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Koutsoumanis K, Allende A, Bolton D, Bover‐Cid S, Chemaly M, De Cesare A, Herman L, Hilbert F, Lindqvist R, Nauta M, Nonno R, Peixe L, Ru G, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Suffredini E, Fox E, Gosling R(B, Gil BM, Møretrø T, Stessl B, da Silva Felício MT, Messens W, Simon AC, Alvarez‐Ordóñez A. Persistence of microbiological hazards in food and feed production and processing environments. EFSA J 2024; 22:e8521. [PMID: 38250499 PMCID: PMC10797485 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes (in the meat, fish and seafood, dairy and fruit and vegetable sectors), Salmonella enterica (in the feed, meat, egg and low moisture food sectors) and Cronobacter sakazakii (in the low moisture food sector) were identified as the bacterial food safety hazards most relevant to public health that are associated with persistence in the food and feed processing environment (FFPE). There is a wide range of subtypes of these hazards involved in persistence in the FFPE. While some specific subtypes are more commonly reported as persistent, it is currently not possible to identify universal markers (i.e. genetic determinants) for this trait. Common risk factors for persistence in the FFPE are inadequate zoning and hygiene barriers; lack of hygienic design of equipment and machines; and inadequate cleaning and disinfection. A well-designed environmental sampling and testing programme is the most effective strategy to identify contamination sources and detect potentially persistent hazards. The establishment of hygienic barriers and measures within the food safety management system, during implementation of hazard analysis and critical control points, is key to prevent and/or control bacterial persistence in the FFPE. Once persistence is suspected in a plant, a 'seek-and-destroy' approach is frequently recommended, including intensified monitoring, the introduction of control measures and the continuation of the intensified monitoring. Successful actions triggered by persistence of L. monocytogenes are described, as well as interventions with direct bactericidal activity. These interventions could be efficient if properly validated, correctly applied and verified under industrial conditions. Perspectives are provided for performing a risk assessment for relevant combinations of hazard and food sector to assess the relative public health risk that can be associated with persistence, based on bottom-up and top-down approaches. Knowledge gaps related to bacterial food safety hazards associated with persistence in the FFPE and priorities for future research are provided.
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Soni A, Bremer P, Brightwell G. A Comprehensive Review of Variability in the Thermal Resistance (D-Values) of Food-Borne Pathogens-A Challenge for Thermal Validation Trials. Foods 2022; 11:foods11244117. [PMID: 36553859 PMCID: PMC9777713 DOI: 10.3390/foods11244117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The thermal processing of food relies heavily on determining the right time and temperature regime required to inactivate bacterial contaminants to an acceptable limit. To design a thermal processing regime with an accurate time and temperature combination, the D-values of targeted microorganisms are either referred to or estimated. The D-value is the time required at a given temperature to reduce the bacterial population by 90%. The D-value can vary depending on various factors such as the food matrix, the bacterial strain, and the conditions it has previously been exposed to; the intrinsic properties of the food (moisture, water activity, fat content, and pH); the method used to expose the microorganism to the thermal treatment either at the laboratory or commercial scale; the approach used to estimate the number of survivors; and the statistical model used for the analysis of the data. This review focused on Bacillus cereus, Cronobacter sakazakii, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Clostridium perfringens owing to their pathogenicity and the availability of publications on their thermal resistance. The literature indicates a significant variation in D-values reported for the same strain, and it is concluded that when designing thermal processing regimes, the impact of multiple factors on the D-values of a specific microorganism needs to be considered. Further, owing to the complexity of the interactions involved, the effectiveness of regimes derived laboratory data must be confirmed within industrial food processing settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswathi Soni
- Food System Integrity, Smart Foods and Bioproducts, AgResearch Ltd., Palmerston North 4414, New Zealand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +64-6350-0819
| | - Phil Bremer
- Department of Food Science, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - Gale Brightwell
- Food System Integrity, Smart Foods and Bioproducts, AgResearch Ltd., Palmerston North 4414, New Zealand
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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Meng L, Zhang R, Dong L, Hu H, Liu H, Zheng N, Wang J, Cheng J. Characterization and spoilage potential of Bacillus cereus isolated from farm environment and raw milk. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:940611. [PMID: 36177462 PMCID: PMC9514233 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.940611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus sensu lato (B. cereus sl) is important spoilage bacteria causing milk structure and flavor changes and is ubiquitous in the environment. This study addresses the biodiversity, toxicity, and proteolytic activity of B. cereus sl from 82 environmental samples and 18 raw bovine milk samples from a dairy farm in the region of Tianjin. In sum, 47 B. cereus sl isolates were characterized through biochemical tests, 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and panC gene analysis. Fourteen sequence types (STs) of B. cereus sl were found in raw bovine milk samples, and five new STs (ST2749, ST2750, ST2751, ST2752, and ST2753) were identified in this study. ST1150 was the dominant ST, associated with fecal, air, drinking water, teat skin, teat cup, and teat dip cup. The results of toxin gene analyses showed that 12.77% and 8.51% of isolates carried hblACD and nheABC operons, respectively. In addition, the detection rate of emetic cesB gene was 21.28%. B. cereus sl demonstrated high spoilage potentials even at 7°C, which has the proteolytic activity of 14.32 ± 1.96 μmol of glycine equivalents per ml. Proteolytic activities were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased after the heat treatment. The residual activity of protease produced at 7°C was significantly higher than that produced at 25°C and 37°C after treatment at 121°C for 10 s and 135°C for 5 s (p < 0.01). Together, the results provide insights into the characteristics of B. cereus sl from farm environment and raw bovine milk and revealed that B. cereus sl contamination should also be monitored in raw milk for ultra-high temperature (UHT) products. This knowledge illustrates that strict cleaning management should be implemented to control B. cereus sl and assure high-quality milk products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Meng
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ruirui Zhang
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Lei Dong
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Precision Livestock and Nutrition Laboratory, Teaching and Research Centre (TERRA), Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Haiyan Hu
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Huimin Liu
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Zheng
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaqi Wang
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Quality & Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Jiaqi Wang
| | - Jianbo Cheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
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Rajalingam N, Jung J, Seo SM, Jin HS, Kim BE, Jeong MI, Kim D, Ryu JG, Ryu KY, Oh KK. Prevalence, distribution, enterotoxin profiles, antimicrobial resistance, and genetic diversity of Bacillus cereus group isolates from lettuce farms in Korea. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:906040. [PMID: 36081801 PMCID: PMC9445581 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.906040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Lettuce wraps are popular in Korean cuisine for their high nutritional value and versatility as healthy additions to multiple dishes. Microbial contamination of lettuce is a major concern, as lettuce is consumed fresh without cooking. Among foodborne pathogens, the spore-forming, facultative anaerobic bacterium, Bacillus cereus is one of the frequently detected pathogen in lettuce in Korea. In this study, we investigated the prevalence and distribution of Bacillus cereus strains in lettuce production farms and further evaluated the enterotoxin gene profiles, antibiotic susceptibility, multidrug resistance pattern, and genetic differences among the B. cereus group isolates. Of the 140 samples isolated from 10 lettuce production farms, 30 samples (21.42%) were positive for B. cereus in which 19 (31.6%) and 10 (23.25%) were from soil and lettuce, respectively. The enterotoxin patterns A (hblCDA, nheABC, entFM, and cytK genes) and B (hblCDA, nheABC, and entFM genes) accounted for 50% and 20% of all the isolates, whereas the emetic gene cesB was not detected in any of the B. cereus group isolates. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of the B. cereus group isolates revealed that all the strains were predominantly resistant to β-lactam antibiotics except imipenem and generally susceptible to most of the non β-lactam antibiotics, including gentamycin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline. ERIC-PCR and MLST analysis revealed high genetic diversity among the 30 B. cereus group isolates, which belonged to 26 different sequence types (STs) and seven new STs. Moreover, isolates with identical STs exhibited similar patterns of antibiotic resistance and enterotoxin profiles. Results of this study indicate a high prevalence of B. cereus group isolates in lettuce production farms in the Republic of Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagendran Rajalingam
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Jieun Jung
- Functional Food and Nutrition Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Seung-Mi Seo
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Hyun-Sook Jin
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Bo-Eun Kim
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Myeong-In Jeong
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Dawoon Kim
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Jae-Gee Ryu
- Planning and Coordination Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Kyoung-Yul Ryu
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
| | - Kwang Kyo Oh
- Microbial Safety Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Kwang Kyo Oh,
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Mezian L, Chincha AI, Vecchione A, Ghelardi E, Bonatto JMC, Marsaioli AJ, Campelo PH, Benamar I, Allah MA, Sant'Ana AS, Boumediene MB. Aerobic spore-forming bacteria in powdered infant formula: Enumeration, identification by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS), presence of toxin genes and rpoB gene typing. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 368:109613. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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6
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Le Marc Y, Postollec F, Huchet V, Ellouze M. Modelling the thermal inactivation of spores from different phylogenetic groups of Bacillus cereus. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 368:109607. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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8
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Qu Y, Wei C, Dai X, Bai Y, Zhao X, Lan Q, Wang W, Wu Y, Gao M, Tang W, Zhou C, Suo Y. The Possible Transmission and Potential Enterotoxicity of Bacillus cereus on Lettuce Farms in Five Chinese Provinces. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:746632. [PMID: 34659182 PMCID: PMC8517410 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.746632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is a well-characterized human pathogen that produces toxins associated with diarrheal and emetic foodborne diseases. To investigate the possible transmission of B. cereus on lettuce farms in China and determine its enterotoxicity, (I) a total of 524 samples (lettuce: 332, soil: 69, water: 57, manure: 57, pesticide: 9) were collected from 46 lettuce farms in five Chinese provinces, (II) multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was used to classify B. cereus isolates and for trace analysis, and (III) the presence of toxin genes and enterotoxins (Hbl and Nhe) was detected in 68 strains. The results showed that one hundred and sixty-one lettuce samples (48.5%) tested positive for B. cereus at levels ranging from 10 to 5.3 × 104 CFU/g. Among the environmental sample categories surveyed, the highest positive rate was that of the pesticide samples at 55.6%, followed by soil samples at 52.2% and manure samples at 12.3%. Moreover, one hundred isolates of B. cereus yielded 68 different sequence types (STs) and were classified into five phylogenetic clades. Furthermore, Nhe toxin genes (nheA, nheB, nheC) were broadly distributed and identified in all 68 strains (100%), while Hbl toxin genes (hblA, hblC, hblD) were present in 61 strains (89.7%), entFM was detected in 62 strains (91.2%), and cytK was found in 29 strains (42.6%). All strains were negative for ces. As for the enterotoxin, Nhe was observed in all 68 isolates carrying nheB, while Hbl was present in 76.5% (52/68) of the strains harboring hblC. This study is the first report of possible B. cereus transmission and of its potential enterotoxicity on lettuce farms in China. The results showed that soil and pesticides are the main sources of B. cereus on lettuce farms in China, and the possible transmission routes are as follows: soil-lettuce, manure-lettuce, pesticide-lettuce, manure-soil-lettuce, and water-manure-soil-lettuce. Furthermore, the B. cereus isolates, whether from lettuce or the environment, pose a potential risk to health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Qu
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Co-Elite Agro-Food Testing Service Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Chao Wei
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products of Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaohang Dai
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products of Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Yalong Bai
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Institute of Germplasm Resources and Biotechnology, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, China
| | - Qingkuo Lan
- Institute of Germplasm Resources and Biotechnology, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, China
| | - Wenbo Wang
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Standards and Testing Technology for Agri-Products, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Yuanjuan Wu
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Standards and Testing Technology for Agri-Products, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Min Gao
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products Processing of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Weihao Tang
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products Processing of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Changyan Zhou
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Co-Elite Agro-Food Testing Service Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Yujuan Suo
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Co-Elite Agro-Food Testing Service Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
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9
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Schmid PJ, Maitz S, Kittinger C. Bacillus cereus in Packaging Material: Molecular and Phenotypical Diversity Revealed. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:698974. [PMID: 34326827 PMCID: PMC8314860 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.698974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus cereus group has been isolated from soils, water, plants and numerous food products. These species can produce a variety of toxins including several enterotoxins [non-hemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), hemolysin BL (Hbl), cytotoxin K, and enterotoxin FM], the emetic toxin cereulide and insecticidal Bt toxins. This is the first study evaluating the presence of B. cereus in packaging material. Among 75 different isolates, four phylogenetic groups were detected (II, III, IV, and VI), of which the groups III and IV were the most abundant with 46.7 and 41.3%, respectively. One isolate was affiliated to psychrotolerant group VI. Growth experiments showed a mesophilic predominance. Based on PCR analysis, nhe genes were detectable in 100% of the isolates, while hbl genes were only found in 50.7%. The cereulide encoding gene was found in four out of 75 isolates, no isolate carried a crystal toxin gene. In total, thirteen different toxin gene profiles were identified. We showed that a variety of B. cereus group strains can be found in packaging material. Here, this variety lies in the presence of four phylogenetic groups, thirteen toxin gene profiles, and different growth temperatures. The results suggest that packaging material does not contain significant amounts of highly virulent strains, and the low number of cereulide producing strains is in accordance with other results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Jakob Schmid
- Diagnostic and Research Institute of Hygiene, Microbiology and Environmental Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Stephanie Maitz
- Diagnostic and Research Institute of Hygiene, Microbiology and Environmental Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Clemens Kittinger
- Diagnostic and Research Institute of Hygiene, Microbiology and Environmental Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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Carroll LM, Cheng RA, Wiedmann M, Kovac J. Keeping up with the Bacillus cereus group: taxonomy through the genomics era and beyond. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:7677-7702. [PMID: 33939559 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1916735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The Bacillus cereus group, also known as B. cereus sensu lato (s.l.), is a species complex that contains numerous closely related lineages, which vary in their ability to cause illness in humans and animals. The classification of B. cereus s.l. isolates into species-level taxonomic units is thus essential for informing public health and food safety efforts. However, taxonomic classification of these organisms is challenging. Numerous-often conflicting-taxonomic changes to the group have been proposed over the past two decades, making it difficult to remain up to date. In this review, we discuss the major nomenclatural changes that have accumulated in the B. cereus s.l. taxonomic space prior to 2020, particularly in the genomic sequencing era, and outline the resulting problems. We discuss several contemporary taxonomic frameworks as applied to B. cereus s.l., including (i) phenotypic, (ii) genomic, and (iii) hybrid nomenclatural frameworks, and we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each. We offer suggestions as to how readers can avoid B. cereus s.l. taxonomic ambiguities, regardless of the nomenclatural framework(s) they choose to employ. Finally, we discuss future directions and open problems in the B. cereus s.l. taxonomic realm, including those that cannot be solved by genomic approaches alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Carroll
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, EMBL, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rachel A Cheng
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Jasna Kovac
- Department of Food Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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11
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Hsu TK, Tsai HC, Hsu BM, Yang YY, Chen JS. Prevalence, enterotoxin-gene profiles, antimicrobial resistance, and genetic diversity of Bacillus cereus group in aquatic environments and shellfish. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 758:143665. [PMID: 33293090 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial strains of the Bacillus cereus group produce various toxins that cause diarrheal and emetic food poisoning. In this study, five main oyster farming areas and 15 fishing ports in Taiwan were examined for the status of B. cereus group bacteria inhabiting seawater and shellfish. On average, bacteria of the B. cereus group were detected in 32.6% of the seawater samples (n = 89) and 2.5% of the oysters (n = 81) in the oyster farming areas and in 7.9% of the seawater samples (n = 202) and 0.68% of the shellfish products (n = 292) in fishing ports. To trace the potential source of B. cereus group bacteria in intertidal oyster farming areas, we simultaneously explored their terrestrial river basins. In total, 44 B. cereus group strains were purified and cultured from water and shellfish for the analysis of virulence genes, panC gene typing, antibiotic susceptibility testing, and enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus PCR (ERIC-PCR) fingerprinting. The enterotoxin-coding genes nheABC, hblCDA, entFM, cytK-1, and cytK-2 were detected in 70.4%, 84.1%, 97.7%, 72.7%, and 75% of the total isolates, among which 40.9% carried all these genes. According to panC gene analysis, the dominant isolates belonged to the panC group IV. In antibiotic susceptibility tests, most B. cereus group isolates were resistant to ampicillin (97.7%) and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (100%). The percentage of multidrug resistant B. cereus group isolates was 34.6%. Finally, the 44 B. cereus group isolates were classified into 43 types and categorized into five clusters using ERIC-PCR fingerprinting. The B. cereus group isolates from different oyster farming areas were concentrated within the two main clusters; however, those from river basins displayed a wide genetic diversity, indicating the presence of multiple sources of B. cereus group bacteria in river basins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsui-Kang Hsu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; School of Medicine, National Yang-Min University, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsin-Chi Tsai
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Psychiatry, Tzu-Chi General Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Bing-Mu Hsu
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Road, Minhsiung Township, Chiayi County 62102, Taiwan, ROC; Center for Innovative on Aging Society (CIRAS), National Chung Cheng University, 621 Chiayi, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Yu-Ying Yang
- Department of Laboratory, Show Chwan Memorial Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jung-Sheng Chen
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Road, Minhsiung Township, Chiayi County 62102, Taiwan, ROC
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12
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Egan M, Dempsey E, Ryan CA, Ross RP, Stanton C. The Sporobiota of the Human Gut. Gut Microbes 2021; 13:1-17. [PMID: 33406976 PMCID: PMC7801112 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1863134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The human gut microbiome is a diverse and complex ecosystem that plays a critical role in health and disease. The composition of the gut microbiome has been well studied across all stages of life. In recent years, studies have investigated the production of endospores by specific members of the gut microbiome. An endospore is a tough, dormant structure formed by members of the Firmicutes phylum, which allows for greater resistance to otherwise inhospitable conditions. This innate resistance has consequences for human health and disease, as well as in biotechnology. In particular, the formation of endospores is strongly linked to antibiotic resistance and the spread of antibiotic resistance genes, also known as the resistome. The term sporobiota has been used to define the spore-forming cohort of a microbial community. In this review, we present an overview of the current knowledge of the sporobiota in the human gut. We discuss the development of the sporobiota in the infant gut and the perinatal factors that may have an effect on vertical transmission from mother to infant. Finally, we examine the sporobiota of critically important food sources for the developing infant, breast milk and powdered infant formula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muireann Egan
- Food Biosciences Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Eugene Dempsey
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Neonatology, Cork University Maternity Hospital, Cork, Ireland
| | - C. Anthony Ryan
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Neonatology, Cork University Maternity Hospital, Cork, Ireland
| | - R. Paul Ross
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Catherine Stanton
- Food Biosciences Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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SOUZA MWSD, LOPES EDSO, COSENZA GP, ALVARENGA VO, LABANCA RA, ARAÚJO RLBD, LACERDA ICA. Effect of inulin, medium-chain triglycerides and whey protein isolate on stability and in vitro digestibility of enteral nutrition formulas. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.23619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Jessberger N, Dietrich R, Granum PE, Märtlbauer E. The Bacillus cereus Food Infection as Multifactorial Process. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E701. [PMID: 33167492 PMCID: PMC7694497 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitous soil bacterium Bacillus cereus presents major challenges to food safety. It is responsible for two types of food poisoning, the emetic form due to food intoxication and the diarrheal form emerging from food infections with enteropathogenic strains, also known as toxico-infections, which are the subject of this review. The diarrheal type of food poisoning emerges after production of enterotoxins by viable bacteria in the human intestine. Basically, the manifestation of the disease is, however, the result of a multifactorial process, including B. cereus prevalence and survival in different foods, survival of the stomach passage, spore germination, motility, adhesion, and finally enterotoxin production in the intestine. Moreover, all of these processes are influenced by the consumed foodstuffs as well as the intestinal microbiota which have, therefore, to be considered for a reliable prediction of the hazardous potential of contaminated foods. Current knowledge regarding these single aspects is summarized in this review aiming for risk-oriented diagnostics for enteropathogenic B. cereus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Jessberger
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.D.); (E.M.)
| | - Richard Dietrich
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.D.); (E.M.)
| | - Per Einar Granum
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003 NMBU, 1432 Ås, Norway;
| | - Erwin Märtlbauer
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.D.); (E.M.)
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Carroll LM, Cheng RA, Kovac J. No Assembly Required: Using BTyper3 to Assess the Congruency of a Proposed Taxonomic Framework for the Bacillus cereus Group With Historical Typing Methods. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:580691. [PMID: 33072050 PMCID: PMC7536271 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.580691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus cereus group, also known as B. cereus sensu lato (s.l.), is a species complex comprising numerous closely related lineages, which vary in their ability to cause illness in humans and animals. The classification of B. cereus s.l. isolates into species-level taxonomic units is essential for facilitating communication between and among microbiologists, clinicians, public health officials, and industry professionals, but is not always straightforward. A recently proposed genomospecies-subspecies-biovar taxonomic framework aims to provide a standardized nomenclature for this species complex but relies heavily on whole-genome sequencing (WGS). It thus is unclear whether popular, low-cost typing methods (e.g., single- and multi-locus sequence typing) remain congruent with the proposed taxonomy. Here, we characterize 2,231 B. cereus s.l. genomes using a combination of in silico (i) average-nucleotide identity (ANI)-based genomospecies assignment, (ii) ANI-based subspecies assignment, (iii) seven-gene multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), (iv) single-locus panC group assignment, (v) rpoB allelic typing, and (vi) virulence factor detection. We show that sequence types (STs) assigned using MLST can be used for genomospecies assignment, and we provide a comprehensive list of ST/genomospecies associations. For panC group assignment, we show that an adjusted, eight-group framework is largely, albeit not perfectly, congruent with the proposed eight-genomospecies taxonomy, as panC alone may not distinguish (i) B. luti from Group II B. mosaicus and (ii) B. paramycoides from Group VI B. mycoides. We additionally provide a list of loci that capture the topology of the whole-genome B. cereus s.l. phylogeny that may be used in future sequence typing efforts. For researchers with access to WGS, MLST, and/or panC data, we showcase how our recently released software, BTyper3 (https://github.com/lmc297/BTyper3), can be used to assign B. cereus s.l. isolates to taxonomic units within this proposed framework with little-to-no user intervention or domain-specific knowledge of B. cereus s.l. taxonomy. We additionally outline a novel method for assigning B. cereus s.l. genomes to pseudo-gene flow units within proposed genomospecies. The results presented here highlight the backward-compatibility and accessibility of the recently proposed genomospecies-subspecies-biovar taxonomic framework and illustrate that WGS is not a necessity for microbiologists who want to use the proposed nomenclature effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M. Carroll
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rachel A. Cheng
- Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Jasna Kovac
- Department of Food Science, College of Agricultural Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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Carroll LM, Wiedmann M. Cereulide Synthetase Acquisition and Loss Events within the Evolutionary History of Group III Bacillus cereus Sensu Lato Facilitate the Transition between Emetic and Diarrheal Foodborne Pathogens. mBio 2020; 11:e01263-20. [PMID: 32843545 PMCID: PMC7448271 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01263-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cereulide-producing members of Bacillus cereussensu lato group III (also known as emetic B. cereus) possess cereulide synthetase, a plasmid-encoded, nonribosomal peptide synthetase encoded by the ces gene cluster. Despite the documented risks that cereulide-producing strains pose to public health, the level of genomic diversity encompassed by emetic B. cereus has never been evaluated at a whole-genome scale. Here, we employ a phylogenomic approach to characterize group III B. cereussensu lato genomes which possess ces (ces positive) alongside their closely related, ces-negative counterparts (i) to assess the genomic diversity encompassed by emetic B. cereus and (ii) to identify potential ces loss and/or gain events within the evolutionary history of the high-risk and medically relevant sequence type (ST) 26 lineage often associated with emetic foodborne illness. Using all publicly available ces-positive group III B. cereussensu lato genomes and the ces-negative genomes interspersed among them (n = 159), we show that emetic B. cereus is not clonal; rather, multiple lineages within group III harbor cereulide-producing strains, all of which share an ancestor incapable of producing cereulide (posterior probability = 0.86 to 0.89). Members of ST 26 share an ancestor that existed circa 1748 (95% highest posterior density [HPD] interval = 1246.89 to 1915.64) and first acquired the ability to produce cereulide before 1876 (95% HPD = 1641.43 to 1946.70). Within ST 26 alone, two subsequent ces gain events were observed, as well as three ces loss events, including among isolates responsible for B. cereussensu lato toxicoinfection (i.e., "diarrheal" illness).IMPORTANCEB. cereus is responsible for thousands of cases of foodborne disease each year worldwide, causing two distinct forms of illness: (i) intoxication via cereulide (i.e., emetic syndrome) or (ii) toxicoinfection via multiple enterotoxins (i.e., diarrheal syndrome). Here, we show that emetic B. cereus is not a clonal, homogenous unit that resulted from a single cereulide synthetase gain event followed by subsequent proliferation; rather, cereulide synthetase acquisition and loss is a dynamic, ongoing process that occurs across lineages, allowing some group III B. cereussensu lato populations to oscillate between diarrheal and emetic foodborne pathogens over the course of their evolutionary histories. We also highlight the care that must be taken when selecting a reference genome for whole-genome sequencing-based investigation of emetic B. cereussensu lato outbreaks, since some reference genome selections can lead to a confounding loss of resolution and potentially hinder epidemiological investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Carroll
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Martin Wiedmann
- Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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Vandeweyer D, Lievens B, Van Campenhout L. Identification of bacterial endospores and targeted detection of foodborne viruses in industrially reared insects for food. NATURE FOOD 2020; 1:511-516. [PMID: 37128070 DOI: 10.1038/s43016-020-0120-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
With edible insects being increasingly produced, food safety authorities have called for the determination of microbiological challenges posed to human health. Here, we find that the bacterial endospore fraction in industrially reared mealworm and cricket samples is largely comprised of Bacillus cereus group members that can pose insect or human health risks. Hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus and norovirus genogroup II were not detected in the sample collection, indicating a low food safety risk from these viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dries Vandeweyer
- Lab4Food, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M²S), KU Leuven, Geel, Belgium
| | - Bart Lievens
- Laboratory for Process Microbial Ecology and Bioinspirational Management (PME&BIM), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M²S), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Van Campenhout
- Lab4Food, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M²S), KU Leuven, Geel, Belgium.
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Liu XY, Hu Q, Xu F, Ding SY, Zhu K. Characterization of Bacillus cereus in Dairy Products in China. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E454. [PMID: 32674390 PMCID: PMC7405013 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is a common and ubiquitous foodborne pathogen with an increasing prevalence rate in dairy products in China. High and unmet demands for such products, particularly milk, raise the risk of B. cereus associated contamination. The presence of B. cereus and its virulence factors in dairy products may cause food poisoning and other illnesses. Thus, this review first summarizes the epidemiological characteristics and analytical assays of B. cereus from dairy products in China, providing insights into the implementation of intervention strategies. In addition, the recent achievements on the cytotoxicity and mechanisms of B. cereus are also presented to shed light on the therapeutic options for B. cereus associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ye Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (X.-Y.L.); (Q.H.)
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, and Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Engineering Science and Emerging Technology, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Qiao Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (X.-Y.L.); (Q.H.)
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety Evaluation, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China;
| | - Fei Xu
- National Feed Drug Reference Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China;
| | - Shuang-Yang Ding
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety Evaluation, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China;
| | - Kui Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (X.-Y.L.); (Q.H.)
- National Center for Veterinary Drug Safety Evaluation, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China;
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Roux LL, Chacon R, Dupont D, Jeantet R, Deglaire A, Nau F. In vitro static digestion reveals how plant proteins modulate model infant formula digestibility. Food Res Int 2020; 130:108917. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Francisquini JD, Nunes L, Martins E, Stephani R, Perrone ÍT, Carvalho AFD. How the heat treatment affects the constituents of infant formulas: a review. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/1981-6723.27219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Breast milk as the children’s primary source of nutrition fulfills the babies’ needs and can also provide immune protection. In some cases, when mothers are not able to breastfeed, an equivalent substitute is required. Nowadays, the best substitutes of the human breast milk are infant formulas. Different technological routes may be designed to produce infant formulas according to the main challenges: the compromise between food safety and heat treatment damage. This article aimed to review the current scientific knowledge about how heat treatment affects the macro and micronutrients of milk, extrapolating the expected effects on infant formulas. The covered topics were: The definition and composition of infant formulas, industrial methods of infant formulas production, the effects of heat treatment on milk macro and micronutrients.
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