profiles of coffee roasts and preparations

Coffee is an inherent part of our daily nutrition and seems to have protective effects against diseases, whereby it is often not fully understood, which ingredients are responsible for the observed effect. Hence, a non-targeted bioactivity profiling was developed to investigate 27 hand-filtered coffee brews of differently roasted coffee beans and 14 differently prepared and stored coffee brews. After separation, multi-imaging, and densitometry, six planar effect-directed assays were performed to reveal individual antioxidative, antibacterial, anti-cholinesterase, anti-diabetic, and estrogenic effects. Individual compounds were mainly responsible for the observed effects, e.g. 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid regarding antioxidative potential and α-glucosidase inhibition, while coffee brews made by a fully automated coffee machine showed the highest antioxidative potential. Unlike preparation and storage conditions, applied roasting conditions and origin of coffee samples played a less important role. Therefore, the way we daily consume our coffee has an impact on the magnitude of potential health effects.

Caffeine. A critical review of contemporary scientific literature

Caffeine is a secondary metabolite extensively studied for its stimulatory properties and presumed association with specific pathologies. This alkaloid is typically consumed through coffee, tea, and other plant products but is also an additive in many medications and confectionaries. Nonetheless, despite its worldwide consumption and acceptance, there is controversial evidence as to whether its effects on the central nervous system should be interpreted as stimulatory or as an addiction in which typical withdrawal effects are canceled out with its daily consumption. The following discussion is the product of an extensive review of current scientific literature, which aims to describe the most salient topics associated with caffeine's purpose in nature, biosynthesis, metabolism, physiological effects, toxicity, extraction, industrial use and current plant breeding approaches for the development of new caffeine deficient varieties as a more economical option to the industrially decaffeinated coffees currently available to caffeine intolerant consumers. Keywords: biosynthesis, decaffeination, extraction, metabolism, physiological effects, plant breeding.

Coffee's Phenolic Compounds. A general overview of the coffee fruit's phenolic composition

Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites ubiquitously distributed in the plant kingdom which come in a wide array of molecular configurations which confer them a comprehensive set of chemical attributes such as, but not limited to: nutraceutical properties, industrial applications (e.g., dyes, rawhide processing, beer production, antioxidants), and plant self-defense mechanisms against natural enemies also known as the Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR).However, despite the fact, that there is a large number of phenolic-containing food products (e.g., chocolate, green tea, wines, beer, wood barrel-aged spirits, cherries, grapes, apples, peaches, plums, pears, etc.), coffee remains, in the western hemisphere, as the main source of dietary phenolic compounds reflected by the fact that, in the international market, coffee occupies the second trading position after oil and its derivatives. The following discussion is the product of an extensive review of scientific literature that aims to describe essential topics related to coffee phenolic compounds, especially chlorogenic acids, their purpose in nature, biosynthesis, determination, metabolism, chemical properties, and their effect on cup quality. Keywords: phenolic acids, caffeoylquinic acid, antioxidant capacity, metabolism, biosynthesis.

El procesamiento del grano de café. Del tueste a la infusión

El café es una de las bebidas más consumidas en el mundo y su popularidad no está basada en su valor nutricional o sus potenciales beneficios a la salud, si no en su sabor placentero y las propiedades estimulantes de la cafeína. Esto es respaldado por las últimas estadísticas publicadas por la Organización Internacional del Café (ICO, por sus siglas en inglés) según la cual aproximadamente 1.4 billones de tazas de café son consumidas diariamente además del hecho de que la taza de consumo global se ha duplicado en los últimos 50 años por causa de la apertura de nuevos mercados. La amplia aceptación del café está ligada a sus propiedades sensoriales las cuales a su vez están fuertemente influenciadas por una cadena de eventos que inician desde la cosecha y las practicas postcosecha (i.e., fermentación, lavado, secado, tamizado, eliminación de granos defectuosos y almacenamiento), seguidas por el tueste, molido y empacado del producto para su posterior comercialización. No obstante, existen otros factores que también afectan las propiedades organolépticas de la bebida tales como, pero no limitado a: el pH y temperatura del agua, las mezclas realizadas antes o después del tueste, la especie y/o variedad de café, las adulteraciones, la incorporación de aditivos, el método de preparación de la bebida, el tipo de recipiente en el que se sirve la infusión, entre otros. El presente artículo presenta una breve descripción de los factores que afectan la calidad de la taza relacionados con el procesamiento del grano oro del café. Sin embargo, aunque los factores ya mencionados son tomados en consideración por los catadores, para fines comerciales, la calidad del café está y siempre estará en manos del consumidor. Después de todo la mejor prueba es cuando la persona lo prueba. Palabras clave: organoléptica, perfil de tueste, endotérmica, exotérmico, ma-croscópica, microscópica, reacción Maillard, caramelización.

Integration of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and machine learning tools for coffee beverage classification

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is a powerful tool for molecule identification. However, profiling complex samples remains a challenge because SERS peaks are likely to overlap, confounding features when multiple analytes are present in a single sample. In addition, SERS often suffers from high variability in signal enhancement due to nonuniform SERS substrate. The machine learning classification techniques widely used for facial recognition are excellent tools to overcome the complexity of SERS data interpretation. Herein, we reported a sensor for classifying coffee beverages by integrating SERS, feature extractions, and machine learning classifiers. A versatile and low-cost SERS substrate, called nanopaper, was used to enhance Raman signals of dilute compounds in coffee beverages. Two classic multivariate analysis techniques, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components (DAPC), were used to extract the significant spectral features, and the performance of various machine learning classifiers was evaluated. The combination of DAPC with Support Vector Machine (SVM) or K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) shows the best performance for classifying coffee beverages. This user-friendly and versatile sensor has the potential to be a practical quality-control tool for the food industry.

Metabolomics-Based Approach for Coffee Beverage Improvement in the Context of Processing, Brewing Methods, and Quality Attributes

Coffee is a worldwide beverage of increasing consumption, owing to its unique flavor and several health benefits. Metabolites of coffee are numerous and could be classified on various bases, of which some are endogenous to coffee seeds, i.e., alkaloids, diterpenes, sugars, and amino acids, while others are generated during coffee processing, for example during roasting and brewing, such as furans, pyrazines, and melanoidins. As a beverage, it provides various distinct flavors, i.e., sourness, bitterness, and an astringent taste attributed to the presence of carboxylic acids, alkaloids, and chlorogenic acids. To resolve such a complex chemical makeup and to relate chemical composition to coffee effects, large-scale metabolomics technologies are being increasingly reported in the literature for proof of coffee quality and efficacy. This review summarizes the applications of various mass spectrometry (MS)- and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics technologies in determining the impact of coffee breeding, origin, roasting, and brewing on coffee chemical composition, and considers this in relation to quality control (QC) determination, for example, by classifying defected and non-defected seeds or detecting the adulteration of raw materials. Resolving the coffee metabolome can aid future attempts to yield coffee seeds of desirable traits and best flavor types.

Metabolomics Combined with Sensory Analysis Reveals the Impact of Different Extraction Methods on Coffee Beverages from Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora var. Robusta

An untargeted metabolomics approach combined with sensory analysis was used to depict the impact of different traditional Italian extraction methods (i.e., Espresso, Neapolitan, Moka) along with Filter, on Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora var. robusta beverages. To this aim, polyphenols, Maillard reaction products, and coffee metabolites were screened by high resolution mass spectrometry and elaborated through both unsupervised and supervised multivariate statistical approaches. Multivariate statistics showed a distinctive chemical profile for Espresso preparation, while Moka and Neapolitan were very similar. The orthogonal projection to latent structures and discriminant analysis allowed the identification of 86 compounds showing a high VIP discrimination score (i.e., > 0.8). The 2,5-dimethyl-3-(methyldithio)-furan was a marker for the Filter preparation, while 1,2-disinapoylgentiobiose characterized both Filter and Neapolitan extractions. Caffeine (known to be a bitter compound) accumulated highly in Filter vs. Espresso, although at the sensory profile, bitterness was more perceived in Espresso. Vegetal aroma carried by pyrazines, pyridines, and phenolic acids were markers of Espresso, with Robusta showing higher values than Arabica. Notwithstanding, our findings showed that the extraction process played a hierarchically higher role in driving the chemical composition of the beverages when compared to coffee species.

Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Pomegranate Fruit Peel and Solid Coffee Grounds vs. Chemical Method of Synthesis, with Their Biocompatibility and Antibacterial Properties Investigation

This research aims to investigate the synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of the biocompatibility and antibacterial activity of novel zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) prepared by Punica granatum peel and coffee ground extracts as the reducing and capping agents. Chemically synthesized ZnONPs were prepared using zinc acetate dihydrate and sodium hydroxide as reducing precursors. ZnONPs were characterized using an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer (UV-VIS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Peaks of UV spectra were 300 nm for ZnONPs_PPE, 320 nm (ZnONPs_CE), 290 nm, and 440 nm (ZnONP_Chem), thereby confirming ZnONPs formation. The X-ray diffractograms revealed their hexagonal structure. TEM micrographs of the biosynthesized ZnONPs revealed their hexagonal pattern and nanorod shape for ZnONPs_Chem with particle sizes of 118.6 nm, 115.7 nm, and 111.2 nm, respectively. The FTIR analysis demonstrated the presence of proteins, carboxyl, and hydroxyl groups on ZnONPs surfaces that act as reducing and stabilizing agents. ZnONP_Chem shows the antibacterial effect on Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Punica peel and coffee ground extracts are effective reducing agents for green ZnONPs synthesis with a lower cytotoxic effect on Vero cells than ZnONPs_Chem with IC50 = 111, 103, and 93 μg/mL, respectively.

Coffee constituents with antiadipogenic and antidiabetic potentials: A narrative review

Coffee consumption has been associated with the reduction of several chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity. The aim of this review was to summarize the research conducted in the last five years (or older, when appropriate) on the relationship between the consumption of coffee bioactive compounds, obesity, and T2DM. A bibliographic search was performed using the Web of Sciences, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Keywords used were "caffeine," "coffee," "coffee consumption," "coffee extraction," "coffee bioactive components," "chlorogenic acid," "obesity," "antidiabetic," and "antiadipogenic." Epidemiological, clinical, animal, and cell culture studies were reviewed. Caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and diterpenes have been identified as potential bioactive compounds in coffee that exhibit antiadipogenic and antidiabetic effects. The concentration of these compounds in coffee depends on the coffee preparation method. The relationship between coffee consumption and obesity risk is inconsistent, as not all results report a positive association. The addition of sugar and cream may be responsible for these mixed results. The consumption of coffee and its constituents is consistently associated with a lower T2DM risk. Caffeine, chlorogenic acids, and diterpenes have antidiabetic properties and are associated with these effects. The available data do not allow us to draw a conclusion on the effect of coffee or its constituents on adipogenesis. Therefore, more tightly controlled human intervention studies are required for a deeper understanding about this relationship.

Caffeine intake from coffee and tea and invasive breast cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative

Research findings remain inconsistent whether caffeine consumption is associated with invasive breast cancer. We aimed to examine the association between caffeine intake from coffee and tea and incident invasive breast cancer among postmenopausal women. We included 79 871 participants in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study in the current analysis. Incident invasive breast cancers were identified through September 30, 2015. Caffeine intake (mg/day) from caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee and tea was estimated based on self-reported frequency (cups/day) and average caffeine amount in each beverage. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Subgroup analyses were conducted to explore whether associations of caffeine intake from coffee and tea with invasive breast cancer were different by age, race and ethnicity, smoking status, body mass index, history of hormone therapy use, alcohol intake and subtypes of breast cancer. During a median follow-up of 16.0 years, 4719 incident invasive breast cancers were identified. No significant association was found between caffeine intake from coffee and tea and invasive breast cancer incidence after adjusting for demographic, lifestyle and reproductive factors: HRs (95% CIs) for increasing quartiles of caffeine intake compared to the lowest were 1.03 (0.94, 1.12), 1.04 (0.95, 1.13) and 1.03 (0.94, 1.13), respectively (P-for-trend = .54). No significant associations of coffee and tea intake (cups/day) with overall breast cancer risk were found. Our findings are consistent with others showing no clear association of caffeine consumption with invasive breast cancer among postmenopausal women.

Insights on Single-Dose Espresso Coffee Capsules' Volatile Profile: From Ground Powder Volatiles to Prediction of Espresso Brew Aroma Properties

Single-dose coffee capsules have revolutionized the coffee market, fueling espresso coffee popularity and offering access to a wide selection of coffee blends. Nevertheless, scarce information related to coffee powder and brew’s combined volatile characterization is available. In this study, it is hypothesized that coffee brew aroma characteristics can be predicted based on coffee powder’s volatile composition. For this, headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry detection (GC × GC-ToFMS) was used. The data were combined via chemometric tools to characterize in depth the volatile composition of eight blends of capsule-coffee powder and respective espresso brews, simulating the consumer’s perception. A total of 390 volatile compounds were putatively identified, 100 reported for the first time in roasted coffee or brews. Although the same chemical families were determined among the coffee powders and espresso brews, a different volatile profile was determined for each matrix. The Pearson correlation of coffee powders and respective brews allowed to identify 15 volatile compounds, mainly terpenic and esters recognized by their pleasant notes, with a strong relationship between the amounts present in both matrices. These compounds can be key markers to predict the volatile aroma potential of an espresso brew when analyzing the coffee powder.

Effect of three post-harvest methods and roasting degree on sensory profile of Turkish coffee assessed by Turkish and Brazilian panelists

BACKGROUND

This study was carried out in order to investigate the role of post-harvest methods and roasting degree on the sensory profile of Turkish coffees and to compare the results between two sensory panels: Turkey and Brazil. Bourbon variety of Arabica coffee beans processed by three different post-harvest methods (natural, pulped natural and fully washed) and roasted at three different roasting degrees (light, medium and dark).

RESULTS

Ground coffee in powder size was heated with cold water and prepared in a Turkish coffee machine. Twenty assessors - ten Turkish and ten Brazilian - were selected and trained to assess 20 flavor attributes of nine Turkish coffee samples. Sensory evaluation results showed that the effects of roasting method on flavor development were perceived more dominantly than effects of post-harvest methods. For the first time, this study highlighted the sensory analysis of Turkish coffees assessed by Turkish and Brazilian assessors.

CONCLUSION

Turkish coffee flavor profiles were significantly influenced by roasting method and no significant effects of post-harvest method were observed. Sensorial properties of Turkish coffee were affected by several factors, such as geographical origin and techniques used for preparation of coffee beans, cultural tradition, lifestyle, social behavior and habit. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Analysis of Phytosterols Content in Italian-Standard Espresso Coffee

This study aims to assess for the first time the content of phytosterols (PS) in espresso coffee (EC) to deepen the knowledge about the phytochemicals and health potentials of coffee brews. PS were extracted by hot saponification from 14 EC samples produced with coffee originating from 13 coffee-producing countries. PS were identified and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after derivatization. Among the detected PS, β-sitosterol (4.1–18.2 mg/L) was the most abundant followed by stigmasterol (1.1–4.9 mg/L), campesterol (0.9–4.7 mg/L), and cycloartenol (0.3–2.0 mg/L). Total PS fraction ranged from 6.5 mg/L to 30.0 mg/L with an average level of 15.7 ± 5.8 mg/L. Therefore, a standard cup of EC (25 mL) could provide 0.4 ± 0.1 mg of PS.

Characterization of the Aroma Profile and Main Key Odorants of Espresso Coffee

Espresso coffee (EC) is a common coffee preparation technique that nowadays is broadly widespread all over the globe. Its popularity is in part attributed to the intense aroma and pleasant flavor. Many researchers have studied and reviewed the aroma of the coffee, but there is a lack of specific review focused on EC aroma profile even if it is intensively investigated. Thus, the objective of the current review was to summarize the aroma profile of EC and how different preparation variables can affect EC flavor. Moreover, a collection of diverse analytical procedures for volatile analysis was also reported. The findings of this survey showed that the volatile fraction of EC is extremely complex, but just some compounds are responsible for the characteristic aroma of the coffee, such as some aldehyde, ketones, furanones, furans, sulfur compounds, pyrazines, etc. In addition, during preparation, some variables, e.g., temperature and pressure of water, granulometry of the coffee particle, and brew ratio, can also modify the aroma profile of this beverage, and therefore its quality. A better understanding of the aroma fraction of EC and how the preparation variables should be adjusted according to desired EC would assist coffee workers in obtaining a higher quality product.

The Effect of Brewing Process Parameters on Antioxidant Activity and Caffeine Content in Infusions of Roasted and Unroasted Arabica Coffee Beans Originated from Different Countries

Coffee is one of the most often consumed beverages almost all over the world. The multiplicity of beans, as well as the methods and parameters used to brew, encourages the optimization of the brewing process. The study aimed to analyze the effect of roasting beans, the brewing technique, and its parameters (time and water temperature) on antioxidant activity (determined using several in vitro methods), total polyphenols, flavonoids, and caffeine content. The infusions of unroasted and roasted Arabica beans from Brazil, Colombia, India, Peru, and Rwanda were analyzed. In general, infusions prepared from roasted beans had higher antioxidant activity and the content of above-mentioned compounds. The hot brew method was used to obtain infusions with a higher antioxidant activity, while the cold brew with higher caffeine content. The phenolic compound content in infusions prepared using both techniques depended on the roasting process. Moreover, the bean’s origin, roasting process, and brewing technique had a significant effect on the tested properties, in contrary to brewing time and water temperature (below and above 90 °C), which had less impact. The results confirm the importance of coffee brewing optimization.

Study of Influential Parameters of the Caffeine Extraction from Spent Coffee Grounds: From Brewing Coffee Method to the Waste Treatment Conditions

This article aims to study the interest of spent coffee grounds (SCG) valorization through caffeine recovery. In an original way, this study takes into account all the parameters such as (i) the brewing coffee methods (household, coffee shops, etc.); (ii) the storage conditions, in particular the drying step; (iii) the solid/liquid extraction parameters such as the nature of solvent, the temperature, the extraction time and the solid/liquid ratio; and (iv) the liquid/liquid purification parameters such as the nature, the volume and the pH of extraction medium. Results have shown that spent coffee grounds from coffee-shops obtained by percolation contain a higher amount of caffeine than spent coffee grounds from households obtained from spent pods or filters. A drying treatment is not required when extraction is performed under one week after the spent coffee grounds collection with 96.4% of not degraded caffeine. Solid/liquid extraction performed with 25 mL.g−1 SCG of hydroalcoholic solvent (water/EtOH, v/v 60/40) at 60 °C during 15 min have given a caffeine yield up to 4.67 mg.g−1 SCG. When using ethyl acetate, 93.4% of the caffeine has been selectively recovered by liquid/liquid extraction. Finally, the extraction of caffeine for the valorization of spent coffee grounds is a promising and easy way, which fits with an already important and well established market.

Integrating a Low-Cost Electronic Nose and Machine Learning Modelling to Assess Coffee Aroma Profile and Intensity

Aroma is one of the main attributes that consumers consider when appreciating and selecting a coffee; hence it is considered an important quality trait. However, the most common methods to assess aroma are based on expensive equipment or human senses through sensory evaluation, which is time-consuming and requires highly trained assessors to avoid subjectivity. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the coffee intensity and aromas using a low-cost and portable electronic nose (e-nose) and machine learning modeling. For this purpose, triplicates of nine commercial coffee samples with different intensity levels were used for this study. Two machine learning models were developed based on artificial neural networks using the data from the e-nose as inputs to (i) classify the samples into low, medium, and high-intensity (Model 1) and (ii) to predict the relative abundance of 45 different aromas (Model 2). Results showed that it is possible to estimate the intensity of coffees with high accuracy (98%; Model 1), as well as to predict the specific aromas obtaining a high correlation coefficient (R = 0.99), and no under- or over-fitting of the models were detected. The proposed contactless, nondestructive, rapid, reliable, and low-cost method showed to be effective in evaluating volatile compounds in coffee, which is a potential technique to be applied within all stages of the production process to detect any undesirable characteristics on–time and ensure high-quality products.

Anti-Platelet Aggregation and Anti-Cyclooxygenase Activities for a Range of Coffee Extracts (Coffea arabica)

Coffee is rich in caffeine (CF), chlorogenic acid (CGA) and phenolics. Differing types of coffee beverages and brewing procedures may result in differences in total phenolic contents (TPC) and biological activities. Inflammation and increases of platelet activation and aggregation can lead to thrombosis. We focused on determining the chemical composition, antioxidant activity and inhibitory effects on agonist-induced platelet aggregation and cyclooxygenase (COX) of coffee beverages in relation to their preparation method. We prepared instant coffee and brewed coffee beverages using drip, espresso, and boiling techniques. Coffee extracts were assayed for their CF and CGA contents using HPLC, TPC using colorimetry, platelet aggregation with an aggregometer, and COX activity using ELISA. The findings have shown all coffee extracts, except the decaffeinated types, contained nearly equal amounts of CF, CGA, and TPC. Inhibitory effects of coffee extracts on platelet aggregation differed depending on the activation pathways induced by different agonists. All espresso, drip and boiled coffee extracts caused dose dependent inhibition of platelet aggregation induced by ADP, collagen, epinephrine, and arachidonic acid (ARA). The most marked inhibition was seen at low doses of collagen or ARA. Espresso and drip extracts inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation more than purified caffeine or CGA. Espresso, boiled and drip coffee extracts were also a more potent inhibitors of COX-1 and COX-2 than purified caffeine or CGA. We conclude that inhibition of platelet aggregation and COX-1 and COX-2 may contribute to anti-platelet and anti-inflammatory effects of espresso and drip coffee extracts.

Sensory Analysis of Post-Exercise Coffee or Cocoa Milk Beverages for Endurance Athletes

Beverage strategies with balanced carbohydrate and protein supply are important for athletes’ recovery. Cow’s milk with added bioactive compounds present in coffee and cocoa facilitates glucose metabolism and may help post-workout glycogen recovery. Home-prepared beverages are cost and nutritionally effective strategies. Thus, the objectives were: (1) To develop home-prepared beverages containing nonfat powdered milk and sugar combined with filtered coffee or cocoa powder in balanced amounts for recovery after endurance exercise; and (2) to perform sensory analysis. Sensory evaluation was conducted by an acceptance test, applying nine-point hedonic scale and descriptive analysis, using the check-all-that-apply method (CATA). McNemar’s test and logistic regression with the proportional odds model were employed. The sample included 44 triathletes and 56 runners, of both sexes, 31–70 years old. Both beverages were well accepted by runners and triathletes, with higher acceptance of the coffee beverage (odds ratio coffee vs cocoa 5.232, p=0.0038). There was no significant difference between acceptance of triathletes and runners for the two beverages. The descriptive sensory analysis (CATA) resulted in slightly different characterizations between the two beverages. Both beverages were well accepted and characterized by the athletes, who can supply different options of post-workout beverages according to individual tastes, composition, and characteristics.

Effects of brew strength, brew yield, and roast on the sensory quality of drip brewed coffee

Drip brewed coffee is traditionally quantified in terms of its strength, also known as total dissolved solids (TDS), and its brewing yield, also known as percent extraction (PE). Early work in the 1950s yielded classifications of certain regimes of TDS and PE as "underdeveloped," "bitter," or "ideal," with the modifiers "weak" or "strong" simply correlated with TDS. Although this standard is still widely used today, it omits a rich variety of sensory attributes perceptible in coffee. In this work, we used response surface methodology to evaluate the influence of TDS and PE on the sensory profile of drip brewed coffee. A representative wet-washed Arabica coffee was roasted to three different levels (light, medium, or dark), with each roast then brewed to nine target brews that varied systematically by TDS and PE. Descriptive analysis found that 21 of the 30 evaluated attributes differed significantly across the brews for one or more experimental factors, yielding linear or second-order response surfaces versus TDS and PE. Seven attributes exhibited a significant response surface for all three roast levels tested: burnt wood/ash flavor, citrus flavor, sourness, bitterness, sweetness, thickness, and flavor persistence. An additional seven attributes also showed a significant response surface fit across some but not all roasts. Importantly, sweetness exhibited an inverse correlation with TDS irrespective of roast, while dark chocolate flavor and blueberry flavor decreased with TDS for medium roast. These results provide new insight on how to optimize brewing conditions to achieve desired sensory profiles in drip brewed coffee. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research provides guidance on how best to achieve specific flavor profiles in drip brewed coffee.

Coffee C21 and protection of DNA from strand breaks: evaluation of a health claim pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Following an application from Tchibo GmbH submitted for authorisation of a health claim pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 via the Competent Authority of Germany, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the scientific substantiation of a health claim related to Coffee C21 and protection of DNA from strand breaks. The scope of the application was proposed to fall under a health claim based on newly developed scientific evidence. The food proposed by the applicant as the subject of the health claim is Coffee C21. The Panel considers that Coffee C21, a coffee standardised by its concentration of caffeoylquinic acids (CQA), trigonelline and N-methylpyridinium (NMP), is sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed effect. The Panel considers that the claimed effect, protection of DNA from strand breaks, is a beneficial physiological effect. Out of the two human intervention studies from which conclusion could be drawn, one study provides some evidence that daily consumption of Coffee C21 (750 mL/day) for 4 weeks decreases DNA strand breaks in habitual coffee drinkers after coffee withdrawal over the previous four weeks. However, the results of this study were not replicated in another study conducted under similar conditions in the same study centre. No studies performed in a different setting, from which conclusions could be drawn, were available. No evidence has been provided for a mechanism by which coffee (including Coffee C21) would reduce DNA damage in human cells by reducing DNA strand breaks. The Panel concludes that a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of Coffee C21 and protection of DNA from strand breaks.

Lifestyle factors and risk of myeloproliferative neoplasms in the NIH-AARP diet and health study

The etiology of Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) is largely unknown. We assessed potential associations between lifestyle factors and MPN risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. In this prospective cohort with 463,049 participants aged 50-71 years at baseline (1995-1996) and a median follow-up of 15.5 years, we identified 490 MPN cases, including 190 with polycythemia vera (PV) and 146 with essential thrombocythemia (ET). Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Smoking was not associated with MPN risk in the overall cohort, but analyses stratified by sex suggested that smoking increased the risk of MPN in women (former smoker vs. nonsmokers, HR = 1.43, 95% CI: 1.03-2.00, p = 0.03; current smokers vs. nonsmokers, HR = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.08-2.71, p = 0.02). Coffee consumption was inversely associated with the risk of PV (high vs. low intake, HR = 0.53, 95% CI: 0.33-0.84, p-trend < 0.01), but not the risk of ET or MPN overall. Further analysis revealed an inverse association between the amount of caffeine intake and PV risk (high vs. low intake, HR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.39-0.79, p-trend < 0.01). While the consumption of caffeinated coffee appeared to confer a protective effect against PV, the consumption of decaffeinated coffee did not. This large prospective study identified smoking as a risk factor for MPN in women and suggests that caffeine intake is associated with a lower risk of PV.

Mineral Composition and Antioxidant Potential of Coffee Beverages Depending on the Brewing Method

Coffee, being one of the world’s most popular beverages, is a rich source of dietary antioxidants. The aim of this study was to determine the mineral content and antioxidant activity as well as acidity of coffee beverages depending on the brewing technique. We tested coffee brews made and served at a popular urban coffee shop (Szczecin, Poland). Five coffee brewing techniques were used: Aeropress, drip, espresso machine, French press, and simple infusion. Our findings showed that the brewing method had a significant effect on all parameters tested in the study. The antioxidant activity of the beverages was high (31%–42% inhibition of DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl); reduction potential from 3435.06 mol Fe3⁺/mL to 4298.19 mol Fe3⁺/mL). Polyphenolic content ranged from 133.90 g (French press) to 191.29 g of gallic acid/L (Aeropress brew), depending on the coffee extraction method. Mineral content was also found to differ between brewing methods. Coffees prepared by simple infusion and Aeropress provided a valuable source of magnesium, manganese, chromium, cobalt, and potassium, whereas the drip brew was found to be a good source of silicon.

Greek Coffee Quality Loss During Home Storage: Modeling the Effect of Temperature and Water Activity

The aim of this study was to monitor and characterize Greek coffee staling during home storage (secondary shelf life, SSL) using sensory evaluation techniques. Storage temperature (T) and product water activity (a_w ) are considered as the major factors affecting SSL. Water sorption isotherms fitted to Guggenheim Anderson-de Boer model were used to predict product stability; coffee samples were stable at a_w < 0.52. Coffee samples equilibrated at a_w = 0.15 (the fresh sample), 0.22, 0.33, and 0.52 were stored at T = 25 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C under simulated home storage conditions. Samples were obtained at appropriate times for each T and a_w condition and sensorially evaluated. Greek coffee brews were prepared and freshly served during sensory evaluation. The use of Weibull hazard analysis provided an effective approach to SSL determination as a function of T and a_w . SSL values ranged from 20 (Τ = 45 °C, a_w = 0.52) to 104 days (Τ = 25 °C, a_w = 0.15). Quality loss based on coffee aroma changes (aroma quality, aroma intensity, aftertaste, off-flavor) was also studied (S_i , sensory scoring using 9-point magnitude scale) and kinetically modeled. Quality loss rates (k_i ) were calculated and used to predict SSL values. Based on the results of both Weibull hazard analysis and sensory scoring of individual aroma characteristics, it was concluded that the lowest SSL was calculated for a_w = 0.52 at T = 35 °C to 45 °C. The temperature dependence of aftertaste, aroma quality loss, and off-flavor production was not statistically significant for 0.15 < a_w < 0.33 (P > 0.05); the aroma intensity was the most sensitive parameter. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Secondary shelf life (SSL) represents the time after pack opening during which a food maintains an acceptable quality level. During home/catering usage, coffee is not consumed immediately after pack opening. During consumption, quality degradation reactions proceed with higher rates due to variable storage conditions mainly related to atmosphere changes in the pack, leading to the entrance of oxygen/moisture and temperature. Therefore, SSL is important, and can be used as a tool for product management during consumption reducing food waste. There is a lack of studies dealing with SSL prediction of coffee, while no studies have been carried out on Greek coffee.

Caffeine and blood pressure: a critical review perspective

The WHO reported that high blood pressure (BP) is one of the primary causes of death worldwide. Hypertension (HPT) is a major risk factor for CVD and related diseases as well as for diseases, leading to a considerable increase in cardiovascular risk. Since BP response could also be influenced by caffeine, which is widely consumed with coffee and other items, it is important to define the possible effects associated with caffeine intake. The most recent findings aimed at clarifying the role of caffeine consumption on BP and HPT risk/incidence are conflicting and difficult to interpret. Therefore, in the present narrative review, we aimed to examine various methodological inaccuracies/aspects and factors that make studies difficult to be compared, in order to obtain a single consensus on the effects of caffeine intake on the risk of BP and HPT. We observed that this heterogeneity in results could be due to the presence of: (i) several variables affecting BP (such as age, sex, genetic and lifestyle aspects); (ii) different caffeine content of food and beverages; and (iii) caffeine metabolism. Moreover, different methodological aspects in the evaluation of daily dietary caffeine intake and in the BP measurement could add some other bias in the interpretation of results. Therefore, it is mandatory to consider all methodological aspects and confounding factors to generate a standardised methodology in order to increase cross-study consistency and minimise confounding effects of different variables on the relationship between BP response and HPT risk/incidence after caffeine intake.

A Metabolomic Study of the Variability of the Chemical Composition of Commonly Consumed Coffee Brews

Coffee drinking has been associated with a lower risk of certain chronic diseases and overall mortality. Its effects on disease risk may vary according to the type of coffee brew consumed and its chemical composition. We characterized variations in the chemical profiles of 76 coffee brew samples representing different brew methods, roast levels, bean species, and caffeine types, either prepared or purchased from outlets in Rockville, Maryland, United States of America. Samples were profiled using liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry, and the main sources of chemical variability identified by the principal component partial R-square multivariable regression were found to be brew methods (Rpartial² = 36%). A principal component analysis (PCA) was run on 18 identified coffee compounds after normalization for total signal intensity. The three first principal components were driven by roasting intensity (41% variance), type of coffee beans (29%), and caffeine (8%). These variations were mainly explained by hydroxycinnamoyl esters and diketopiperazines (roasting), N-caffeoyltryptophan, N-p-coumaroyltryptophan, feruloylquinic acids, and theophylline (coffee bean variety) and theobromine (decaffeination). Instant coffees differed from all coffee brews by high contents of diketopiperazines, suggesting a higher roast of the extracted beans. These variations will be important to consider for understanding the effects of different coffee brews on disease risk.

Characterization and comparison of cold brew and cold drip coffee extraction methods

BACKGROUND

Each region of the world has its own methods, protocols, instruments and procedures regarding how to brew coffee. The final result in the cup is strongly affected by the extraction method, and many studies have focused on this subject. However, few studies have investigated slow, cold extraction methods, despite their popularity among baristas. Therefore, the present study aimed to characterize and compare two cold extraction methods: cold brew and cold drip.

RESULTS

Physical and chemical analyses were used to describe coffee beverages in terms of pH, total solids, refractive index, density and viscosity. Caffeine and cinnamic acids were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/diode array detector and HPLC/mass spectrometry. A sensory evaluation included aroma, flavor and textural attributes.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant differences were found in the chemical and physical parameters, both between and within the two methods, as a function of the extraction temperature and contact time. Similarly, the sensory evaluation found differences in flavor profiles, as measured in terms of bitterness, sweetness, sourness and global intensity. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

What kind of coffee do you drink? An investigation on effects of eight different extraction methods

The chemical composition of brewed coffee depends on numerous factors: the beans, post-harvest processing and, finally, the extraction method. In recent decades, numerous coffee-based beverages, obtained using different extraction techniques have entered the market. This study characterizes and compares eight extraction coffee methods from a chemical-physical point of view, starting from the same raw material. Specifically, three types of Espresso, Moka, French Press, and 3 filter coffee that for the first time are reported in the scientific literature Cold Brew, V60, and Aeropress are compared. Physical measurements included the quantification of total dissolved solids, density, pH, conductivity, and viscosity. Chemical analyses identified 15 chlorogenic acids (CGAs): six caffeoylquinic acids, one p-Coumaroylquinic acid, one Feruloylquinic Acid, four Caffeoylquinic lactones, and three Dicaffeoylquinic acids. Maximum caffeine and CGA concentrations were found in Espresso coffees, while Moka and filtered coffees were three to six times less concentrated. The classic Espresso method was most efficient for caffeine and CGA recovery, with a yield almost double that of other methods. Per-cup caffeine and CGAs were higher in Cold Brew than Espresso coffees, as a function of the volume of beverage, which ranged from 30 mL (for espresso) to 120 mL (for filtered coffees). In light of these results, it is not possible to establish how many cups of coffee can be consumed per day without exceeding the recommended doses, since according to the applied brewing method, the content of the bioactive substances varies considerably.

Association of Coffee Consumption with Hearing and Tinnitus Based on a National Population-Based Survey

Coffee is the one of the most common beverages worldwide and has received considerable attention for its beneficial health effects. However, the association of coffee with hearing and tinnitus has not been well studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of coffee with hearing and tinnitus based on a national population-based survey. We evaluated hearing and tinnitus data from the 2009–2012 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and their relationship with a coffee consumption survey. All patients underwent a medical interview, physical examination, hearing test, tinnitus questionnaire and nutrition examination. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine the associations between coffee and hearing loss or tinnitus. We evaluated 13,448 participants (≥19 years) participants. The frequency of coffee consumption had a statistically significant inverse correlation with bilateral hearing loss in the 40–64 years age group. Daily coffee consumers had 50–70% less hearing loss than rare coffee consumers, which tended to be a dose-dependent relationship. In addition, the frequency of coffee consumption had an inverse correlation with tinnitus in the 19–64 years age group but its association was related with hearing. Brewed coffee had more of an association than instant or canned coffee in the 40–64 years age group. These results suggest a protective effect of coffee on hearing loss and tinnitus.

Development of an extraction method for the quantification of lignans in espresso coffee by using HPLC-MS/MS triple quadrupole

Lignans are polyphenolic compounds that are considered phytoestrogens for their plant origins, and they possess different biological activities. Three different extraction methods, ie, "dilute and shoot", acidic hydrolysis, and enzymatic digestion, have been compared for extracting lignans (secoisolariciresinol (SECO), matairesinol (MAT), and lariciresinol (LARI)) from espresso coffee (EC) by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The best recovery values (SECO: 97%, LARI: 98%, and MAT: 93%) were obtained by using enzymatic hydrolysis with Clara-Diastase at 10% (w/v), keeping the sample at 37°C for 3 hours. For this reason, this method has been chosen and then applied to quantify lignans in 9 different EC samples from 5 different geographical origins (Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Ethiopia, and India). Secoisolariciresinol and LARI were found in all EC samples from 27.9 to 52.0 μg L^-1 and from 5.3 to 27.8 μg L^-1 respectively, contrary to MAT that it was not possible to detect it in each type of coffee. This method confirms the high specificity and sensitivity of MS/MS system for detecting bioactives in complex matrix such as coffee.

Farm to Consumer: Factors Affecting the Organoleptic Characteristics of Coffee. II: Postharvest Processing Factors

The production and consumption of coffee are increasing despite the roadblocks to its agriculture and global trade. The unique, refreshing, and stimulating final cupping quality of coffee is the only reason for this rising production and consumption. Coffee quality is a multifaceted trait and is inevitably influenced by the way it is successively processed after harvesting. Reportedly, 60% of the quality attributes of coffee are governed by postharvest processing. The current review elaborates and establishes for the first time the relationship between different methods of postharvest processing of coffee and its varying organoleptic and sensory quality attributes. In view of the proven significance of each processing step, this review has been subdivided into three sections, secondary processing, primary processing, and postprocessing variables. Secondary processing addresses the immediate processing steps on the farm after harvest and storage before roasting. The primary processing section adheres specifically to roasting, grinding and brewing/extraction, topics which have been technically addressed more than any others in the literature and by industry. The postprocessing attribute section deals generally with interaction of the consumer with products of different visual appearance. Finally, there are still some bottlenecks which need to be addressed, not only to completely understand the relationship of varying postharvest processing methods with varying in-cup quality attributes, but also to devise the next generation of coffee processing technologies.

Coffee Consumption and Incident Kidney Disease: Results From the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study

BACKGROUND

Moderate coffee consumption has been suggested to be associated with lower risk for chronic conditions such as diabetes, a major precursor to chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the association between coffee and CKD has not been fully established. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

14,209 participants aged 45 to 64 years from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study.

PREDICTORS

Coffee consumption (cups per day) was assessed at visits 1 (1987-1989) and 3 (1993-1995) using food frequency questionnaires.

OUTCOMES

Incident CKD defined as estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60mL/min/1.73m2 accompanied by ≥25% estimated glomerular filtration rate decline, CKD-related hospitalization or death, or end-stage renal disease.

RESULTS

There were 3,845 cases of incident CKD over a median of 24 years of follow-up. Men, whites, current smokers, and participants without comorbid conditions were more likely to consume higher amounts of coffee per day. After adjustment for demographic, clinical, and dietary factors, higher categories of coffee consumption were associated with lower risk for incident CKD compared with those who never consumed coffee (HR for <1 cup per day, 0.90 [95% CI, 0.82-0.99]; 1-<2 cups per day, 0.90 [95% CI, 0.82-0.99]; 2-<3 cups per day, 0.87 [95% CI, 0.77-0.97]; and ≥3 cups per day, 0.84 [95% CI, 0.75-0.94]). In continuous analysis, for each additional cup of coffee consumed per day, risk for incident CKD was lower by 3% (HR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.95-0.99; P<0.001).

LIMITATIONS

Self-reported coffee consumption and observational design.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants who drank higher amounts of coffee had lower risk for incident CKD after adjusting for covariates. Coffee consumers may not be at adverse risk for kidney disease.

Associations of coffee, tea and caffeine intake with risk of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancer among Canadian women

BACKGROUND

Although, biologically plausible evidence has implicated coffee, tea and caffeine with carcinogenesis, there is a paucity of data on their associations with risk of cancer among Canadian women. Hence, we assessed their associations with risk of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancers within this population.

METHODS

The study comprised a subcohort of 3185 women from a cohort of 39,532 female participants who completed self-administered lifestyle and dietary questionnaires at enrollment. During a median follow-up of approximately 12.2years, we ascertained 922, 180 and 104 breast, endometrial and ovarian cancer cases, respectively. We used Cox proportional hazards regression models modified for the case-cohort design to estimate the hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the associations of coffee, tea and caffeine with risk of selected cancers.

RESULTS

Coffee, tea, and caffeine intake were not associated with overall risk of breast and ovarian cancers. There was, however, a tendency towards an increased risk of breast cancer with increasing levels of total coffee, caffeinated coffee and/or caffeine among premenopausal and normal weight women. Total coffee, caffeinated coffee, and caffeine were inversely associated with risk of endometrial cancer (HR_{per cup increase}: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.79-0.95, HR_{per cup increase:} 0.88; 95% CI: 0.80-0.96 and HR_{per 100mg increase:} 0.93; 95% CI: 0.87-0.99, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that coffee and/or caffeine may be associated with reduced risk of endometrial cancer but, probably, associated increased with risk of breast cancer among premenopausal or normal weight women. However, further studies are needed to confirm our findings.

Chemometric Modeling of Coffee Sensory Notes through Their Chemical Signatures: Potential and Limits in Defining an Analytical Tool for Quality Control

Aroma is a primary hedonic aspect of a good coffee. Coffee aroma quality is generally defined by cup tasting, which however is time-consuming in terms of panel training and alignment and too subjective. It is challenging to define a relationship between chemical profile and aroma sensory impact, but it might provide an objective evaluation of industrial products. This study aimed to define the chemical signature of coffee sensory notes, to develop prediction models based on analytical measurements for use at the control level. In particular, the sensory profile was linked with the chemical composition defined by HS-SPME-GC-MS, using a chemometric-driven approach. The strategy was found to be discriminative and informative, identifying aroma compounds characteristic of the selected sensory notes. The predictive ability in defining the sensory scores of each aroma note was used as a validation tool for the chemical signatures characterized. The most reliable models were those obtained for woody, bitter, and acidic properties, whose selected volatiles reliably represented the sensory note fingerprints. Prediction models could be exploited in quality control, but compromises must be determined if they are to become complementary to panel tasting.

Fluid Intake and Beverage Consumption Description and Their Association with Dietary Vitamins and Antioxidant Compounds in Italian Adults from the Mediterranean Healthy Eating, Aging and Lifestyles (MEAL) Study

The aim of the present study was to investigate the total water intake (TWI) from drinks and foods and to evaluate the correlation between the different types of drinks on energy and antioxidant intake. The cohort comprised 1602 individuals from the city of Catania in Southern Italy. A food frequency questionnaire was administered to assess dietary and water intake. The mean total water intake was 2.7 L; more than about two thirds of the sample met the European recommendations for water intake. Water and espresso coffee were the most consumed drinks. Alcohol beverages contributed about 3.0% of total energy intake, and sugar sweetened beverages contributed about 1.4%. All antioxidant vitamins were significantly correlated with TWI. However, a higher correlation was found for water from food rather than water from beverages, suggesting that major food contributors to antioxidant vitamin intake might be fruits and vegetables, rather than beverages other than water. A mild correlation was found between fruit juices and vitamin C; coffee, tea and alcohol, and niacin and polyphenols; and milk and vitamin B12. The findings from the present study show that our sample population has an adequate intake of TWI and that there is a healthy association between beverages and dietary antioxidants.

Do Coffee Polyphenols Have a Preventive Action on Metabolic Syndrome Associated Endothelial Dysfunctions? An Assessment of the Current Evidence

Epidemiologic studies from several countries have found that mortality rates associated with the metabolic syndrome are inversely associated with coffee consumption. Metabolic syndrome can lead to arteriosclerosis by endothelial dysfunction, and increases the risk for myocardial and cerebral infarction. Accordingly, it is important to understand the possible protective effects of coffee against components of the metabolic syndrome, including vascular endothelial function impairment, obesity and diabetes. Coffee contains many components, including caffeine, chlorogenic acid, diterpenes and trigonelline. Studies have found that coffee polyphenols, such as chlorogenic acids, have many health-promoting properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, and antihypertensive properties. Chlorogenic acids may exert protective effects against metabolic syndrome risk through their antioxidant properties, in particular toward vascular endothelial cells, in which nitric oxide production may be enhanced, by promoting endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. These effects indicate that coffee components may support the maintenance of normal endothelial function and play an important role in the prevention of metabolic syndrome. However, results related to coffee consumption and the metabolic syndrome are heterogeneous among studies, and the mechanisms of its functions and corresponding molecular targets remain largely elusive. This review describes the results of studies exploring the putative effects of coffee components, especially in protecting vascular endothelial function and preventing metabolic syndrome.