Mineral adsorbents for prevention of mycotoxins in animal feeds

The efficiency of mycotoxin binding by sorbents in the in vitro model using a naturally contaminated animal feed

Introduction

The productivity of domestic animals and the safety of food products derived from them are jeopardised by mycotoxins in animal feed. To control them, feed additives are used, which limit the absorption of mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract of animals by binding to them. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a new in vitro model in experiments on the binding of mycotoxins from buffers and contaminated feed and to confirm the effect of a single sorbent or mixture in binding them.

Material and Methods

Nine mineral sorbents were tested for their efficiency binding eight mycotoxins. Two in vitro experiments were conducted to indicate the mycotoxin-binding capacity of sorbents, each specifying a buffer with one of two different pH levels reflecting gastrointestinal conditions (pH 3.5 and 7.0). The first investigated the sorbent with only the buffer and mycotoxin standards, while the second did so with the sorbent, buffer and feed naturally contaminated with mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and ochratoxin A).

Results

The sorption was significantly lower in the trial with feed. In the first experiment at gastric pH (pH 3.5), activated charcoal bound deoxynivalenol and sepiolite bound zearalenone at 70% and 96%, respectively, whereas in the second experiment with feed, the binding was only 3% and 6%.

Conclusion

The study underlines the challenge of finding a feed additive that would work comprehensively, binding all mycotoxins regulated by law.

Thermogravimetric Analysis of Moisture in Natural and Thermally Treated Clay Materials

Clays are a class of porous materials; their surfaces are naturally covered by moisture. Weak thermal treatment may be considered practical to remove the water molecules, changing the surface properties and making the micro- and/or mesoporosities accessible to interact with other molecules. Herein, a modulated thermogravimetric analysis (MTGA) study of the moisture behavior on the structures of five, both fibrous and laminar, clay minerals is reported. The effect of the thermal treatment at 150 °C, which provokes the release of weakly adsorbed water molecules, was also investigated. The activation energies for the removal of the adsorbed water (Ea) were calculated, and they were found to be higher, namely, from 160 to 190 kJ mol-1, for fibrous clay minerals compared to lamellar structures, ranging in this latter case from 80 to 100 kJ mol-1. The thermal treatment enhances the rehydration in Na-montmorillonite, stevensite, and sepiolite structures with a decrease in the energy required to remove it, while Ea increases significantly in palygorskite (from 164 to 273 kJ mol-1). As a proof of concept, the MTGA results are statistically correlated, together with a full characterization of the physico-chemical properties of the five clay minerals, with the adsorption of two molecules, i.e., aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and β-carotene. Herein, the amount of adsorbed molecules ranges from 12 to 97% for the former and from 22 to 35% for the latter, depending on the particular clay. The Ea was correlated with AFB1 adsorption with a Spearman score of -0.9. When the adsorbed water is forcibly removed, e.g., under vacuum conditions and high temperatures, the structure becomes the most important, decreasing the Spearman score between β-carotene and Ea to -0.6.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 and Estimate of Dietary Exposure in Cheeses from Organic and Conventional Production Systems

This study aimed to compare AFM1 occurrence in different cheese types produced by organic and conventional systems; and to evaluate the risk of food exposure to AFM1. A total of 176 commercial cheeses of 17 types were analyzed, 84 of organic and 92 of conventional production. Determination of AFM1 was performed by high- performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), being detected in 30.5% of samples, with 4.8% of organic cheese samples presenting quantifiable AFM1 values between 0.88 and 1.50 μg/kg. On the other hand, 4.3% of conventional cheese samples with values between 0.79 and 6.70 μg/kg. Two conventional cheese samples were above the limit of AFM1 allowed for cheeses by the Brazilian legislation. No statistical difference were found between organic and conventional cheeses regarding the occurrence (p = 0.1780) and concentration of AFM1 (p = 0.1810), according to the Chi-square and the T test, respectively. Estimated daily intake (EDI) and hazard index (HI) of dietary exposure to AFM1 were 0.26 ng/kg/day and 1.28 ng/kg/day, respectively, for conventional cheese samples, and 0.09 ng/kg/day and 0.47 ng/kg/day for organic samples, with no statistical difference for EDI (p = 0.1729) and HI (p = 0.1802) between the two production systems. Comparison between several cheese types from conventional and organic systems indicated that AFM1 is an obstacle to dairy production. Control and prevention of AFM1 contamination, as well as detoxification methods in the final products, are necessary. In the case of organic products, additional research is needed in order to determine which control and detoxification methods should be allowed in this production system.

Investigation of a multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent for aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A-induced blood profile in broiler chickens

Background and Aim

Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A (OTA) are secondary metabolites in molds that grow in raw materials or commercial feed. This interaction has a synergistic effect on mortality, body weight, feed intake, embryo abnormalities, egg production, and lymphoid organ atrophy. This study was conducted to determine the effect of a mycotoxin detoxifier on the blood profile of broilers that were given feed contaminated with mycotoxin, such as the number of heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and MCH concentration (MCHC).

Materials and Methods

A total of 20 day-old chicks (DOC) of Cobb broilers were given four treatments with five replicates. The number of chickens used in this research was determined using statistical calculations, and the data obtained was homogeneous so that the population was represented. Treatments included negative control with basal feed (C-), positive control with mycotoxins contamination (C+), treatment 1: Mycotoxins contamination and mycotoxin detoxification 1.1 g/kg (T1), and treatment 2: Mycotoxins contamination and mycotoxin detoxification 1.6 g/kg (T2). Mycotoxin contamination comprised 0.1 mg/kg aflatoxin B1 and 0.1 mg/kg OTA. The treatment period for chickens was 28 days, from 8 to 35 days. A battery cage was used in this study. Chickens were kept in a closed, ventilated room and the room temperature (27°C) was monitored during the treatment period.

Results

Based on the results of statistical data processing, a significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed between chickens fed mycotoxin-contaminated feed (C+) and chickens not fed mycotoxin-contaminated feed (C-) and chickens given 1.6 g/kg mycotoxin detoxification (T2). Mycotoxin detoxification at a dose of 1.6 g/kg had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the heterophil, lymphocyte, and heterophil lymphocyte ratio, leukocyte, erythrocyte, and hemoglobin levels of the blood broiler in this experiment. On other parameters such as monocytes, MCH, and MCHC, treatment 2 at dose 1.6 g/kg was the best treatment, although there was no significant effect with C- and T1.

Conclusion

The administration of mycotoxin detoxifiers at a dose of 1.6 g/kg increased the number of heterophils and the ratio of heterophil lymphocytes, leukocytes, erythrocytes, and hemoglobin in broilers fed mycotoxin-contaminated feed.

Comprehensive Insights into Ochratoxin A: Occurrence, Analysis, and Control Strategies

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic mycotoxin produced by some mold species from genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. OTA has been detected in cereals, cereal-derived products, dried fruits, wine, grape juice, beer, tea, coffee, cocoa, nuts, spices, licorice, processed meat, cheese, and other foods. OTA can induce a wide range of health effects attributable to its toxicological properties, including teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity. OTA is not only toxic to humans but also harmful to livestock like cows, goats, and poultry. This is why the European Union and various countries regulate the maximum permitted levels of OTA in foods. This review intends to summarize all the main aspects concerning OTA, starting from the chemical structure and fungi that produce it, its presence in food, its toxicity, and methods of analysis, as well as control strategies, including both fungal development and methods of inactivation of the molecule. Finally, the review provides some ideas for future approaches aimed at reducing the OTA levels in foods.

Natural feed additives and bioactive supplements versus chemical additives as a safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses

This review highlights the possible hazard of mycotoxins occurrence in foods and feeds in regards to foodborne diseases. The possible management of the risk of contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins by using natural feed additives, protecting against deleterious effects of mycotoxins or inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production, is deeply investigated in the available literature and some effective measures for safe utilization of mycotoxin contaminated feed/food are proposed. The biological methods of decontamination, degradation or biotransformation of mycotoxins are deeply analyzed and discussed. Some natural antagonists against target fungi are also reviewed and a comparison is made with conventional fungicides for ensuring a safe prevention of mycotoxin contamination. The most common and useful chemical methods of mycotoxins decontamination of agricultural commodities or raw materials are also investigated, e.g., chemical additives inactivating or destroying and/or adsorbing mycotoxins as well as chemical additives inhibiting the growth of fungi and mycotoxin production. The practical use and safety of various kind of feed/food additives or herbal/biological supplements as possible approach for ameliorating the adverse effects of some dangerous mycotoxins is deeply investigated and some suggestions are given. Various possibilities for decreasing mycotoxins toxicity, e.g., by clarifying the mechanisms of their toxicity and using some target antidotes and vitamins as supplements to the diet, are also studied in the literature and appropriate discussions or suggestions are made in this regard. Some studies on animal diets such as low carbohydrate intake, increased protein content, calorie restriction or the importance of dietary fats are also investigated in the available literature for possible amelioration of the ailments associated with mycotoxins exposure. It could be concluded that natural feed additives and bioactive supplements would be more safe and practical approach to combat foodborne mycotoxicoses as compared to chemical additives.

Mitigating Aflatoxin B1-Induced Growth Impairment and Hepatic Stress in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): Comparative Efficacy of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Silicate-Based Detoxifiers

The objective of this study was to detect the effects of acute aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) exposure in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and the effectiveness of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and silicate in reducing these effects. Two hundred and forty Nile tilapia fingerlings (16 ± 0.5 g) were randomly assigned to four experimental groups, each with 60 fish and three replicates. Control basal diet (Diet 1) and three test diets were formulated, where Diet 2 was supplemented with 200 ppb AFB1. Diets 3 and 4 were intoxicated with AFB1 (200 ppb) and supplemented with 0.5% S. cerevisiae or 0.5%, respectively. After 60 days, Diet 1 had considerably greater growth characteristics than the other groups (p < 0.05). Diet 2 revealed a reduced (p < 0.05) survival rate after 1 month of exposure. In addition, Diet 1 showed higher (p < 0.05) total protein and albumin levels than Diets 3 and 4. AFB1 residues were detected in the liver in fish-fed Diet 2, Diet 4, and Diet 3. Alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, creatinine, and urea levels increased (p < 0.05) in fish-fed Diet 2. The glutathione peroxidase, lysozyme, and catalase activity were decreased (p < 0.05) in the fish-fed Diet 2. The malondialdehyde level was significantly higher in fish given Diet 2 (p < 0.05) than in fish-fed Diets 3 and 4. Histopathological investigation of fish-fed Diet 2 revealed impaired liver and spleen; however, both treatments (Diets 3 and 4) successfully lowered inflammation and preserved liver and spleen integrities. In conclusion, AFB1 impaired growth performance and posed a severe health risk to Nile tilapia. Furthermore, S. cerevisiae alleviated the contamination of AFB1 effects more efficiently than silicate employed for toxin adsorption.

Improving feed intake and rumen fermentation in lambs using mixed-dimensional attapulgite clay to adsorb naturally occurring mycotoxins

This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of including a mixed-dimensional attapulgite clay (MDA) into a naturally moldly diet for Hu lambs. Fifty male Hu lambs with similar initial body weight (28.24 ± 1.80 kg) were randomly allocated into five dietary treatments: a basal diet containing naturally occurring mycotoxins with 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 kg/t MDA, and basal diet with a commercial mycotoxin adsorbent Solis with montmorillonite as the major component at 1 kg/t. Both MDA and Solis increased average daily gain (ADG) and dry matter intake (DMI; P ≤ 0.004), and there was no difference in growth performance between MDA and Solis (P ≥ 0.26). The final body weight, DMI, and ADG were linearly increased with increasing MDA supplementation (P < 0.01). Lambs treated with both MDA and Solis demonstrated greater apparent digestibility of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), and energy compared with the control group (P ≤ 0.03), and there were no differences in nutrient digestibilities between MDA and Solis (P ≥ 0.38). Digestibility of CP was linearly increased with the increasing MDA supplementation (P = 0.01). Neither MDA nor Solis affected rumen total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) concentration (P ≥ 0.39), but decreased the acetate-to-propionate ratio and molar proportion of n-butyrate (P ≤ 0.01), and MDA also increased the concentration of ammonia (P = 0.003). Besides, increasing MDA supplementation linearly reduced the acetate-to-propionate ratio and molar proportion of n-butyrate (P = 0.01), but linearly and quadratically increased the concentration of ammonia (P ≥ 0.003). These results showed that the incorporation of MDA into a naturally moldy diet of Hu lambs yielded comparable results to the Solis product, with higher growth performance and nutrient digestibility but lower acetate-to-propionate ratio observed. In conclusion, including ≥ 1 kg/t of MDA in high mycotoxin risk diets for growing lambs improves feed intake and rumen fermentation.

Ochratoxin A: Overview of Prevention, Removal, and Detoxification Methods

Ochratoxins are the secondary metabolites of Penicillium and Aspergillus, among which ochratoxin A (OTA) is the most toxic molecule. OTA is widely found in food and agricultural products. Due to its severe nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and teratogenic mutagenesis, it is essential to develop effective, economical, and environmentally friendly methods for OTA decontamination and detoxification. This review mainly summarizes the application of technology in OTA prevention, removal, and detoxification from physical, chemical, and biological aspects, depending on the properties of OTA, and describes the advantages and disadvantages of each method from an objective perspective. Overall, biological methods have the greatest potential to degrade OTA. This review provides some ideas for searching for new strains and degrading enzymes.

A network meta-analysis on the efficacy of different mycotoxin binders to reduce aflatoxin M1 in milk after aflatoxin B1 challenge in dairy cows

The objective of this network meta-analysis was to determine the efficacy of different mycotoxin binders (MTB) to reduce aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk. A literature search was conducted to identify in vivo research papers from different databases. Inclusion criteria were in vivo, dairy cows, description of the MTB used, doses of MTB, aflatoxin inclusion in the diet, and concentration of AFM1 in milk. Twenty-eight papers with 131 data points were selected. Binders used in the studies were hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), yeast cell wall (YCW), bentonite, and mixes of several MTB (MX). The response variables were AFM1 concentration, AFM1 reduction in milk, total AFM1 excreted in milk, and transfer of aflatoxin from feed to AFM1 in milk. Data were analyzed with CINeMA and GLIMMIX procedures with the WEIGHT statement of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc.). The AFM1 concentration in milk decreased for bentonite (0.3 µg/L ± 0.05; mean ± SE) and HSCAS (0.4 µg/L ± 0.12), and tended to decrease for MX (0.6 µg/L ± 0.13) but was similar for YCW (0.6 µg/L ± 0.12), compared with control (0.7 µg/L ± 0.12). The percentage reduction of AFM1 in milk was similar for all MTB and different from control with a range of reduction from 25% for YCW to 40% for bentonite. The excretion of AFM1 in milk was lower in YCW (5.3 µg/L ± 2.37), HSCAS (13.8 µg/L ± 3.31), and MX (17.1 µg/L ± 5.64), and not affected by bentonite (16.8 µg/L ± 3.33) compared with control (22.1 µg/L ± 5.33). The transfer of aflatoxin B1 from feed into AFM1 in milk was lowest in bentonite (0.6% ± 0.12), MX (1.04% ± 0.27), and HSCAS (1.04% ± 0.21), and not affected in YCW (1.4% ± 0.10), compared with control (1.7% ± 0.35). The meta-analysis results indicate that all MTB reduced the AFM1 transfer into milk, where bentonite had the highest capacity and YCW the lowest.

Spectroscopic and Microestructural Evidence for T-2 Toxin Adsorption Mechanism by Natural Bentonite Modified with Organic Cations

Aluminosilicates are adsorbents able to bind mycotoxins, and their chemical modification increases their affinity to adsorb low-polarity mycotoxins. To further investigate if the inclusion of salts in bentonite modifies its adsorptive capacity, we studied T-2 toxin adsorption in natural bentonite (NB) and when modified with quaternary ammonium salts differing in polarity and chain length: myristyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (B14), cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (B16) and benzyl dimethyl stearyl ammonium chloride (B18). The results showed that quaternary salts made bentonite: displace monovalent (Na+1, K+1) and divalent (Mg+2, Ca+2) ions; reduce its porosity; change its compaction and structure, becoming more crystalline and ordered; and modify the charge balance of sheets. T-2 adsorption was higher in all modified materials compared to NB (p ≤ 0.0001), and B16 (42.96%) better adsorbed T-2 compared to B18 (35.80%; p = 0.0066). B14 (38.40%) showed no differences compared to B16 and B18 (p > 0.05). We described the T-2 adsorption mechanism in B16, in which hydrogen bond interactions, Van der Waals forces and the replacement of the salt by T-2 were found. Our results showed that interaction types due to the inclusion in B16 might be more important than the hydrocarbon chain length to improve the adsorptive capacity of bentonite.

Effect of Fungicide Treatment on Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in French Wheat during a 4-Year Period

Wheat represents one of the most widely consumed cereals worldwide. Cultivated in winter and spring, it is vulnerable to an array of different pathogens, including fungi, which are managed largely through the in-field application of fungicides. During this study, a 4-year field investigation (2018-2021) was performed in France, aiming to assess the efficacy of fungicide treatment to reduce mycotoxin contamination in common and durum wheat. Several different commercially available fungicides were applied via sprayers. Concentrations of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in wheat were determined using a multi-analyte liquid-chromatography-tandem-mass-spectrometry-based method. The highest contamination levels and strongest effects of fungicides were observed in 2018, followed by 2021. A significant fungicide-mediated reduction was observed for the trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and nivalenol-3-glucoside. Furthermore, fungicide treatment also reduced levels of culmorin and its hydroxy metabolites 5- and 15-hydroxy-culmorin, as well as aurofusarin. Interestingly, the Alternaria metabolite infectopyron was increased following fungicide treatment. In conclusion, fungicide treatment was effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in wheat. However, as complete prevention of mycotoxin contamination was not achieved, fungicide treatment should always be combined with other pre- and post-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to improve food and feed safety.

Natural mycotoxin contamination in dog food: A review on toxicity and detoxification methods

Nowadays, the companion animals (dogs or other pets) are considered as members of the family and have established strong emotional relationships with their owners. Dogs are long lived compared to food animals, so safety, adequacy, and efficacy of dog food is of great importance for their health. Cereals, cereal by-products as well as feedstuffs of plant origin are commonly employed food resources in dry food, yet are potential ingredients for mycotoxins contamination, so dogs are theoretically more vulnerable to exposure when consumed daily. Aflatoxins (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEA) are the most frequent mycotoxins that might present in dog food and cause toxicity on the growth and metabolism of dogs. An understanding of toxicological effects and detoxification methods (physical, chemical, or biological approaches) of mycotoxins will help to improve commercial ped food quality, reduce harm and minimize exposure to dogs. Herein, we outline a description of mycotoxins detected in dog food, toxicity and clinical findings in dogs, as well as methods applied in mycotoxins detoxification. This review aims to provide a reference for future studies involved in the evaluation of the risk, preventative strategies, and clear criteria of mycotoxins for minimizing exposure, reducing harm, and preventing mycotoxicosis in dog.

Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta sobre la salud y la producción en cuyes

Los alimentos destinados a los animales están contaminados por hongos filamentosos que producen micotoxinas. El estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta sobre la salud, producción y beneficio económico de cuyes en crianza comercial. Se utilizaron 80 cuyes en crecimiento de la raza Perú, entre machos y hembras, con un peso de 435,5 ± 35,5 gramos (g), distribuidos al azar en dos grupos de alimentación: dieta con Mycosorb A+® (experimental) y dieta sin Mycosorb A+® (control), realizado en el distrito de Ilabaya-Tacna, Perú, a 1.425 metros de altitud, durante 57 días. La dieta se elaboró con heno molido de alfalfa, maíz amarillo, afrecho de trigo, torta de soya, harina integral de soya y fuentes de minerales y vitaminas, ofrecida para consumo ad libitum, más 12,5 g·día-1 de alfalfa fresca (H° 78 %) por cuy. Los resultados indican que todas las variables evaluadas, excepto el consumo de materia seca, fueron significativas (P<0,05): morbilidad 2,5 vs. 35,0 %; consumo de materia seca, 59,8 ± 2,1 vs. 58,0 ± 2,4 g·día-1; ganancia de peso vivo, 9,7 ± 1,4 vs. 7,8 ± 0,9 g·día-1; conversión alimenticia, 6,3 ± 0,9 vs. 7,5 ± 0,6; y relación beneficio-costo, 1,52 vs. 1,35, respectivamente. Se concluye que la inclusión de Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta tiene efecto positivo en la salud, producción y beneficio económico en la crianza comercial de cuyes.

Evaluation of the Adsorption Efficacy of Bentonite on Aflatoxin M1 Levels in Contaminated Milk

The existence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in raw milk results in economic losses and public health risks. This research aims to examine the capability of bentonite to adsorb and/or eliminate AFM₁ from various raw milk types. In addition, the effects of numerous bentonites (HAFR 1, 2, 3 and 4) on the nutritional characteristics of the milk were studied. Our findings revealed that goat milk had the highest value of AFM₁ (490.30 ng/L) in comparison to other milks. AFM₁ adsorption was influenced by applying bentonite (0.5 and 1 g) in a concentration-dependent manner for different time intervals (from 0 to 12 h). The percentage of AFM₁ reached the maximum adsorption level after 12 h to 100, 98.5 and 98% for bentonites HAFR 3, 1 and 2, respectively. HAFR 3 (1 g bentonite) presented higher adsorption efficiency than other bentonites used in the phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and milk. Residual levels of AFM₁ reached their lowest values of 0 and 1.5 ng/L while using HAFR 3 in PBS and milk, respectively. With regard to the influence of bentonite on the nutritional characteristics of milk, there was an increase in fat, protein and solid non-fat ratio while using HAFR 3 and 4, yet decreased lactose in comparison with the control. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy both identified bentonites as superior AFM₁ binders. The results demonstrated that bentonite, particularly HAFR 3, was the most effective adsorbent and could thus be a promising candidate for the decontamination of AFM₁ in milk.

Enzymatic Degradation of Zearalenone in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Pigs, Chickens, and Rainbow Trout

The estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is a common contaminant of animal feed. Effective strategies for the inactivation of ZEN in feed are required. The ZEN-degrading enzyme zearalenone hydrolase ZenA (EC 3.1.1.-, commercial name ZENzyme^®, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Getzersdorf, Austria) converts ZEN to hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN), thereby enabling a strong reduction in estrogenicity. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of ZenA added to feed to degrade ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of three monogastric animal species, i.e., pigs, chickens, and rainbow trout. For each species, groups of animals received (i) feed contaminated with ZEN (chickens: 400 µg/kg, pigs: 200 µg/kg, rainbow trout: 2000 µg/kg), (ii) feed contaminated with ZEN and supplemented with ZenA, or (iii) uncontaminated feed. To investigate the fate of dietary ZEN in the gastrointestinal tract in the presence and absence of ZenA, concentrations of ZEN and ZEN metabolites were analyzed in digesta of chickens and rainbow trout and in feces of pigs. Upon ZenA administration, concentrations of ZEN were significantly decreased and concentrations of the degradation product HZEN were significantly increased in digesta/feces of each investigated animal species, indicating degradation of ZEN by ZenA in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, upon addition of ZenA to the diet, the concentration of the highly estrogenic ZEN metabolite α-ZEL was significantly reduced in feces of pigs. In conclusion, ZenA was effective in degrading ZEN to HZEN in the gastrointestinal tract of chickens, pigs, and rainbow trout, and counteracted formation of α-ZEL in pigs. Therefore, ZenA could find application as a ZEN-degrading feed additive for these animal species.

The efficacy of mycotoxin binders to control mycotoxins in feeds and the potential risk of interactions with nutrient: a review

Mycotoxicosis are a common problem in livestock, where a group of six major mycotoxins represents a high risk for animal health and production profits. Mycotoxin binders (MTB) can reduce the mycotoxin burden in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal. Mycotoxin binders are classified in inorganic, as clays and activated carbon (AC), and organic, as yeast cell wall (YCW) and micro-ionized fibers. The adsorption of mycotoxins into MTB is due to: 1) chemical interactions where the cation exchange capacity involves different types of bounds like ion-dipole, Van der Walls forces, or hydrogen bonds; and 2) to physical characteristics of MTB like pore size, or mycotoxin structure and shape. The adsorption capacity of MTB is determined using different in vitro tests that mimic the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. A literature search was conducted to identify in vitro research where the efficacy of adsorption of MTB was determined. The search was based on 8 MTB [AC, bentonite, clinoptilolite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), montmorillonite (MMT), sepiolite, YCW and zeolite] and 6 mycotoxins [aflatoxin (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin (FUM), ochratoxin (OTA), T-2 toxin and zearalenone (ZEA)]. Sixty-eight papers with 1842 data were selected and analyzed with the PROC MIXED of SAS. The response variable was the percentage mycotoxins adsorption by MTB, and the model included the fixed effects of MTB, mycotoxins, incubation media, pH and their interactions, and the random effect of the study. Differences were considered significant when P < 0.05 and with tendency when 0.05 < P < 0.10. The mycotoxins adsorption capacity was 83% ± 1.0 for AC, 76% ± 3.1 for MMT, 62% ± 1.0 for bentonite, 55% ± 1.9 for HSCAS, 52% ± 9.1 for sepiolite, 52% ± 4.3 for clinoptilolite and 44% ± 0.4 for YCW. For mycotoxins, the adsorption of AF was 76% ± 0.6, for FUM was 50% ± 1.8, for OTA was 42% ± 1.0, for ZEA was 48% ± 1.1, for DON was 35% ± 1.6, and for T-2 was 27% ± 2.8. The pH affected the adsorption capacity of YCW with higher adsorption at low pH, and the adsorption of OTA and ZEA, where OTA adsorption tended to be lower at intermediate pH, and adsorption of ZEA tended to be higher at the two-steps pH. The potential adsorption of some essential nutrients, including amino acids and vitamins, should also be considered. Results should be used as a guide in the selection of the appropriate mycotoxin binder based on the predominant mycotoxin in feeds.

Isolation and Aflatoxin B1-Degradation Characteristics of a Microbacterium proteolyticum B204 Strain from Bovine Faeces

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is one of the most harmful mycotoxins, raising serious global health and economic problems. Searching for biological approaches for effective and safe AFB₁ degradation is imminent. In our study, Microbacterium proteolyticum B204 isolated from bovine faeces degraded 77% of AFB₁ after 24 h, becoming the first reported bacteria from the Microbacterium family to possess AFB₁ degradation characteristics. Temperature variation showed little effect on its degradation ratio, demonstrating high thermostability of 75% and 79% after boiling and sterilization, respectively. We suppose that the components playing a key role during this process were proteins, considering the decreased degradation rate caused by Proteinase K. Cell viability detection on HepG2 cells indicated that the degradation products were much less toxic than pure AFB₁. Furthermore, B204 cell-free culture supernatant also degraded AFB₁-contaminated food, such as peanuts, corn and cheese. These results suggested that this strain with AFB₁ degradation properties could be a prospective candidate for application in the food and feed industries.

A porous ceramic particle with or without a preservative blend did not impair apparent digestibility of macro- and micro-nutrients of postweaned pigs

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of supplementing a commercial porous ceramic clay particle, with or without a blend of preservatives, on the performance and nutrient digestibility of weanling pigs. Fifteen weanling pigs of the Yorkshire, Landrace, and Duroc breeds were blocked by breed and randomly assigned to one of three treatments (n = 5): (1) Control, non-medicated diet with no additional feed additives (CON); (2) PowerGuard, basal diet with 0.25% of the DM consisting of a ceramic particle mixed into the pelleted feed (PG; MB Nutritional Sciences, Lubbock, TX, 79403); or (3) Power Guard + a blend of preservatives, basal diet with 0.3% of the DM consisting of the ceramic clay and preservatives mixed into the pelleted feed (PG-D). The facility was temperature controlled with an average temperature of 28.5 °C. Pigs were offered ad libitum access to feed and water and were housed individually in elevated crates. Body weights were collected upon enrollment on day 0 and at the end of the observation period on day 18. On day 15 , a 72-h total feed and fecal collection period began. Feed and fecal samples were analyzed for DM, CP, Ash, OM, ADF, NDF, zinc, copper, thiamin (vitamin B1), and retinol (vitamin A). Liver samples were collected immediately after harvest and frozen for later mineral analysis. Data were analyzed using Proc Mixed in SAS with dietary group as the main effect and block as the random effect (SAS 9.4, Cary, NC). There were no treatment differences in performance measures including final BW, ADG, or G:F (P ≥ 0.701). There were no treatment differences in diet nutrient digestibility for DM, CP, Ash, OM, ADF, or NDF (P ≥ 0.312). Additionally, there were no treatment effects on zinc, copper, or retinol digestibility (P ≥ .298); however, thiamin inclusion rate was increased for the PG-D treatment, thus leading to an increased digestibility for thiamin (P = 0.018) in the PG-D treatment. There were no treatment differences in hepatic mineral concentrations (P ≥ 0.532); however, there was a tendency for pigs fed PG-D to have increased hepatic concentrations of lead and mercury when compared with both PG and CON pigs (P ≤ 0.066). In summary, supplementation of a commercial ceramic particle with or without a blend of preservatives to weaned pigs did not affect performance or apparent nutrient digestibility.

Assessment of the Potential of a Native Non-Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus Isolate to Reduce Aflatoxin Contamination in Dairy Feed

Aspergillus species can produce aflatoxins (AFs), which can severely affect human and animal health. The objective was to evaluate the efficacy of reducing AF contamination of a non-aflatoxigenic isolate of A. flavus experimentally coinoculated with different aflatoxigenic strains in whole plant (WP), corn silage (CS), immature grains (IG) and in culture media (CM). An L-morphotype of A. flavus (CS1) was obtained from CS in a dairy farm located in the Mexican Highland Plateau; The CS1 failed to amplify the AFs biosynthetic pathway regulatory gene (aflR). Monosporic CS1 isolates were coinoculated in WP, CS, IG and CM, together with A. flavus strains with known aflatoxigenic capacity (originating from Cuautitlán and Tamaulipas, Mexico), and native isolates from concentrate feed (CF1, CF2 and CF3) and CS (CS2, CS3). AF production was evaluated by HPLC and fungal growth rate was measured on culture media. The positive control strains and those isolated from CF produced a large average amount of AFs (15,622 ± 3952 and 12,189 ± 3311 µg/kg), whereas A. flavus strains obtained from CS produced a lower AF concentration (126 ± 25.9 µg/kg). CS1 was efficient (p < 0.01) in decreasing AF concentrations when coinoculated together with CF, CS and aflatoxigenic positive control strains (71.6−88.7, 51.0−51.1 and 63.1−71.5%) on WP, CS, IG and CM substrates (73.9−78.2, 65.1−73.7, 63.8−68.4 and 57.4−67.6%). The results suggest that the non-aflatoxigenic isolate can be an effective tool to reduce AF contamination in feed and to minimize the presence of its metabolites in raw milk and dairy products intended for human nutrition.

Ruminant Lick Blocks, Particularly in China: A Review

A lick block (LB) is a solidified mixture of molasses, urea, minerals, filler, coagulant and binder that is supplemented to livestock mainly in relatively extensive rearing systems. It provides nutrients, such as soluble sugars, proteins, minerals and vitamins to balance dietary intake and can improve rumen fermentation and facilitate digestion and absorption of nutrients. These supplements improve livestock production, reproduction and carcass quality. In addition, LB can partially replace concentrate, serve as a delivery vehicle for additives such as enzymes and drugs and mediate the distribution of grazing livestock. This paper classifies and analyzes representative research; discusses the types, ingredients and current status of the utilization of LB; and systematically reviews the processing technology, quality assessment, influencing factors of intake, action mechanism and application. This review can provide a basis for the development, popularization and application of novel LB products.

Simultaneous Removal of Mycotoxins by a New Feed Additive Containing a Tri-Octahedral Smectite Mixed with Lignocellulose

Simultaneous removal of mycotoxins has been poorly addressed, and a limited number of studies have reported the efficacy of feed additives in sequestering a large spectrum of mycotoxins. In this study, a new mycotoxin-adsorbing agent was obtained by properly mixing a tri-octahedral smectite with a lignocellulose-based material. At a dosage of 1 mg mL⁻¹, these materials simultaneously adsorbed frequently occurring mycotoxins and did not exert a cytotoxic effect on intestinal cells. Chyme samples obtained by a simulated GI digestion did not affect the viability of Caco-2TC7 cells as measured by the MTT test. In addition, the chyme of the lignocellulose showed a high content of polyphenols (210 mg mL⁻¹ catechin equivalent) and good antioxidant activity. The properties of the individual constituents were maintained in the final composite, and were unaffected by their combination. When tested with a pool of seven mycotoxins at 1 µg mL⁻¹ each and pH 5, the composite (5 mg mL⁻¹) simultaneously sequestered AFB₁ (95%), FB₁ (99%), ZEA (93%), OTA (80%), T-2 (63%), and DON (22%). HT-2 adsorption did not occur. Mycotoxin adsorption increased exponentially as dosage increased, and occurred at physiological pH values. AFB₁, ZEA and T-2 adsorption was not affected by pH in the range 3–9, whereas OTA and FB₁ were adsorbed at pH values of 3–5. The adsorbed amount of AFB₁, ZEA and T-2 was not released when pH rose from 3 to 7. FB₁ and OTA desorption was less than 38%. Langmuir adsorption isotherms revealed high capacity and affinity for adsorption of the target mycotoxins. Results of this study are promising and show the potential of the new composite to remove mycotoxins in practical scenarios where several mycotoxins can co-occur.

Comprehensive Review on the Interactions of Clay Minerals With Animal Physiology and Production

Clay minerals are naturally occurring rock and soil materials primarily composed of fine-grained aluminosilicate minerals, characterized by high hygroscopicity. In animal production, clays are often mixed with feed and, due to their high binding capacity towards organic molecules, used to limit animal absorption of feed contaminants, such as mycotoxins and other toxicants. Binding capacity of clays is not specific and these minerals can form complexes with different compounds, such as nutrients and pharmaceuticals, thus possibly affecting the intestinal absorption of important substances. Indeed, clays cannot be considered a completely inert feed additive, as they can interfere with gastro-intestinal (GI) metabolism, with possible consequences on animal physiology. Moreover, clays may contain impurities, constituted of inorganic micronutrients and/or toxic trace elements, and their ingestion can affect animal health. Furthermore, clays may also have effects on the GI mucosa, possibly modifying nutrient digestibility and animal microbiome. Finally, clays may directly interact with GI cells and, depending on their mineral grain size, shape, superficial charge and hydrophilicity, can elicit an inflammatory response. As in the near future due to climate change the presence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs will probably become a major problem, the use of clays in feedstuff, given their physico-chemical properties, low cost, apparent low toxicity and eco-compatibility, is expected to increase. The present review focuses on the characteristics and properties of clays as feed additives, evidencing pros and cons. Aims of future studies are suggested, evidencing that, in particular, possible interferences of these minerals with animal microbiome, nutrient absorption and drug delivery should be assessed. Finally, the fate of clay particles during their transit within the GI system and their long-term administration/accumulation should be clarified.

Mycotoxins in soil and environment

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by specific fungi that have harmful effects on animals and humans. Worldwide more than 300 different mycotoxins are already known, frequently with concentrations in harvest products exceeding acceptable limits. Nevertheless, although these compounds have extensively been studied in food and feed, only little is known about their occurrence and fate in soil and agro-environmental matrices, such as manure, sewage sludge, drainage water and sediments. Therefore, the aim of this review was to (i) resume available methods for quantifying mycotoxins in soil, (ii) describe the occurrence and quantities of mycotoxins in soil and related agro-environmental matrices, and (iii) discuss the environmental fate of these target compounds with specific focus on their leaching potential into groundwater. The safest and most reliable method for mycotoxin quantification relies on mass spectrometry, while the extraction method and solvent composition differ depending on the compound under investigation. Mycotoxin levels detected in soils to date were in the μg range, reaching maximum amounts of 72.1 μg kg^-1 for zearalenone, 32.1 μg kg^-1 for deoxynivalenol, 23.7 μg kg^-1 for ochratoxin A, 6.7 μg kg^-1 for nivalenol, and 5.5 μg kg^-1 for aflatoxin. Different compartments in the agroecosystem (cereals, corn, rice, water, manure, sewage sludge) each contained at least one mycotoxin. Mycotoxin retention in soils is controlled by texture, with significant adsorption of the compounds to clays but leaching potentials in sandy soils. We did not find any reports detecting mycotoxins in sediments, although there are increasing reports of mycotoxins in freshwater samples. Overall, it appears that soils and sediments are still underrepresented in research on potential environmental contamination with mycotoxins.

Machine learning-aided design of composite mycotoxin detoxifier material for animal feed

The development of food and feed additives involves the design of materials with specific properties that enable the desired function while minimizing the adverse effects related with their interference with the concurrent complex biochemistry of the living organisms. Often, the development process is heavily dependent on costly and time-consuming in vitro and in vivo experiments. Herein, we present an approach to design clay-based composite materials for mycotoxin removal from animal feed. The approach can accommodate various material compositions and different toxin molecules. With application of machine learning trained on in vitro results of mycotoxin adsorption–desorption in the gastrointestinal tract, we have searched the space of possible composite material compositions to identify formulations with high removal capacity and gaining insights into their mode of action. An in vivo toxicokinetic study, based on the detection of biomarkers for mycotoxin-exposure in broilers, validated our findings by observing a significant reduction in systemic exposure to the challenging to be removed mycotoxin, i.e., deoxynivalenol (DON), when the optimal detoxifier is administrated to the animals. A mean reduction of 32% in the area under the plasma concentration–time curve of DON-sulphate was seen in the DON + detoxifier group compared to the DON group (P = 0.010).

Food-Grade Expression of Manganese Peroxidases in Recombinant Kluyveromyces lactis and Degradation of Aflatoxin B1 Using Fermentation Supernatants

Aflatoxins are naturally occurring high-toxic secondary metabolites, which cause worldwide environmental contaminations and wastes of food and feed resources and severely threaten human health. Thus, the highly efficient methods and technologies for detoxification of aflatoxins are urgently needed in a long term. In this work, we report the construction of recombinant Kluyveromyces lactis strains GG799(pKLAC1-Phsmnp), GG799(pKLAC1-Plomnp), GG799(pKLAC1-Phcmnp), and then the food-grade expression of the three manganese peroxidases in these strains, followed by the degradation of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) using the fermentation supernatants. The expression of the manganese peroxidases was achieved in a food-grade manner since Kluyveromyces lactis is food-safe and suitable for application in food or feed industries. The inducible expression process of the optimal recombinant strain GG799(pKLAC1-Phcmnp) and the aflatoxin B₁ degradation process were both optimized in detail. After optimization, the degradation ratio reached 75.71%, which was an increase of 49.86% compared to the unoptimized results. The degradation product was analyzed and determined to be AFB₁-8,9-dihydrodiol. The recombinant strain GG799(pKLAC1-Phcmnp) supernatants degraded more than 90% of AFB₁ in the peanut samples after twice treatments. The structural computational analysis for further mutagenesis of the enzyme PhcMnp was also conducted in this work. The food-grade recombinant yeast strain and the enzyme PhcMnp have potential to be applied in food or feed industries.

Hepatoprotective Role of Clay and Nano Clay for Alleviating Aflatoxin Toxicity in Male Rats

&lt;b&gt;Background and Objective:&lt;/b&gt; Aflatoxin formed by &lt;i&gt;Aspergillus&lt;/i&gt; sp. causes acute hepatotoxicity by DNA damage, gene expression disruption and induced liver carcinoma in humans and laboratory animals. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the protective role of both clay and nano clay as adsorbents to inhibit the side effect of Aflatoxin (AF) by measures the common biological assay of aflatoxicosis in rats along with hepatic gene expression and comet assay. &lt;b&gt;Materials and Methods:&lt;/b&gt; Six weeks old male albino rats were distributed into 6 groups with 10 rats per group fed on, Group 1: Basal diet, Group 2: Basal diet with clay (5 g kg&lt;sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; diet), Group 3: Basal diet with nano clay (5 g kg&lt;sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; diet), Group 4: AF-contaminated diet (1 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; diet), Group 5: AF with clay, Group 6: AF with nano clay. &lt;b&gt;Results:&lt;/b&gt; AF induced a noticeable increase in the liver function parameters, accompanied by a significant decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities and significant histological alterations in liver tissues. The obtained qPCR results showed a significant up regulation in the expression of Cyp3A6, HO-1, TNFα and NFKB genes in the liver of rats treated with aflatoxin. In contrast, there is a significant down regulation in the expression levels of the Glut2 gene in liver rats treated with aflatoxin. Also, aflatoxin induced a significant increase in DNA damage. Clay and nano clay succeeded in ameliorating the toxic effects of aflatoxin. &lt;b&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/b&gt; The results indicated the effective role of clay and nano clay in alleviating aflatoxin and reduce its harmful effects.

Protective effect of a new generation of activated and purified bentonite in combination with yeast and phytogenic substances on mycotoxin challenge in pigs

The study aimed to investigate the efficacy of new mycotoxin adsorbents based on purified and activated bentonites combined with yeast and phytogenic compounds in fattening pigs. The experiment involved 96 pigs (31.2±2.4 kg). Control (C) group was fed a diet naturally contaminated with mycotoxins (5 mg/kg deoxynivalenol, DON) without an adsorbent. Treated groups received the feed with mycotoxin adsorbents: purified and activated bentonite (T1), purified and activated bentonite, yeast derivatives, phytogenic substances (T2), and purified, activated, and sulphurated bentonite with phytogenic substances (T3). Evaluated parameters involved growth performance, organ weight, small intestine and liver histopathology, complete blood count, serum biochemistry, antioxidant status of the organism and total and free DON content in urine. In all treated groups, an significant increase in intestinal GSH and GSH/GSSG ratio was observed when compared to C. No significant effects on liver and kidney weight, complete blood count, serum or intestinal malondialdehyde concentration, or total/free DON content in urine were observed. All adsorbents improved histopathological findings in the liver when compared to C. Moreover, T1, and T2 groups showed no presence of inflammatory reaction or necrotic changes in the livers. Although, mycotoxin adsorbents investigated in this study had no significant impact on pig growth performance, they reduced the oxidative stress, and on the tissue level they protected the jejunal tissue and liver parenchyma under deoxynivalenol challenge.

Probiotic gut-borne Saccharomyces cerevisiae reduces liver toxicity caused by aflatoxins in weanling piglets

The present study was conducted to investigate the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) liver toxicity and gut histomorphometry after gut borne-Saccharomyces cerevisiae supplementation to AFB1-contaminated piglet diets. Thirty-two male mixed-breed piglets (weaned at 21 days old) were housed in individual pens and allowed to acclimate for 7 days. Animals were randomly assigned to four treatments of 22 days: T1 – low AFB1 levels diet (L, 31.6 μg/kg); T2 – L + S. cerevisiae 1 g/kg; T3 – high AFs levels diet (H, 495 μg/kg); T4 – H + S. cerevisiae 1 g/kg. The addition of probiotic yeast was able to reduce 72% of residual AFB1 present in the liver. The liver histopathology of piglets fed AFB1 showed a typical macroscopic and microscopic pattern of subclinical aflatoxicosis that was prevented by the yeast. Also, the addition of the yeast was able to decrease the alanine-aminotransferase (25.5±0.71 U) and aspartate-aminotransferase (26.5±6.10 U) even showing values lower than the control ones. The apparent absorption area showed the greater surface when the probiotic was present alone compared to the control (T1), whereas when present together with the toxin demonstrated a modulatory effect. The addition of probiotic gut-borne S. cerevisiae in the pig diets was effective in counteracting the toxic effects of harmful AFB1 in livers besides a tendency to improve the histomorphometric parameters and modulating the toxic effect of AFB1 on intestine. These results are promising for the production of feed additives that will be used in animal feed, since the probiotic action and the decontamination of mycotoxins in the same product are complemented.

Combating immunotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 by dietary carbon supplementation in broiler chickens

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a secondary metabolite of some Aspergillus species that contaminate the agricultural commodities intended for animal and human consumption. The present in vivo study aimed to evaluate activated charcoal (AC) for its ability to reduce AFB1-induced immune suppressive effects in broiler chickens. One-day-old broiler chicks were divided into 12 groups (n = 30) and raised until 42 days of age. One control group was offered basal broiler feed. Three AFB1 groups were kept on AFB1-contaminated basal broiler feed (0.1, 0.2, and 0.6 mg/kg AFB1, respectively), whereas two AC groups were offered AC-added basal broiler feed (2.5 and 5.0 g/kg AC, respectively). Six combination groups were maintained on a combination of different doses of AFB1 and AC. The immune protective efficacy of AC was assessed by anti-sheep RBC's antibodies, phagocytic activity of the reticuloendothelial system, phytohemagglutinin-P (PHA-P)-induced cutaneous basophil response, and histopathological and morphometric analysis of lymphoid organs. Dietary exposure to AFB1 alone resulted in dose-dependent suppression of immune responses and degenerative and necrotic changes in the bursa of Fabricius and thymus. The dietary addition of AC reduced the toxic effects of 0.1 and 0.2 mg/kg dietary AFB1 on immune responses and histological lesion on lymphoid organs; however, at higher dietary level of AFB1 (0.6 mg AFB1/kg), the dietary addition of AC was not effective to prevent the immunotoxic effects. The results of this study suggested that dietary inclusion of AC has the ability to prevent immunotoxic effects induced by AFB1 at lower dietary contaminations levels in broiler chickens.

Physical and Chemical Methods for Reduction in Aflatoxin Content of Feed and Food

Aflatoxins (AFs) are among the most harmful fungal secondary metabolites imposing serious health risks on both household animals and humans. The more frequent occurrence of aflatoxins in the feed and food chain is clearly foreseeable as a consequence of the extreme weather conditions recorded most recently worldwide. Furthermore, production parameters, such as unadjusted variety use and improper cultural practices, can also increase the incidence of contamination. In current aflatoxin control measures, emphasis is put on prevention including a plethora of pre-harvest methods, introduced to control Aspergillus infestations and to avoid the deleterious effects of aflatoxins on public health. Nevertheless, the continuous evaluation and improvement of post-harvest methods to combat these hazardous secondary metabolites are also required. Already in-use and emerging physical methods, such as pulsed electric fields and other nonthermal treatments as well as interventions with chemical agents such as acids, enzymes, gases, and absorbents in animal husbandry have been demonstrated as effective in reducing mycotoxins in feed and food. Although most of them have no disadvantageous effect either on nutritional properties or food safety, further research is needed to ensure the expected efficacy. Nevertheless, we can envisage the rapid spread of these easy-to-use, cost-effective, and safe post-harvest tools during storage and food processing.

Effects of compound probiotics and aflatoxin-degradation enzyme on alleviating aflatoxin-induced cytotoxicity in chicken embryo primary intestinal epithelium, liver and kidney cells

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is one of the most dangerous mycotoxins for humans and animals. This study aimed to investigate the effects of compound probiotics (CP), CP supernatant (CPS), AFB₁-degradation enzyme (ADE) on chicken embryo primary intestinal epithelium, liver and kidney cell viabilities, and to determine the functions of CP + ADE (CPADE) or CPS + ADE (CPSADE) for alleviating cytotoxicity induced by AFB₁. The results showed that AFB₁ decreased cell viabilities in dose-dependent and time-dependent manners. The optimal AFB₁ concentrations and reactive time for establishing cell damage models were 200 µg/L AFB₁ and 12 h for intestinal epithelium cells, 40 µg/L and 12 h for liver and kidney cells. Cell viabilities reached 231.58% (p < 0.05) for intestinal epithelium cells with CP addition, 105.29% and 115.84% (p < 0.05) for kidney and liver cells with CPS additions. The further results showed that intestinal epithelium, liver and kidney cell viabilities were significantly decreased to 87.12%, 88.7% and 84.19% (p < 0.05) when the cells were exposed to AFB₁; however, they were increased to 93.49% by CPADE addition, 102.33% and 94.71% by CPSADE additions (p < 0.05). The relative mRNA abundances of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, iNOS, NF-κB, NOD1 (except liver cell) and TLR2 in three kinds of primary cells were significantly down-regulated by CPADE or CPSADE addition, compared with single AFB₁ group (p < 0.05), indicating that CPADE or CPSADE addition could alleviate cell cytotoxicity and inflammation induced by AFB₁ exposure through suppressing the activations of NF-κB, iNOS, NOD1 and TLR2 pathways.

Metabolism of Zearalenone in the Rumen of Dairy Cows with and without Application of a Zearalenone-Degrading Enzyme

The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is a frequent contaminant of animal feed and is well known for its estrogenic effects in animals. Cattle are considered less sensitive to ZEN than pigs. However, ZEN has previously been shown to be converted to the highly estrogenic metabolite α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) in rumen fluid in vitro. Here, we investigate the metabolism of ZEN in the reticulorumen of dairy cows. To this end, rumen-fistulated non-lactating Holstein Friesian cows (n = 4) received a one-time oral dose of ZEN (5 mg ZEN in 500 g concentrate feed) and the concentrations of ZEN and ZEN metabolites were measured in free rumen liquid from three reticulorumen locations (reticulum, ventral sac and dorsal mat layer) during a 34-h period. In all three locations, α-ZEL was the predominant ZEN metabolite and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) was detected in lower concentrations. ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL were eliminated from the ventral sac and reticulum within 34 h, yet low concentrations of ZEN and α-ZEL were still detected in the dorsal mat 34 h after ZEN administration. In a second step, we investigated the efficacy of the enzyme zearalenone hydrolase ZenA (EC 3.1.1.-, commercial name ZENzyme^®, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Getzersdorf, Austria) to degrade ZEN to the non-estrogenic metabolite hydrolyzed zearalenone (HZEN) in the reticulorumen in vitro and in vivo. ZenA showed a high ZEN-degrading activity in rumen fluid in vitro. When ZenA was added to ZEN-contaminated concentrate fed to rumen-fistulated cows (n = 4), concentrations of ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL were significantly reduced in all three reticulorumen compartments compared to administration of ZEN-contaminated concentrate without ZenA. Upon ZenA administration, degradation products HZEN and decarboxylated HZEN were detected in the reticulorumen. In conclusion, endogenous metabolization of ZEN in the reticulorumen increases its estrogenic potency due to the formation of α-ZEL. Our results suggest that application of zearalenone hydrolase ZenA as a feed additive may be a promising strategy to counteract estrogenic effects of ZEN in cattle.

Toxic Effect of Aflatoxins in Dogs Fed Contaminated Commercial Dry Feed: A Review

Since its first patent (1897), commercial dry feed (CDF) for dogs has diversified its formulation to meet the nutritional needs of different breeds, age, or special conditions and establish a foundation for integration of these pets into urban lifestyles. The risk of aflatoxicosis in dogs has increased because the ingredients used to formulate CDF have also proliferated, making it difficult to ensure the quality required of each to achieve the safety of the entire CDF. This review contains a description of the fungi and aflatoxins detected in CDF and the ingredients commonly used for their formulation. The mechanisms of action and pathogenic effects of aflatoxins are outlined; as well as the clinical findings, and macroscopic and microscopic lesions found in aflatoxicosis in dogs. In addition, alternatives for diagnosis, treatment, and control of aflatoxins (AF) in CDF are analyzed, such as biomarkers of effect, improvement of blood coagulation, rate of elimination of AF, control of secondary infection, protection of gastric mucosa, reduction of oxidative stress, use of chemo-protectors, sequestrants, grain-free CDF, biocontrol, and maximum permitted limits, are also included.

Grape Seed Waste Counteracts Aflatoxin B1 Toxicity in Piglet Mesenteric Lymph Nodes

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin that frequently contaminates cereals and cereal byproducts. This study investigates the effect of AFB1 on the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) of piglets and evaluates if a diet containing grape seed meal (GSM) can counteract the negative effect of AFB1 on inflammation and oxidative stress. Twenty-four weaned piglets were fed the following diets: Control, AFB1 group (320 μg AFB1/kg feed), GSM group (8% GSM), and AFB1 + GSM group (8% GSM + 320 μg AFB1/kg feed) for 30 days. AFB1 has an important antioxidative effect by decreasing the activity of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and total antioxidant status. As a result of the exposure to AFB1, an increase of MAP kinases, metalloproteinases, and cytokines, as effectors of an inflammatory response, were observed in the MLNs of intoxicated piglets. GSM induced a reduction of AFB1-induced oxidative stress by increasing the activity of GPx and SOD and by decreasing lipid peroxidation. GSM decreased the inflammatory markers increased by AFB1. These results represent an important and promising way to valorize this waste, which is rich in bioactive compounds, for decreasing AFB1 toxic effects in mesenteric lymph nodes.

Thermogravimetric Analysis of Modified Montmorillonite Clay for Mycotoxin Decontamination in Cereal Grains

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out to study the stability of nanoformulations used for the decontamination of mycotoxins. The TGA patterns of the nanoformulations from montmorillonite clay and Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) extracts were assessed with temperature ranging from ambient (20°C) to 1000°C. The various nanoformulations studied included unmodified montmorillonite clay (Mont), montmorillonite washed with sodium chloride (Mont-Na), montmorillonite mixed with lemongrass essential oil (Mont-LGEO), and montmorillonite mixed with an equal quantity of lemongrass powder (Mont-LGP). There was no significant difference in the median of the various nanoformulations within 4 weeks at p < 0.05 using the Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test. For the TGA, the first degradation for montmorillonite clay and the nanoformulations occurred at a temperature between 80 and 101°C and was attributed to the loss of lattice water outside the coordination sphere with a range of 3.5-6.5% weight loss. The second degradation occurred within the temperature of 338 to 344°C, and the third, at a temperature between 640 and 668°C for Mont and the formulations of Mont-Na, Mont-LGEO, and Mont-LGP. There were strong similarities in the degradation patterns of Mont and Mont-Na with the minimum difference being the relatively higher weight loss of the sodium-exchanged cation for Mont-Na at the third degradation step. Hence, the order of stability from the most resistant to the least resistant to degradation is as follows: Mont-LGEO ≥ Mont-Na ≥ Mont ≥ Mont-LGP.

In vitro and in vivo capacity of yeast-based products to bind to aflatoxins B1 and M1 in media and foodstuffs: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aflatoxins are hepatotoxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by Aspergillus species during growth on crop products. In this regard, a systematic review to collect the quantitative data regarding the in vitro capacity of yeasts-based products to bind to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and/or aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) was performed. After screening, 31 articles which met the inclusion criteria was included and then the pooled decontamination of aflatoxins in the defined subgroups (the type of foods, pH, contact time, temperature, yeast species, and aflatoxin type) was calculated by the random effect model (REM). The overall binding capacity (BC) of aflatoxins by yeast was 52.05% (95%CI: 49.01-55.10), while the lowest and highest aflatoxins' BC were associated with Yeast Extract Peptone (2.79%) and ruminal fluid + artificial saliva (96.21%), respectively. Regarding the contact time, temperature, pH and type of aflatoxins subgroups, the binding percentages varied from 50.83% (>300 min) to 52.66% (1-300 min), 50.71% (0-40 °C) to 88.39% (>40 °C), 43.03% (pH: 3.1-6) to 44.56% (pH: 1-3) and 59.35% (pH > 6), and 48.47% (AFB₁) to 69.03% AFM₁, respectively. The lowest and highest aflatoxins' BC was related to C. fabianii (18.45%) and Z. rouxii (86.40%), respectively. The results of this study showed that variables such as temperature, yeast, pH and aflatoxin type can be considered as the effective factors in aflatoxin decontamination.

Occurrence and transfer of mycotoxins from ingredients to fish feed and fish meat of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Serbia

As fish has been known for its high protein content and other health benefits, aquaculture production has started to flourish in Serbia. Common carp is the predominant species being farmed, comprising more than 80% of the total fish production in Serbia. The primary ingredients in fish feed are plant-based products, which present a risk of mycotoxin contamination, posing a potential risk to consumers. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the mycotoxin status of carp aquaculture in Serbia. At the beginning of the feeding season, May to June 2019, 27 samples of feed ingredients, 8 of finished feed and 14 of edible fish meat were analysed. The fish feed and feed ingredients were sampled from local producers, while the fish were sampled from fish farms that were reported to use the sampled feed. The feed ingredients were locally produced maize and maize products, sunflower meal, soybean and soybean products, wheat, bone meal, yeast and distillers dried grains with solubles, which were ground together, mixed and pelleted in different sizes. All samples were tested for the presence of aflatoxins (aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2, G1 and G2), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins (fumonisin B1 and B2), HT-2 and T-2 toxins. The most prevalent mycotoxins were OTA (91.4%), fumonisin B1+B2 (68.6%) and AFB1 (48.6%). Only one sample of the plant-based ingredients was below limit of quantification (LOQ), and more than 85% of the samples had more than one mycotoxin detected, ranging from 0.43 μg/kg of AFB1 to 3,168.5 μg/kg of fumonisin B1+B2. However, all the samples of edible fish meat were under the LOQ. We suggest that further research should be conducted on the effects of co-occurring mycotoxins; we also recommend stricter regulations on fish feed to reduce the impacts of mycotoxins on fish health and productivity.

Usability of graphene oxide as a mycotoxin binder: In vitro study

Mycotoxin management in agriculture is an essential challenge for maintaining the health of both animals and humans. Choosing the right adsorbent is still a question for many breeders and an important criterion for feed manufacturers. New adsorbents are still being sought. Graphene oxide is a promising material in the field of nanotechnology, which excels in its adsorption properties. Presented in vitro study investigates graphene oxide for the binding of mycotoxins from crushed wheat. The results show that graphene oxide has an adsorption capacity for aflatoxin 0.045 mg/g, zearalenone 0.53 mg/g and deoxynivalenol 1.69 mg/g at 37° C. In vitro simulation of crushed wheat digestion showed rapid adsorption during the gastric phase. Of the minerals, Mg, Cu and Zn were the most adsorbed. The applied dose of graphene oxide of 10 mg/g caused only a slight inhibition of the digestive enzymes α-amylase and trypsin compared to pepsin and gastric lipase. In vitro results indicated the suitability of graphene oxide in the adsorption of the aflatoxin, zearalenone and deoxynivalenol.