1
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Salmonella in Poultry and Other Birds. Infect Dis (Lond) 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2463-0_1092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
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2
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Oliveira GDS, McManus C, Dos Santos VM. Essential oils and propolis as additives in egg coatings. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2022.2119914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. D. S. Oliveira
- Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - C. McManus
- Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - V. M. Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Poultry Science, Federal Institute of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
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3
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Self-reported practices by Portuguese consumers regarding eggs’ safety: An analysis based on critical consumer handling points. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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4
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Regmi P, Jones D, Gast R, Guard J, Karcher D. Egg carton and eggshell: is there a possibility of Salmonella cross-contamination? J APPL POULTRY RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.japr.2021.100185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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5
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Nili S, Khanjani N, Bakhtiari B, Jahani Y, Dalaei H. The effect of meteorological variables on salmonellosis incidence in Kermanshah, West of Iran: a generalized linear model with negative binomial approach. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2021; 19:1171-1177. [PMID: 34150303 PMCID: PMC8172766 DOI: 10.1007/s40201-021-00684-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Salmonella is one of the main causes of gastroenteritis, and its incidence may be affected by meteorological variables. This is the first study about the effect of climatic factors on salmonella incidence in Kermanshah, Iran. METHODS Data about salmonellosis cases in Kermanshah were inquired from Center for Communicable Disease Control, at the Ministry of Health and Medical Education of Iran, for the 2008 to 2018 time-frame. Meteorological variables including maximum, minimum and mean of temperature and humidity, sunshine hours and rainfall were inquired for the same time frame. Negative binomial generalized linear models (GLM) were used to assess the effect of meteorological variables on the weekly incidence of salmonellosis. RESULTS During the years under study, 569 confirmed cases were registered in Kermanshah province. Study results showed a 3 % increase in salmonellosis incidence, after 1 % increase in minimum humidity in the week before (incidence rate ratio (IRR): 1.03; 95 % confidence interval (CI):1.02-1.05) and also a 4 % increase in incidence for 1 °C increase in mean temperature in the same week (IRR: 1.04; 95 % CI:1.02-1.06). CONCLUSIONS Increase in minimum humidity and mean temperature may have a role in increasing the incidence of salmonellosis in Iran.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sairan Nili
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Narges Khanjani
- Neurology Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, 76169-13555 Kerman, Iran
| | - Bahram Bakhtiari
- Water Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
| | - Yunes Jahani
- Modeling in Health Research Center, Institute for Futures Studies in Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Hamideh Dalaei
- Research Deputy of Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO), Tehran, Iran
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6
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Cardoso MJ, Nicolau AI, Borda D, Nielsen L, Maia RL, Møretrø T, Ferreira V, Knøchel S, Langsrud S, Teixeira P. Salmonella in eggs: From shopping to consumption-A review providing an evidence-based analysis of risk factors. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:2716-2741. [PMID: 33960652 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Nontyphoidal salmonellae are among the most prevalent foodborne pathogens causing gastrointestinal infections worldwide. A high number of cases and outbreaks of salmonellosis are associated with the consumption of eggs and egg products, and several of these occur at the household level. The aim of the current study is to critically evaluate the current status of knowledge on Salmonella in eggs from a consumer's perspective, analyzing the hazard occurrence and the good practices that should be applied to reduce salmonellosis risk. Following a HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) based approach, some steps along the food journey were identified as Critical Consumer Handling (CCH)-steps in which consumers, through their behavior or choice, can significantly reduce the level of Salmonella in eggs and egg products. From shopping/collecting to consumption, each of these steps is discussed in this review to provide an evidence-based overview of risk factors of human salmonellosis related to egg consumption. The main message to consumers is to choose Salmonella-free eggs (those that some official entity or producer guarantees that does not contain Salmonella), when available, especially for dishes that are not fully heat treated. Second, as guaranteed Salmonella-free eggs are only available in a few countries, refrigerated storage from the point of collection and proper cooking will significantly reduce the risk of salmonellosis. This will require a revision of the actual recommendations/regulations, as not all ensure that eggs are maintained at temperatures that prevent growth of Salmonella from collection until the time of purchasing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Cardoso
- Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Porto, Portugal
| | - Anca Ioana Nicolau
- Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Galati, Romania
| | - Daniela Borda
- Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Galati, Romania
| | - Line Nielsen
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rui Leandro Maia
- UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit (FP-ENAS), University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal
| | - Trond Møretrø
- Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Ås, Norway
| | - Vânia Ferreira
- Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Porto, Portugal
| | - Susanne Knøchel
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Solveig Langsrud
- Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Ås, Norway
| | - Paula Teixeira
- Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Porto, Portugal
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7
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Simsiri U, Rungruengpet W, Kaewkot C, Sun YM, Świąder K, Wanangkarn A, Tan FJ. Influence of Cold Chain Integrity during Postwashing Processing and Storage on Chicken Egg Quality. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2021-1458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- U Simsiri
- National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan
| | | | - C Kaewkot
- National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan
| | - YM Sun
- National Animal Industry Foundation, Taiwan
| | - K Świąder
- Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland
| | | | - FJ Tan
- National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan
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8
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Kim HE, Lee JJ, Lee MJ, Kim BS. Analysis of microbiome in raw chicken meat from butcher shops and packaged products in South Korea to detect the potential risk of foodborne illness. Food Res Int 2019; 122:517-527. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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9
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Réhault-Godbert S, Guyot N, Nys Y. The Golden Egg: Nutritional Value, Bioactivities, and Emerging Benefits for Human Health. Nutrients 2019; 11:E684. [PMID: 30909449 PMCID: PMC6470839 DOI: 10.3390/nu11030684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Egg is an encapsulated source of macro and micronutrients that meet all requirements to support embryonic development until hatching. The perfect balance and diversity in its nutrients along with its high digestibility and its affordable price has put the egg in the spotlight as a basic food for humans. However, egg still has to face many years of nutritionist recommendations aiming at restricting egg consumption to limit cardiovascular diseases incidence. Most experimental, clinical, and epidemiologic studies concluded that there was no evidence of a correlation between dietary cholesterol brought by eggs and an increase in plasma total-cholesterol. Egg remains a food product of high nutritional quality for adults including elderly people and children and is extensively consumed worldwide. In parallel, there is compelling evidence that egg also contains many and still-unexplored bioactive compounds, which may be of high interest in preventing/curing diseases. This review will give an overview of (1) the main nutritional characteristics of chicken egg, (2) emerging data related to egg bioactive compounds, and (3) some factors affecting egg composition including a comparison of nutritional value between eggs from various domestic species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicolas Guyot
- Biologie des Oiseaux et Aviculture, INRA, Université de Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France.
| | - Yves Nys
- Biologie des Oiseaux et Aviculture, INRA, Université de Tours, 37380 Nouzilly, France.
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10
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Aik J, Heywood AE, Newall AT, Ng LC, Kirk MD, Turner R. Climate variability and salmonellosis in Singapore - A time series analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 639:1261-1267. [PMID: 29929293 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is expected to bring about global warming and an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events. This may consequently influence the transmission of food-borne diseases. The short term associations between climatic conditions and Salmonella infections are well documented in temperate climates but not in the tropics. We conducted an ecological time series analysis to estimate the short term associations between non-outbreak, non-travel associated reports of Salmonella infections and observed climatic conditions from 2005 to 2015 for Singapore. We used a negative binomial time series regression model to analyse the associations on a weekly scale, controlling for season, long term trend, delayed weather effects, autocorrelation and the period where Salmonella was made legally notifiable. There were a total of 11,324 Salmonella infections reported during our study period. A 1 °C increase in mean ambient air temperature was associated with a 4.3% increase (Incidence Rate Ratio [IRR]: 1.043, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.003, 1.084) in reported Salmonella infections in the same week and a 6.3% increase (IRR: 1.063, 95% CI = 1.022, 1.105) three weeks later. A 1% increase in the mean relative humidity was associated with a 1.3% decrease (IRR: 0.987, 95% CI = 0.981, 0.994) in cases six weeks later, while a 10 mm increase in weekly cumulative rainfall was associated with a 0.8% increase (IRR: 1.008, 95% CI = 1.002, 1.015) in cases 2 weeks later but a 0.9% decrease (IRR: 0.991, 95% CI = 0.984, 0.998) in cases 5 weeks later. No thresholds for these weather effects were detected. This study confirms the short-term influence of climatic conditions on Salmonella infections in Singapore and the potential impact of climate change on Salmonellosis in the tropics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Aik
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Level 3, Samuels Building, Botany Road, Kensington, New South Wales 2052, Australia; National Environment Agency, 40 Scotts Road, #13-00, 228231, Singapore.
| | - Anita E Heywood
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Level 3, Samuels Building, Botany Road, Kensington, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Anthony T Newall
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Level 3, Samuels Building, Botany Road, Kensington, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Lee-Ching Ng
- National Environment Agency, 40 Scotts Road, #13-00, 228231, Singapore
| | - Martyn D Kirk
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Robin Turner
- Biostatistics Unit, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Ground Floor, Adams Building, 18 Frederick Street, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
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11
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Gradl JA, Curtis PA, Jones DR, Anderson KE. Assessing the impact of egg sweating on Salmonella Enteritidis penetration into shell eggs. Poult Sci 2017; 96:2393-2399. [PMID: 28339755 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pex011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) prevalence in eggs is a major concern to the egg industry. Some research has shown that egg sweating can increase Salmonella penetration into egg contents when refrigerated eggs are moved to a warmer temperature. This occurs when eggs are tempered before wash, to minimize thermal cracks. The effect of egg sweating on SE penetration into shell eggs over a 6 week storage period at 4°C was assessed. A 2 × 2 factorial of SE inoculation and egg sweating was utilized. Treatments included (SES) nalidixic acid (NA)-resistant SE inoculated and sweated, (SENS) NA-resistant SE inoculated and not sweated, (NSES) buffered peptone water (BPW) inoculated and sweated, and (NSENS) BPW inoculated and not sweated. Eggs were inoculated with 108 SE. Eggs formed condensation for approximately 17 min in a 32°C incubator. Shell rinse, shell emulsion, and egg contents were sampled then enumerated and assessed for prevalence of SE over a 6 wk storage period at 4°C. After wk 1, the SENS shell rinse had higher SE counts (0.32 log10 CFU/mL) than the other 3 treatments, where no SE was enumerated. A significant week by treatment interaction was found for the shell rinse SE detection (P < 0.05). In subsequent weeks, no SE counts were obtained from the egg shell rinse, shell emulsion, or egg contents. The SENS shell rinses had significantly higher SE prevalence than the SES rinses in weeks 1 (100% vs. 34.3%), 2 (57.6% vs. 22.2%), and 3 (38.2% vs. 11.1%) (P < 0.05). In samples from weeks 4, 5, and 6, there was no difference in SE prevalence between SES and SENS. Egg sweating did not increase SE penetration into the shell emulsion across treatment or week (P < 0.05). The decreasing trend of SE prevalence obtained over the study period indicate that refrigeration is effective at inhibiting SE growth. These results indicate that egg sweating occurring under common US egg handling practices is not harmful to egg safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet A Gradl
- Auburn University Food Systems Institute, Auburn, Alabama, 36830
| | | | - Deana R Jones
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, US National Poultry Research Center, Egg Safety and Quality Research Unit, Athens, Georgia, 30605
| | - Kenneth E Anderson
- Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 29765
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12
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Kilonzo-Nthenge A, Nahashon SN, Godwin S, Liu S, Long D. Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Enterobacteriaceae in Shell Eggs from Small-Scale Poultry Farms and Farmers' Markets. J Food Prot 2016; 79:2031-2037. [PMID: 28221963 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Public health concerns over the emergence of antimicrobial resistant bacteria have increased recently. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Enterobacteriaceae in shell eggs purchased from small poultry farms and farmers' markets. A total of 504 eggs were pooled to make 252 composite samples, consisting of 2 eggs per composite. The microbial quality of shell eggs was determined by standard quantitative, biochemical, and PCR techniques. Susceptibility to 13 antimicrobial agents was determined by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion technique, and results were interpreted based on Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute values. Shell eggs and egg contents were positive for Escherichia coli (11.9 and 5.2%, respectively), Enterobacter (9.1 and 7.9%), and Serratia (11.5 and 4.8%). Salmonella was isolated from 3.6% of egg shells but not from egg contents. Mean (±SD) Enterobacteriaceae levels (4.4 ± 2.0 log CFU per eggshell) on shell eggs from poultry farms was significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that on shell eggs from farmers' markets (2.1 ± 1.3 log CFU per eggshell). Of the 134 isolates recovered, resistance among isolates from farm and market shell eggs to erythromycin was most common (48.5 and 32.8%, respectively) followed by ampicillin (44.8 and 17.2%), and tetracycline (29.9 and 17.2%). The multiple antibiotic resistance index value for E. coli and Pantoea was 0.62, and that for Salmonella and Klebsiella terrigena was 0.08, indicating that Enterobacteriaceae in shell eggs can be resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents. These data reveal that shell eggs from small poultry farms and farmers' markets can harbor antimicrobial resistant pathogenic and commensal bacteria. Thus, failure to properly handle shell eggs poses a potential health hazard to consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kilonzo-Nthenge
- Department of Family and Consumer Science, Tennessee State University, 3500 John A. Merritt Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37209, USA
| | - S N Nahashon
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Tennessee State University, 3500 John A. Merritt Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37209, USA
| | - S Godwin
- Department of Family and Consumer Science, Tennessee State University, 3500 John A. Merritt Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37209, USA
| | - S Liu
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Tennessee State University, 3500 John A. Merritt Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37209, USA
| | - D Long
- Department of Family and Consumer Science, Tennessee State University, 3500 John A. Merritt Boulevard, Nashville, Tennessee 37209, USA
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13
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Long M, Lai H, Deng W, Zhou K, Li B, Liu S, Fan L, Wang H, Zou L. Disinfectant susceptibility of differentSalmonellaserotypes isolated from chicken and egg production chains. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 121:672-81. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Long
- College of Resources; Sichuan Agricultural University; Chengdu China
- The Laboratory of Microbiology; Dujiangyan Campus of Sichuan Agricultural University; Dujiangyan Sichuan China
| | - H. Lai
- College of Food Science; Sichuan Agricultural University; Ya'an China
| | - W. Deng
- The Laboratory of Microbiology; Dujiangyan Campus of Sichuan Agricultural University; Dujiangyan Sichuan China
| | - K. Zhou
- College of Food Science; Sichuan Agricultural University; Ya'an China
| | - B. Li
- The Laboratory of Microbiology; Dujiangyan Campus of Sichuan Agricultural University; Dujiangyan Sichuan China
| | - S. Liu
- College of Food Science; Sichuan Agricultural University; Ya'an China
| | - L. Fan
- The Laboratory of Microbiology; Dujiangyan Campus of Sichuan Agricultural University; Dujiangyan Sichuan China
| | - H. Wang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; School of Life Science; Sichuan University; Chengdu China
| | - L. Zou
- College of Resources; Sichuan Agricultural University; Chengdu China
- The Laboratory of Microbiology; Dujiangyan Campus of Sichuan Agricultural University; Dujiangyan Sichuan China
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14
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Whiley A, Fallowfield H, Ross K, McEvoy V, Whiley H. Higher Storage Temperature Causes Greater Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Internal Penetration of Artificially Contaminated, Commercially Available, Washed Free Range Eggs. J Food Prot 2016; 79:1247-51. [PMID: 27357046 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne salmonellosis is a major public health concern, with contaminated eggs identified as a significant source of infection. In Australia, the most prevalent cause of salmonellosis from eggs is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium. This study explored the effect of temperature after 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of storage on commercially available washed free range eggs, artificially contaminated with Salmonella Typhimurium on the external surface. At each time point, the external surface of the egg, the crushed eggshell, and the internal egg yolk and albumen were analyzed for Salmonella. After 28 days of storage, 25% of eggs stored at 4°C, 50% of eggs stored at 14°C, and 100% of eggs stored at 23 and 35°C were internally contaminated with Salmonella. After 1 day of storage, more than 50% of all eggs had Salmonella present in the crushed shell after the external surface had been disinfected with ethanol. This is the first study to demonstrate that refrigeration reduced the potential for Salmonella Typhimurium to penetrate the eggshell membrane and internally contaminate table eggs commercially available in Australia. It also suggests that the processes of cracking eggs may be a source of cross-contamination within the kitchen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Whiley
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Howard Fallowfield
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Kirstin Ross
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Vanessa McEvoy
- Public Health Services, Department for Health and Ageing, SA Health, Government of South Australia, P.O. Box 6, Rundle Mall, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Harriet Whiley
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, G.P.O. Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia.
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15
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Ray A, Roberts J, Flavel R, Chousalkar K. Eggshell penetration by Salmonella Typhimurium in table eggs: Examination of underlying eggshell structures by micro-computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy. Food Res Int 2015; 78:34-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2015.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Sofia: Growth in and Persistence on Eggs under Production and Retail Conditions. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:914987. [PMID: 26539536 PMCID: PMC4620034 DOI: 10.1155/2015/914987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Salmonellosis in Australia has been linked to eggs and egg products with specific serotypes associated with outbreaks. We compared attachment to and survival on egg shells and growth in eggs of two Salmonella serotypes, an egg outbreak associated Salmonella Typhimurium and a non-egg-associated Salmonella enterica ssp. II 1,4,12,27:b:[e,n,x] (S. Sofia). Experiments were conducted at combinations of 4, 15, 22, 37 and 42°C. No significant differences occurred between the serotypes in maximum growth rates, which were significantly greater (P < 0.001) in egg yolk (0.427 log10 CFU/mL/h) compared to whole egg (0.312 log10 CFU/mL/h) and egg white (0.029 log10 CFU/mL/h). Attachment to egg shells varied by time (1 or 20 min) and temperature (4, 22 and 42°C), with S. Typhimurium isolates attaching at higher levels (P < 0.05) than S. Sofia after 1 min at 4°C and S. Typhimurium ATCC 14028 attaching at higher (P < 0.05) levels at 22°C. Survival on egg shells was not significantly different across isolates. Salmonella serotypes behaved similarly regarding growth in egg contents, attachment to egg shells and survival on eggs, indicating that other factors more likely contributed to reasons for S. Typhimurium being implicated in multiple egg-associated outbreaks.
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17
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Whiley H, Ross K. Salmonella and eggs: from production to plate. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2015; 12:2543-56. [PMID: 25730295 PMCID: PMC4377917 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120302543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella contamination of eggs and egg shells has been identified as a public health concern worldwide. A recent shift in consumer preferences has impacted on the egg industry, with a push for cage-free egg production methods. There has also been an increased desire from consumers for raw and unprocessed foods, potentially increasing the risk of salmonellosis. In response to these changes, this review explores the current literature regarding Salmonella contamination of eggs during the production processing through to food handling protocols. The contamination of eggs with Salmonella during the production process is a complex issue, influenced by many variables including flock size, flock age, stress, feed, vaccination, and cleaning routines. Currently there is no consensus regarding the impact of caged, barn and free range egg production has on Salmonella contamination of eggs. The literature regarding the management and control strategies post-collection, during storage, transport and food handling is also reviewed. Pasteurisation and irradiation were identified as the only certain methods for controlling Salmonella and are essential for the protection of high risk groups, whereas control of temperature and pH were identified as potential control methods to minimise the risk for foods containing raw eggs; however, further research is required to provide more detailed control protocols and education programs to reduce the risk of salmonellosis from egg consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet Whiley
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, 5001, Australia.
| | - Kirstin Ross
- Health and the Environment, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, 5001, Australia.
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18
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Lublin A, Maler I, Mechani S, Pinto R, Sela-Saldinger S. Survival of Salmonella enterica serovar infantis on and within stored table eggs. J Food Prot 2015; 78:287-92. [PMID: 25710143 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-14-066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Contaminated table eggs are considered a primary source of foodborne salmonellosis globally. Recently, a single clone of Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis emerged in Israel and became the predominant serovar isolated in poultry. This clone is currently the most prevalent strain in poultry and is the leading cause of salmonellosis in humans. Because little is known regarding the potential transmission of this strain from contaminated eggs to humans, the objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of Salmonella Infantis to survive on the eggshell or within the egg during cold storage or at room temperature. Salmonella cells (5.7 log CFU per egg) were inoculated on the surface of 120 intact eggs or injected into the egg yolk (3.7 log CFU per egg) of another 120 eggs. Half of the eggs were stored at 5.5 ± 0.3°C and half at room temperature (25.5 ± 0.1°C) for up to 10 weeks. At both temperatures, the number of Salmonella cells on the shell declined by 2 log up to 4 weeks and remained constant thereafter. Yolk-inoculated Salmonella counts at cold storage declined by 1 log up to 4 weeks and remained constant, while room-temperature storage supported the growth of the pathogen to a level of 8 log CFU/ml of total egg content, as early as 4 weeks postinoculation. Examination of egg content following surface inoculation revealed the presence of Salmonella in a portion of the eggs at both temperatures up to 10 weeks, suggesting that this strain can also penetrate through the shell and survive within the egg. These findings imply that Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis is capable of survival both on the exterior and interior of table eggs and even multiply inside the egg at room temperature. Our findings support the need for prompt refrigeration to prevent Salmonella multiplication during storage of eggs at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avishai Lublin
- Division of Avian and Fish Diseases, Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel.
| | - Ilana Maler
- The Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Sara Mechani
- Division of Avian and Fish Diseases, Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Riky Pinto
- Department of Food Quality and Safety, Institute of Postharvest Technology and Food Science, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Shlomo Sela-Saldinger
- Department of Food Quality and Safety, Institute of Postharvest Technology and Food Science, Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
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Salisbury AM, Leeming G, Nikolaou G, Kipar A, Wigley P. Salmonella Virchow Infection of the Chicken Elicits Cellular and Humoral Systemic and Mucosal Responses, but Limited Protection to Homologous or Heterologous Re-Challenge. Front Vet Sci 2014; 1:6. [PMID: 26664914 PMCID: PMC4668861 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2014.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Virchow usually causes mild gastroenteritis in humans; however, it is frequently invasive and many isolates are resistant to a broad-range of therapeutic antimicrobials. Poultry meat is considered a major source of human infection. In this study, we characterize the infection biology and immune response to S. Virchow in chickens and determine protection against homologous and heterologous re-challenge, with S. Virchow or S. Typhimurium. Following oral infection of 7-day-old chickens, S. Virchow colonized the gastrointestinal tract and the spleen. Infection elicited an increase in specific IgA, IgG, and IgM antibodies and relative quantitative changes in several leukocyte populations, including CD3, CD4, CD8α, CD8β, MHC II, KuL01, and γδ TCR positive cells, both in the gastrointestinal tract and systemically. Increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 and the chemokine CXCLi2 was also found. Primary infection with S. Virchow offered limited systemic protection against re-challenge with S. Virchow or S. Typhimurium, but no protection against cecal colonization. In conclusion, S. Virchow exhibits similar infection biology and immune responses in the chicken to that previously described for S. Typhimurium. Unlike S. Typhimurium, S. Virchow infection is poorly protective to homologous and heterologous re-challenge. These findings suggest that S. Virchow is capable of colonizing the chicken well and therefore, presents a risk of entering the food chain in meat production. Furthermore, the development of vaccines that protect effectively against S. Virchow and indeed multivalent vaccines that protect across all Salmonella serogroups in the chicken would appear to remain a challenging proposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Marie Salisbury
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK
| | - Gail Leeming
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK ; School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK
| | | | - Anja Kipar
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK ; Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Paul Wigley
- Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK ; School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool , Neston , UK
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Pouillot R, Hoelzer K, Ramirez GA, deGraft-Hanson J, Dennis SB. Assessment of the risk of salmonellosis from internally contaminated shell eggs following initial storage at 18 °C (65 °F), compared with 7 °C (45 °F). Food Microbiol 2014; 43:16-9. [PMID: 24929877 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2014.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In the U.S., chicken-breeder farms that supply hatcheries typically store and transport eggs intended for broiler production at a temperature of 18.3 °C (65 °F). However, in case of surplus, some of these eggs may be diverted to human consumption. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's 'Egg Safety Final Rule,' shell eggs intended for human consumption are required to be held or transported at or below 7.2 °C (45 °F) ambient temperature beginning 36 h after time of lay. We adapted a risk assessment model developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety Inspection Service, to quantify human exposure to Salmonella Enteritidis and the risk of human salmonellosis if eggs are held and transported at 18.3 °C for up to 5.5 days after time of lay, as has been observed when hatchery eggs are diverted to human consumption, rather than held and transported at 7.2 °C within 36 h after time of lay. Storage at 18.3 °C leads to considerable bacterial growth in internally contaminated eggs. The model predicted that more than 10% of internally contaminated eggs would remain contaminated after in-shell pasteurization resulting in a 5-log10 reduction, and that some bacteria would survive after home-cooking. The model predicted that, alternatively, eggs stored at 7.2 °C after lay would have limited bacterial growth prior to pasteurization, and Salmonella would be very unlikely to be present after pasteurization. The predicted risk of salmonellosis from the consumption of eggs held and transported at 18.3 °C and subsequently diverted to human consumption is 25 times higher than the risk when eggs are held and transported at 7.2 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Pouillot
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, USA.
| | - K Hoelzer
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, USA.
| | - G A Ramirez
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, USA.
| | - J deGraft-Hanson
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, USA.
| | - S B Dennis
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, USA.
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Eggs and Poultry Purchase, Storage, and Preparation Practices of Consumers in Selected Asian Countries. Foods 2014; 3:110-127. [PMID: 28234307 PMCID: PMC5302313 DOI: 10.3390/foods3010110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to begin characterizing purchase, storage, handling, and preparation of poultry products and eggs by selected consumers in three Asian countries: India, Korea, and Thailand. Approximately 100 consumers in each location were recruited to participate in this study. The consumers were surveyed about eggs and poultry purchase behavior characteristics, such as temperatures and locations, storage behavior, such as storage locations in the refrigerator or freezer, preparation behavior, such as washing eggs and poultry before cooking, and handling behavior, such as using cutting boards during cooking. The results indicated differences in purchase and storage practices of raw eggs. Most Korean consumers purchased refrigerated eggs and stored the eggs in the refrigerator, while Indian and Thai consumers bought eggs that were stored at room temperature, but would refrigerate the eggs at home. Approximately half of the consumers in each country froze raw meat, poultry, or seafood. Food preparation practices showed potential for cross-contamination during cooking, such as using the same cutting board for different kinds of foods or not washing hands with soap and water. The results presented in this pilot study may lead to development of educational messages and raising consumer awareness of food safety practices in Asian countries.
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Wei SH, Huang AS, Liao YS, Liu YL, Chiou CS. A large outbreak of salmonellosis associated with sandwiches contaminated with multiple bacterial pathogens purchased via an online shopping service. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2013; 11:230-3. [PMID: 24313786 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2013.1669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Food sold over the internet is an emerging business that also presents a concern with regard to food safety. A nationwide foodborne disease outbreak associated with sandwiches purchased from an online shop in July 2010 is reported. Consumers were telephone interviewed with a structured questionnaire and specimens were collected for etiological examination. A total of 886 consumers were successfully contacted and completed the questionnaires; 36.6% had become ill, with a median incubation period of 18 h (range, 6-66 h). The major symptoms included diarrhea (89.2%), abdominal pain (69.8%), fever (47.5%), headache (32.7%), and vomiting (17.3%). Microbiological laboratories isolated Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Salmonella Virchow, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli from the contaminated sandwiches, Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Virchow from the patients, and Salmonella Enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus from food handlers. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis genotyping suggested a common origin of Salmonella bacteria recovered from the patients, food, and a food handler. Among the pathogens detected, the symptoms and incubation period indicated that Salmonella, likely of egg origin, was the probable causative agent of the outbreak. This outbreak illustrates the importance of meticulous hygiene practices during food preparation and temperature control during food shipment and the food safety challenges posed by online food-shopping services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hsi Wei
- 1 Centers for Disease Control, Ministry of Health and Welfare , Taichung, Taiwan
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23
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Galiş AM, Marcq C, Marlier D, Portetelle D, Van I, Beckers Y, Théwis A. Control ofSalmonellaContamination of Shell Eggs-Preharvest and Postharvest Methods: A Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anca M. Galiş
- Univ. of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest; Animal Science Unit; Bd. Mărăşti, no. 59, sector 1; Bucharest; 011464; Romania
| | - Christopher Marcq
- Univ. of Liege, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech; Animal Science Unit. Passage des Déportés; 2, B-5030; Gembloux; Belgium
| | - Didier Marlier
- Univ. of Liege, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Dept. of Clinical Science, Clinic for Birds, Rabbits and Rodents; Boulevard de Colonster 20, B42; Sart-Tilman; B4000; Liege; Belgium
| | - Daniel Portetelle
- Univ. of Liege, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech; Animal and Microbial Biology Unit.; Passage des Déportés, 2; B-5030; Gembloux; Belgium
| | - Ilie Van
- Univ. of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest; Animal Science Unit; Bd. Mărăşti, no. 59, sector 1; Bucharest; 011464; Romania
| | - Yves Beckers
- Univ. of Liege, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech; Animal Science Unit. Passage des Déportés; 2, B-5030; Gembloux; Belgium
| | - André Théwis
- Univ. of Liege, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech; Animal Science Unit. Passage des Déportés; 2, B-5030; Gembloux; Belgium
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25
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Zhang W, Zheng JX, Xu GY. Toward better control of Salmonella contamination by taking advantage of the egg's self-defense system: a review. J Food Sci 2011; 76:R76-81. [PMID: 21535852 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02053.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Egg-associated salmonellosis is a major problem for food safety. It can be caused by vertical transmission (transovarian transmission) in hens and horizontal transmission though penetration. Despite a series of physical and chemical defense mechanisms naturally found in eggs, they cannot provide complete protection for them. Environmental hygiene, bacteria vectors such as birds, rodent, flies, and beetles along with feed and water contamination are the most frequently reported causes of Salmonella colonization in hens, and finally to eggs. In addition, inappropriate egg handling will cause eggs to lose their self-protection ability, thus resulting in the survival and multiplication of Salmonella in an egg's contents, which contributes to the horizontal dissemination. The routes of Salmonella contamination were discussed, and the effectiveness and shortcomings of different decontamination methods were evaluated in this review. Various studies on egg storage indicated that the low-temperature storage without temperature fluctuation was beneficial for the control of Salmonella. This review, based on an understanding of the stages of Salmonella transmission and an egg's self-protection mechanisms, highlights a comprehensive strategy toward Salmonella control in a process from egg production and handling to human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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