Purified Pyropia yezoensis Pigment Extract-Based Tandem Dye Synthesis

Red phycoerythrin (R-PE) is a highly valuable protein found in an edible seaweed, Pyropia yezoensis. It is used extensively in biotechnological applications due to its strong fluorescence and stability in diverse environments. However, the current methods for extracting and purifying R-PE are costly and unsustainable. The aim of the present study was to enhance the financial viability of the process by improving the extraction and purification of R-PE from dried P. yezoensis and to further enhance R-PE value by incorporating it into a tandem dye for molecular biology applications. A combination of ultrafiltration, ion exchange chromatography, and gel filtration yielded concentrated (1 mg·mL-1) R-PE at 99% purity. Using purified PE and Cyanine5 (Cy5), an organic tandem dye, phycoerythrin-Cy5 (PE-Cy5), was subsequently established. In comparison to a commercially available tandem dye, PE-Cy5 exhibited 202.3% stronger fluorescence, rendering it suitable for imaging and analyzes that require high sensitivity, enhanced signal-to-noise ratio, broad dynamic range, or shorter exposure times to minimize potential damage to samples. The techno-economic analysis confirmed the financial feasibility of the innovative technique for the extraction and purification of R-PE and PE-Cy5 production.

A Review of the Chemistry and Biological Activities of Natural Colorants, Dyes, and Pigments: Challenges, and Opportunities for Food, Cosmetics, and Pharmaceutical Application

Natural pigments are important sources for the screening of bioactive lead compounds. This article reviewed the chemistry and therapeutic potentials of over 570 colored molecules from plants, fungi, bacteria, insects, algae, and marine sources. Moreover, related biological activities, advanced extraction, and identification approaches were reviewed. A variety of biological activities, including cytotoxicity against cancer cells, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anti-microbial, antiviral, and anti-protozoal activities, have been reported for different pigments. Considering their structural backbone, they were classified as naphthoquinones, carotenoids, flavonoids, xanthones, anthocyanins, benzotropolones, alkaloids, terpenoids, isoprenoids, and non-isoprenoids. Alkaloid pigments were mostly isolated from bacteria and marine sources, while flavonoids were mostly found in plants and mushrooms. Colored quinones and xanthones were mostly extracted from plants and fungi, while colored polyketides and terpenoids are often found in marine sources and fungi. Carotenoids are mostly distributed among bacteria, followed by fungi and plants. The pigments isolated from insects have different structures, but among them, carotenoids and quinone/xanthone are the most important. Considering good manufacturing practices, the current permitted natural colorants are: Carotenoids (canthaxanthin, β-carotene, β-apo-8'-carotenal, annatto, astaxanthin) and their sources, lycopene, anthocyanins, betanin, chlorophyllins, spirulina extract, carmine and cochineal extract, henna, riboflavin, pyrogallol, logwood extract, guaiazulene, turmeric, and soy leghemoglobin.

Exploring the structural aspects and therapeutic perspectives of cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins

Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) of cyanobacteria and algae possess unique light harvesting capacity which expand the photosynthetically active region (PAR) and allow them to thrive in extreme niches where higher plants cannot. PBPs of cyanobacteria/algae vary in abundance, types, amino acid composition and in structure as a function of species and the habitat that they grow in. In the present review, the key aspects of structure, stability, and spectral properties of PBPs, and their correlation with ecological niche of cyanobacteria are discussed. Besides their role in light-harvesting, PBPs possess antioxidant, anti-aging, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, which can be used in therapeutics. Recent developments in therapeutic applications of PBPs are reviewed with special focus on 'route of PBPs administration' and 'therapeutic potential of PBP-derived peptide and chromophores'.

Three-phase partitioning, a recyclable method for the purification of R-phycoerythrin from a red algae Porphyra yezoensis

In this study, R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) was isolated and characterized from Porphyra yezoensis by three-phase partitioning (TPP) method. The effects of temperature, time, pH, salt saturation, and volume ratio on the purity and recovery rate of R-PE were studied. The optimum extraction conditions were determined as follows: salt saturation of 70%, temperature of 25 °C, time of 45 min, pH of 7.0, and volume ratio of 1:1. Under the optimal extraction conditions, the purity of R-PE was 3.90. The results of SDS-PAGE showed that R-PE has three bands at 23 kDa, 22 kDa, and 18 kDa, corresponding to its α, β, γ subunits. The structure and optical activity of R-PE did not change before and after purification based on ultraviolet, infrared, and fluorescence spectra. In addition, the purity and recovery rate of R-PE extracted by tert-butanol were evaluated. The results showed that the extraction performance of tert-butanol for R-PE remained unchanged in three recoveries. These show that TPP is an efficient, green, and recyclable extraction technology.

C-phycoerythrin from Phormidium persicinum Prevents Acute Kidney Injury by Attenuating Oxidative and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

C-phycoerythrin (C-PE) is a phycobiliprotein that prevents oxidative stress and cell damage. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether C-PE also counteracts endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress as a mechanism contributing to its nephroprotective activity. After C-PE was purified from Phormidium persicinum by using size exclusion chromatography, it was characterized by spectrometry and fluorometry. A mouse model of HgCl₂-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) was used to assess the effect of C-PE treatment (at 25, 50, or 100 mg/kg of body weight) on oxidative stress, the redox environment, and renal damage. ER stress was examined with the same model and C-PE treatment at 100 mg/kg. C-PE diminished oxidative stress and cell damage in a dose-dependent manner by impeding the decrease in expression of nephrin and podocin normally caused by mercury intoxication. It reduced ER stress by preventing the activation of the inositol-requiring enzyme-1α (IRE1α) pathway and avoiding caspase-mediated cell death, while leaving the expression of protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase (PERK) and activating transcription factor 6α (ATF6α) pathways unmodified. Hence, C-PE exhibited a nephroprotective effect on HgCl₂-induced AKI by reducing oxidative stress and ER stress.

R-Phycoerythrin from Colaconema formosanum (Rhodophyta), an Anti-Allergic and Collagen Promoting Material for Cosmeceuticals

R-phycoerythrin (R-PE), a pigment complex found in red algae, was extracted and purified from a newly identified red alga, Colaconema formosanum, and its bioactivities were examined. It was revealed that R-PE treatment resulted in high cell viability (>70%) to the mammalian cell lines NIH-3T3, RBL-2H3, RAW264.7, and Hs68, and had no effect on cell morphology in NIH-3T3 cells. Its suppression effect was insignificant on the production of IL-6 and TNF-α in lipopolysaccharides-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. However, calcium ionophore A23187-induced β-hexosaminidase release was effectively inhibited in a dose-dependent manner in RBL-2H3 cells. Additionally, it was revealed to be non-irritating to bionic epidermal tissues. Notably, procollagen production was promoted in Hs68 cells. Overall, the data revealed that R-PE purified from C. formosanum exhibits anti-allergic and anti-aging bioactivities with no observed consequential toxicity on multiple mammalian cell lines as well as epidermal tissues, suggesting that this macromolecule is a novel material for potential cosmetic use.

Phycoerythrin from Colaconema sp. Has Immunostimulatory Effects on the Whiteleg Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and Increases Resistance to Vibrio parahaemolyticus and White Spot Syndrome Virus

Simple Summary

In this study, we found that phycoerythrin from Colaconema sp. can differentially stimulate the immune response of whiteleg shrimp in vitro and in vivo and could potentially be used as an immunomodulator in shrimp culture.

Abstract

We investigated whether phycoerythrin (PE), a pigment sourced from marine algae, could act as an immunomodulatory agent in whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). To this end, PE was extracted and purified from a PE-rich macroalgae, Colaconema sp. Our in vitro analysis demonstrated that PE enhanced prophenoloxidase and phagocytosis activity but inhibited the production of reactive oxygen species in hemocytes. Additionally, the PE signal could be detected using an in vivo imaging system after its injection into the ventral sinus of the cephalothorax of whiteleg shrimp. The expression profiles of fourteen immune-related genes were monitored in hemocytes from whiteleg shrimp injected with 0.30 μg of PE per gram of body weight, and crustin, lysozyme, penaiedin 4, and anti-lipopolysaccharide factor showed up-regulated post-stimulation. The induction of immune genes and enhancement of innate immune parameters by PE may explain the higher survival rates for shrimp that received different doses of PE prior to being challenged with Vibrio parahaemolyticus or white spot syndrome virus compared to controls. Combined, these results show that PE from Colaconema sp. can differentially stimulate the immune response of whiteleg shrimp in vitro and in vivo and could potentially be used as an immunomodulator in shrimp culture.

Characterization of ACE Inhibitory Peptides Prepared from Pyropia pseudolinearis Protein

More than 7000 red algae species have been classified. Although most of them are underused, they are a protein-rich marine resource. The hydrolysates of red algal proteins are good candidates for the inhibition of the angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE). The ACE is one of the key factors for cardiovascular disease, and the inhibition of ACE activity is related to the prevention of high blood pressure. To better understand the relationship between the hydrolysates of red algal proteins and the inhibition of ACE activity, we attempted to identify novel ACE inhibitory peptides from Pyropia pseudolinearis. We prepared water soluble proteins (WSP) containing phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. In vitro analysis showed that the thermolysin hydrolysate of the WSP had high ACE inhibitory activity compared to that of WSP. We then identified 42 peptides in the hydrolysate by high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Among 42 peptides, 23 peptides were found in chloroplast proteins. We then synthesized the uncharacterized peptides ARY, YLR, and LRM and measured the ACE inhibitory activity. LRM showed a low IC₅₀ value (0.15 μmol) compared to ARY and YLR (1.3 and 5.8 μmol). In silico analysis revealed that the LRM sequence was conserved in cpcA from Bangiales and Florideophyceae, indicating that the novel ACE inhibitory peptide LRM was highly conserved in red algae.

Invasive Seaweeds in the Iberian Peninsula: A Contribution for Food Supply

The introduction of exotic organisms in marine ecosystems can lead to economic and ecological losses. Globally, seaweeds represent a significant part of these non-indigenous species (NIS), with 407 introduced algal species. Furthermore, the presence of NIS seaweeds has been reported as a major concern worldwide since the patterns of their potential invasion mechanisms and vectors are not yet fully understood. Currently, in the Iberian Peninsula, around 50 NIS seaweeds have been recorded. Some of these are also considered invasive due to their overgrowth characteristic and competition with other species. However, invasive seaweeds are suitable for industrial applications due to their high feedstock. Hence, seaweeds' historical use in daily food diet, allied to research findings, showed that macroalgae are a source of nutrients and bioactive compounds with nutraceutical properties. The main goal of this review is to evaluate the records of NIS seaweeds in the Iberian Peninsula and critically analyze the potential of invasive seaweeds application in the food industry.

The Potential of Algal Biotechnology to Produce Antiviral Compounds and Biopharmaceuticals

The emergence of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to an unprecedented pandemic, which demands urgent development of antiviral drugs and antibodies; as well as prophylactic approaches, namely vaccines. Algae biotechnology has much to offer in this scenario given the diversity of such organisms, which are a valuable source of antiviral and anti-inflammatory compounds that can also be used to produce vaccines and antibodies. Antivirals with possible activity against SARS-CoV-2 are summarized, based on previously reported activity against Coronaviruses or other enveloped or respiratory viruses. Moreover, the potential of algae-derived anti-inflammatory compounds to treat severe cases of COVID-19 is contemplated. The scenario of producing biopharmaceuticals in recombinant algae is presented and the cases of algae-made vaccines targeting viral diseases is highlighted as valuable references for the development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Successful cases in the production of functional antibodies are described. Perspectives on how specific algae species and genetic engineering techniques can be applied for the production of anti-viral compounds antibodies and vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 are provided.

Algae Metabolites in Cosmeceutical: An Overview of Current Applications and Challenges

Cosmetics are widely used by people around the world to protect the skin from external stimuli. Consumer preference towards natural cosmetic products has increased as the synthetic cosmetic products caused adverse side effects and resulted in low absorption rate due to the chemicals' larger molecular size. The cosmetic industry uses the term "cosmeceutical", referring to a cosmetic product that is claimed to have medicinal or drug-like benefits. Marine algae have gained tremendous attention in cosmeceuticals. They are one of the richest marine resources considered safe and possessed negligible cytotoxicity effects on humans. Marine algae are rich in bioactive substances that have shown to exhibit strong benefits to the skin, particularly in overcoming rashes, pigmentation, aging, and cancer. The current review provides a detailed survey of the literature on cosmeceutical potentials and applications of algae as skin whitening, anti-aging, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and antimicrobial agents. The biological functions of algae and the underlying mechanisms of all these activities are included in this review. In addition, the challenges of using algae in cosmeceutical applications, such as the effectiveness of different extraction methods and processing, quality assurance, and regulations concerning extracts of algae in this sector were also discussed.

Health Benefits and Pharmacological Effects of Porphyra Species

Porphyra, one of the most cultured red algae has gained economic importance across the globe for its nutritional benefits. Porphyra is being cultivated, harvested, dried, processed and consumed in large quantities in south eastern countries. It contains relatively high amounts of proteins, carbohydrates, and micronutrients. Exploitation of its fundamental attributes led to the discovery of various biologically active compounds like polysaccharides, phycobiliproteins and peptides with effective pharmacological applications. In this review, a systematic account of the research accomplished in the past decade and up-to-date overview of various bioactive compounds and its pharmacological implications has been compiled. This review summarizes the bioactivities like antioxidative, immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, anticoagulant and anticancer properties of the bioactive compounds from Porphyra.

Pink bacteria-Production of the pink chromophore phycoerythrobilin with Escherichia coli

Phycoerythrobilin (PEB) is an open-chain tetrapyrrole derived from heme and plays an important role as light-harvesting pigment in the phycobiliproteins of cyanobacteria and red algae. Furthermore, PEB can also function as an antioxidant with potential use as a natural acid stable food colorant. PEB is not commercially available and large, pure quantities can only be obtained by laborious methanolysis of red algae followed by liquid chromatography. Here we describe an improved method for high yield production and purification of PEB in Escherichia coli via heterologous expression where the two required enzymes heme oxygenase and PEB synthase subsequently convert the substrate heme provided by the host cell. Experiments in shaking flasks resulted in the highest product yield of 680.23 ± 42.75 μg PEB per g cell dry weight, by induction with 0.1 mM IPTG. Scale-up to batch-operated fermentation in a 2 L bioreactor reached product concentrations up to 5.02 mg PEB L^-1 by adjustment of aeration, induction time, media composition and supplementation of precursors. A further approach included separation of PEB from developed foam above the culture. This enabled continuous product collection during cultivation and simplified product purification. Produced PEB was validated via UV-vis spectroscopy, high pressure liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry.

Bioactive Compounds of Edible Purple Laver Porphyra sp. (Nori)

Porphyra sp. (nori) is widely cultivated as an important marine crop. Dried nori contains numerous nutrients, including vitamin B₁₂, which is the only vitamin absent from plant-derived food sources. Vegetarian diets are low in iron and vitamin B₁₂; depletion of both causes severe anemia. Nori also contains large amounts of iron compared with other plant-derived foods and eicosapentaenoic acid, which is an important fatty acid found in fish oils. In nori, there are also many bioactive compounds that exhibit various pharmacological activities, such as immunomodulation, anticancer, antihyperlipidemic, and antioxidative activities, indicating that consumption of nori is beneficial to human health. However, Porphyra sp. contains toxic metals (arsenic and cadmiun) and/or amphipod allergens, the levels of which vary significantly among nori products. Further evidence from human studies of such beneficial or adverse effects of nori consumption is required.

Anti-inflammatory effects of dulse (Palmaria palmata) resulting from the simultaneous water-extraction of phycobiliproteins and chlorophyll a

The use of dulse (Palmaria palmata) as a source of edible anti-inflammatory products was evaluated in this study. Phycobiliproteins and chlorophyll a were simultaneously extracted from lyophilized dulse leaves via water-extraction, and subjected to thermolysin digestion to produce thermolysin-digested water-extract (d-DWE). d-DWE significantly reduced tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and nitric oxide in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells), and orally administered d-DWE mitigated acute inflammation in carrageenan-induced paw edema of mice. Mass spectrometry revealed d-DWE contained peptide LRDGEIILRY (derived from phycoerythrin β-chain) and chlorophyll a decomposition products, and they individually reduced the secretion of the proinflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. These results indicate the anti-inflammatory activity could be from a combined effect of phycobiliprotein and chlorophyll a decomposition products prepared from the water-extract of dulse. Thus, inexpensive and safe water-extraction method is effective for the extraction of anti-inflammatory components from dulse.

Chemical Diversity and Biological Properties of Secondary Metabolites from Sea Hares of Aplysia Genus

The marine environment is an important source of structurally-diverse and biologically-active secondary metabolites. During the last two decades, thousands of compounds were discovered in marine organisms, several of them having inspired the development of new classes of therapeutic agents. Marine mollusks constitute a successful phyla in the discovery of new marine natural products (MNPs). Over a 50-year period from 1963, 116 genera of mollusks contributed innumerous compounds, Aplysia being the most studied genus by MNP chemists. This genus includes 36 valid species and should be distinguished from all mollusks as it yielded numerous new natural products. Aplysia sea hares are herbivorous mollusks, which have been proven to be a rich source of secondary metabolites, mostly of dietary origin. The majority of secondary metabolites isolated from sea hares of the genus Aplysia are halogenated terpenes; however, these animals are also a source of compounds from other chemical classes, such as macrolides, sterols and alkaloids, often exhibiting cytotoxic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and/or antifeedant activities. This review focuses on the diverse structural classes of secondary metabolites found in Aplysia spp., including several compounds with pronounced biological properties.