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Pérez-Stuardo D, Frazão M, Ibaceta V, Brianson B, Sánchez E, Rivas-Pardo JA, Vallejos-Vidal E, Reyes-López FE, Toro-Ascuy D, Vidal EA, Reyes-Cerpa S. KLF17 is an important regulatory component of the transcriptomic response of Atlantic salmon macrophages to Piscirickettsia salmonis infection. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1264599. [PMID: 38162669 PMCID: PMC10755876 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1264599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the most important health problem facing Chilean Aquaculture. Previous reports suggest that P. salmonis can survive in salmonid macrophages by interfering with the host immune response. However, the relevant aspects of the molecular pathogenesis of P. salmonis have been poorly characterized. In this work, we evaluated the transcriptomic changes in macrophage-like cell line SHK-1 infected with P. salmonis at 24- and 48-hours post-infection (hpi) and generated network models of the macrophage response to the infection using co-expression analysis and regulatory transcription factor-target gene information. Transcriptomic analysis showed that 635 genes were differentially expressed after 24- and/or 48-hpi. The pattern of expression of these genes was analyzed by weighted co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), which classified genes into 4 modules of expression, comprising early responses to the bacterium. Induced genes included genes involved in metabolism and cell differentiation, intracellular transportation, and cytoskeleton reorganization, while repressed genes included genes involved in extracellular matrix organization and RNA metabolism. To understand how these expression changes are orchestrated and to pinpoint relevant transcription factors (TFs) controlling the response, we established a curated database of TF-target gene regulatory interactions in Salmo salar, SalSaDB. Using this resource, together with co-expression module data, we generated infection context-specific networks that were analyzed to determine highly connected TF nodes. We found that the most connected TF of the 24- and 48-hpi response networks is KLF17, an ortholog of the KLF4 TF involved in the polarization of macrophages to an M2-phenotype in mammals. Interestingly, while KLF17 is induced by P. salmonis infection, other TFs, such as NOTCH3 and NFATC1, whose orthologs in mammals are related to M1-like macrophages, are repressed. In sum, our results suggest the induction of early regulatory events associated with an M2-like phenotype of macrophages that drives effectors related to the lysosome, RNA metabolism, cytoskeleton organization, and extracellular matrix remodeling. Moreover, the M1-like response seems delayed in generating an effective response, suggesting a polarization towards M2-like macrophages that allows the survival of P. salmonis. This work also contributes to SalSaDB, a curated database of TF-target gene interactions that is freely available for the Atlantic salmon community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Pérez-Stuardo
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Programa de Doctorado en Genómica Integrativa, Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mateus Frazão
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Valentina Ibaceta
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Bernardo Brianson
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Evelyn Sánchez
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Programa de Doctorado en Genómica Integrativa, Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo (ANID) Millennium Science Initiative Program-Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago, Chile
| | - J. Andrés Rivas-Pardo
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eva Vallejos-Vidal
- Núcleo de Investigaciones Aplicadas en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad De Las Américas, La Florida, Santiago, Chile
- Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Centro de Nanociencia y Nanotecnología (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe E. Reyes-López
- Centro de Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniela Toro-Ascuy
- Laboratorio de Virología, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Elena A. Vidal
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo (ANID) Millennium Science Initiative Program-Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastián Reyes-Cerpa
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
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2
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Schober I, Bunk B, Carril G, Freese HM, Ojeda N, Riedel T, Meier-Kolthoff JP, Göker M, Spröer C, Flores-Herrera PA, Nourdin-Galindo G, Gómez F, Cárdenas C, Vásquez-Ponce F, Labra A, Figueroa J, Olivares-Pacheco J, Nübel U, Sikorski J, Marshall SH, Overmann J. Ongoing diversification of the global fish pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis through genetic isolation and transposition bursts. THE ISME JOURNAL 2023; 17:2247-2258. [PMID: 37853183 PMCID: PMC10689435 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-023-01531-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
The management of bacterial pathogens remains a key challenge of aquaculture. The marine gammaproteobacterium Piscirickettsia salmonis is the etiological agent of piscirickettsiosis and causes multi-systemic infections in different salmon species, resulting in considerable mortality and substantial commercial losses. Here, we elucidate its global diversity, evolution, and selection during human interventions. Our comprehensive analysis of 73 closed, high quality genome sequences covered strains from major outbreaks and was supplemented by an analysis of all P. salmonis 16S rRNA gene sequences and metagenomic reads available in public databases. Genome comparison showed that Piscirickettsia comprises at least three distinct, genetically isolated species of which two showed evidence for continuing speciation. However, at least twice the number of species exist in marine fish or seawater. A hallmark of Piscirickettsia diversification is the unprecedented amount and diversity of transposases which are particularly active in subgroups undergoing rapid speciation and are key to the acquisition of novel genes and to pseudogenization. Several group-specific genes are involved in surface antigen synthesis and may explain the differences in virulence between strains. However, the frequent failure of antibiotic treatment of piscirickettsiosis outbreaks cannot be explained by horizontal acquisition of resistance genes which so far occurred only very rarely. Besides revealing a dynamic diversification of an important pathogen, our study also provides the data for improving its surveillance, predicting the emergence of novel lineages, and adapting aquaculture management, and thereby contributes towards the sustainability of salmon farming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Schober
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Boyke Bunk
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Gabriela Carril
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Heike M Freese
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nicolás Ojeda
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Thomas Riedel
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jan P Meier-Kolthoff
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Markus Göker
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Cathrin Spröer
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Patricio A Flores-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Guillermo Nourdin-Galindo
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Fernando Gómez
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Constanza Cárdenas
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
- Núcleo Biotecnología Curauma, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Campus Curauma, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Felipe Vásquez-Ponce
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Alvaro Labra
- Laboratorio de Patógenos Acuícolas, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Jaime Figueroa
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Jorge Olivares-Pacheco
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
- Núcleo Milenio para la Investigación Colaborativa en Resistencia Antimicrobiana (MICROB-R), Santiago, Chile
| | - Ulrich Nübel
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Braunschweig, Germany
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Johannes Sikorski
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sergio H Marshall
- Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
- Núcleo Biotecnología Curauma, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Campus Curauma, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Jörg Overmann
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany.
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Braunschweig, Germany.
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.
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3
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Leal Y, Valenzuela-Muñoz V, Gallardo-Escárate C. Alternative splicing in Atlantic salmon head kidney and SHK-1 cell line during the Piscirickettsia salmonis infection: A comparative transcriptome survey. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 142:109127. [PMID: 37813155 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.109127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis, an intracellular bacterium in salmon aquaculture, is a big challenge because it is responsible for 54.2% of Atlantic salmon mortalities. In recent years, the high relevance of Alternative Splicing (AS) as a molecular mechanism associated with infectious conditions and host-pathogen interaction processes, especially in host immune activation, has been observed. Several studies have highlighted the role of AS in the host's immune response during viral, bacterial, and endoparasite infection. In the present study, we evaluated AS transcriptome profiles during P. salmonis infection in the two most used study models, SHK-1 cell line and salmon head kidney tissue. First, the SHK-1 cell line was exposed to P. salmonis infection at 0-, 7-, and 14-days post-infection (dpi). Following, total RNA was extracted for Illumina sequencing. On the other hand, RNA-Seq datasets of Atlantic salmon head kidney infected with the same P. salmonis strayingwase used. For both study models, the highest number of differentially alternative splicing (DAS) events was observed at 7 dpi, 16,830 DAS events derived from 9213 DAS genes in SHK-1 cells, and 13,820 DAS events from 7684 DAS genes in salmon HK. Alternative first exon (AF) was the most abundant AS type in the three infection times analyzed, representing 31% in SHK-1 cells and 228.6 in salmon HK; meanwhile, mutually exclusive exon (MX) was the least abundant. Notably, functional annotation of DAS genes in SHK-1 cells infected with P. salmonis showed a high presence of genes related to nucleotide metabolism. In contrast, the salmon head kidney exhibited many GO terms associated with immune response. Our findings reported the role of AS during P. salmonis infection in Atlantic salmon. These studies would contribute to a better understanding of the molecular bases that support the pathogen-host interaction, evidencing the contribution of AS regulating the transcriptional host response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeny Leal
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad de Concepción, P.O. Box 160-C, Concepción, 4030000, Chile
| | - Valentina Valenzuela-Muñoz
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad de Concepción, P.O. Box 160-C, Concepción, 4030000, Chile
| | - Cristian Gallardo-Escárate
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad de Concepción, P.O. Box 160-C, Concepción, 4030000, Chile.
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4
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Carril G, Winther-Larsen HC, Løvoll M, Sørum H. Cohabitation of Piscirickettsia salmonis genogroups (LF-89 and EM-90): synergistic effect on growth dynamics. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1253577. [PMID: 37953796 PMCID: PMC10634514 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1253577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis, the biological agent of Salmonid Rickettsial Septicemia (SRS), is a facultative intracellular bacterium that can be divided into two genogroups (LF-89 and EM-90) with different virulence levels and patterns. Studies have found co-infection of these genogroups in salmonid farms in Chile, but it is essential to assess whether this interaction within the host is related to virulence and changes in pathogen dynamics. In this study, we studied four isolates from EM-90 and one LF-89 isolate chosen based on their genomic differences. The aim was to evaluate how co-cultivation affects bacterial growth performance and virulence factor expression in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in vitro and in vivo. In vitro results using FN2 medium, showed a similar growth curve between co-cultures of LF-89 and EM-90 compared to EM-90 monocultures. This was explained by the higher ratio of EM-90 to LF-89 in all co-cultures. When evaluating the expression of virulence factors, it was discovered that the luxR gene was expressed only in EM-90-like isolates and that there were significant differences between mono- and co-cultures for flaA and cheA, suggesting a response to cohabitation. Moreover, during in vivo co-cultures, transcriptomic analysis revealed an upregulation of transposases, flagellum-related genes (fliI and flgK), transporters, and permeases that could unveil novel virulence effectors used in the early infection process of P. salmonis. Thus, our work has shown that cohabitation of P. salmonis genogroups can modulate their behavior and virulence effector expression. These data can contribute to new strategies and approaches to improve the current health treatments against this salmonid pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Carril
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Hanne C. Winther-Larsen
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Henning Sørum
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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5
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Oliver C, Coronado JL, Martínez D, Kashulin-Bekkelund A, Lagos LX, Ciani E, Sanhueza-Oyarzún C, Mancilla-Nova A, Enríquez R, Winther-Larsen HC, Romero A. Outer membrane vesicles from Piscirickettsia salmonis induce the expression of inflammatory genes and production of IgM in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023:108887. [PMID: 37290611 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.108887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis outbreaks due to Piscirickettsia salmonis occur globally in the Chilean salmon aquaculture generating significant monetary losses in the industry. P. salmonis secretes outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) which are naturally non-replicating and highly immunogenic spherical nanoparticles. P. salmonis OMVs has been shown to induce immune response in zebrafish; however, the immune response induced by these vesicles in salmonids has not been evaluated. In this study, we inoculated Atlantic salmon with 10 and 30 μg doses of P. salmonis OMVs and took samples for 12 days. qPCR analysis indicated an inflammatory response. Thus, the inflammatory genes evaluated were up- or down-regulated at several times in liver, head kidney and spleen. In addition, the liver was the organ most immune-induced, mainly in the 30 μg-dose. Interestingly, co-expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines was evidenced by the prominent expression of il-10 at day 1 in spleen and also in head kidney on days 3, 6 and 12, while il-10 and tgf-β were up-regulated on days 3, 6 and 12 in liver. Importantly, we detected the production of IgM against proteins of P. salmonis in the serum collected from immunized fish after 14 days. Thus, 40 and 400 μg OMVs induced the production of highest IgM levels; however, no statistical difference in the immunoglobulin levels produced by these OMVs doses were detected. The current study provides evidence that OMVs released by P. salmonis induced a pro-inflammatory responses and IgM production in S. salar, while regulatory genes were induced in order to regulate their effects and achieve the balance of the inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Oliver
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.
| | - José Leonardo Coronado
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Danixa Martínez
- Laboratorio Institucional de Investigación, Facultad de Ciencias de la Naturaleza, Universidad San Sebastián, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | | | - Leidy X Lagos
- Section of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0315, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elia Ciani
- Section of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0315, Oslo, Norway
| | - Constanza Sanhueza-Oyarzún
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Alejandra Mancilla-Nova
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Ricardo Enríquez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Hanne C Winther-Larsen
- Section of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0315, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Alex Romero
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción, Chile.
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6
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Gervais O, Peñaloza C, Gratacap R, Papadopoulou A, Beltrán M, Henderson NC, Houston RD, Hassan MA, Robledo D. Understanding host response to infectious salmon anaemia virus in an Atlantic salmon cell line using single-cell RNA sequencing. BMC Genomics 2023; 24:161. [PMID: 36991327 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-023-09254-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus (ISAV) is an Orthomixovirus that represents a large problem for salmonid aquaculture worldwide. Current prevention and treatment methods are only partially effective. Genetic selection and genome engineering have the potential to develop ISAV resistant salmon stocks. Both strategies can benefit from an improved understanding of the genomic regulation of ISAV pathogenesis. Here, we used single-cell RNA sequencing of an Atlantic salmon cell line to provide the first high dimensional insight into the transcriptional landscape that underpins host-virus interaction during early ISAV infection. RESULTS Salmon head kidney (SHK-1) cells were single-cell RNA sequenced at 24, 48 and 96 h post-ISAV challenge. At 24 h post infection, cells showed expression signatures consistent with viral entry, with genes such as PI3K, FAK or JNK being upregulated relative to uninfected cells. At 48 and 96 h, infected cells showed a clear anti-viral response, characterised by the expression of IFNA2 or IRF2. Uninfected bystander cells at 48 and 96 h also showed clear transcriptional differences, potentially suggesting paracrine signalling from infected cells. These bystander cells expressed pathways such as mRNA sensing, RNA degradation, ubiquitination or proteasome; and up-regulation of mitochondrial ribosome genes also seemed to play a role in the host response to the infection. Correlation between viral and host genes revealed novel genes potentially key for this fish-virus interaction. CONCLUSIONS This study has increased our understanding of the cellular response of Atlantic salmon during ISAV infection and revealed host-virus interactions at the cellular level. Our results highlight various potential key genes in this host-virus interaction, which can be manipulated in future functional studies to increase the resistance of Atlantic salmon to ISAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ophélie Gervais
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Carolina Peñaloza
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Remi Gratacap
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Athina Papadopoulou
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Mariana Beltrán
- Centre for Inflammation Research, the Queen´s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Neil C Henderson
- Centre for Inflammation Research, the Queen´s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Cancer, University of Edinburgh, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ross D Houston
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
- Benchmark Genetics, 1 Pioneer Building, Edinburgh Technopole, Penicuik, EH26 0GB, UK
| | - Musa A Hassan
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Diego Robledo
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
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7
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Levipan HA, Irgang R, Opazo LF, Araya-León H, Avendaño-Herrera R. Collective behavior and virulence arsenal of the fish pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis in the biofilm realm. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1067514. [PMID: 36544910 PMCID: PMC9760808 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1067514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis is a fish disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Piscirickettsia salmonis. This disease has a high socio-economic impact on the Chilean salmonid aquaculture industry. The bacterium has a cryptic character in the environment and their main reservoirs are yet unknown. Bacterial biofilms represent a ubiquitous mechanism of cell persistence in diverse natural environments and a risk factor for the pathogenesis of several infectious diseases, but their microbiological significance for waterborne veterinary diseases, including piscirickettsiosis, have seldom been evaluated. This study analyzed the in vitro biofilm behavior of P. salmonis LF-89T (genogroup LF-89) and CA5 (genogroup EM-90) using a multi-method approach and elucidated the potential arsenal of virulence of the P. salmonis LF-89T type strain in its biofilm state. P. salmonis exhibited a quick kinetics of biofilm formation that followed a multi-step and highly strain-dependent process. There were no major differences in enzymatic profiles or significant differences in cytotoxicity (as tested on the Chinook salmon embryo cell line) between biofilm-derived bacteria and planktonic equivalents. The potential arsenal of virulence of P. salmonis LF-89T in biofilms, as determined by whole-transcriptome sequencing and differential gene expression analysis, consisted of genes involved in cell adhesion, polysaccharide biosynthesis, transcriptional regulation, and gene mobility, among others. Importantly, the global gene expression profiles of P. salmonis LF-89T were not enriched with virulence-related genes upregulated in biofilm development stages at 24 and 48 h. An enrichment in virulence-related genes exclusively expressed in biofilms was also undetected. These results indicate that early and mature biofilm development stages of P. salmonis LF-89T were transcriptionally no more virulent than their planktonic counterparts, which was supported by cytotoxic trials, which, in turn, revealed that both modes of growth induced important and very similar levels of cytotoxicity on the salmon cell line. Our results suggest that the aforementioned biofilm development stages do not represent hot spots of virulence compared with planktonic counterparts. This study provides the first transcriptomic catalogue to select specific genes that could be useful to prevent or control the (in vitro and/or in vivo) adherence and/or biofilm formation by P. salmonis and gain further insights into piscirickettsiosis pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor A. Levipan
- Laboratorio de Ecopatología y Nanobiomateriales, Departamento de Ciencias y Geografía, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile,Centro de Espectroscopía Atómica y Molecular (ATMOS-C), Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile,*Correspondence: Héctor A. Levipan, ; ; Ruben Avendaño-Herrera, ;
| | - Rute Irgang
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - L. Felipe Opazo
- Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Santiago, Chile,Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Henry Araya-León
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Quintay, Chile,*Correspondence: Héctor A. Levipan, ; ; Ruben Avendaño-Herrera, ;
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8
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Valenzuela-Aviles P, Torrealba D, Figueroa C, Mercado L, Dixon B, Conejeros P, Gallardo-Matus J. Why vaccines fail against Piscirickettsiosis in farmed salmon and trout and how to avoid it: A review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1019404. [PMID: 36466828 PMCID: PMC9714679 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1019404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis is the most severe, persistent, and damaging disease that has affected the Chilean salmon industry since its origins in the 1980s. As a preventive strategy for this disease, different vaccines have been developed and used over the last 30 years. However, vaccinated salmon and trout frequently die in the sea cages and the use of antibiotics is still high demonstrating the low efficiency of the available vaccines. The reasons why the vaccines fail so often are still debated, but it could involve different extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Among the extrinsic factors, mainly associated with chronic stress, we can distinguish: 1) biotic including coinfection with sea lice, sealions attacks or harmful algal blooms; 2) abiotic including low oxygen or high temperature; and 3) farm-management factors including overcrowding or chemical delousing treatments. Among the intrinsic factors, we can distinguish: 1) fish-related factors including host's genetic variability (species, population and individual), sex or age; 2) pathogen-related factors including their variability and ability to evade host immune responses; and 3) vaccine-related factors including low immunogenicity and poor matches with the circulating pathogen strain. Based on the available evidence, in order to improve the development and the efficacy of vaccines against P. salmonis we recommend: a) Do not perform efficacy evaluations by intraperitoneal injection of pathogens because they generate an artificial protective immune response, instead cohabitation or immersion challenges must be used; b) Evaluate the diversity of pathogen strains in the field and ensure a good antigenic match with the vaccines; c) Investigate whether host genetic diversity could be improved, e.g. through selection, in favor of better and longer responses to vaccination; d) To reduce the stressful effects at the cage level, controlling the co-infection of pathogens and avoiding fish overcrowding. To date, we do not know the immunological mechanisms by which the vaccines against P. salmonis may or may not generate protection. More studies are required to identify what type of response, cellular or molecular, is required to develop effective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Valenzuela-Aviles
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Débora Torrealba
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Carolina Figueroa
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Luis Mercado
- Grupo de Marcadores Inmunológicos en Organismos Acuáticos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Instituto de Biología, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Brian Dixon
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
| | - Pablo Conejeros
- Centro de Investigación y Gestión de Recursos Naturales (CIGREN), Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - José Gallardo-Matus
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
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9
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Fuentes DE, Acuña LG, Calderón IL. Stress response and virulence factors in bacterial pathogens relevant for Chilean aquaculture: current status and outlook of our knowledge. Biol Res 2022; 55:21. [PMID: 35642071 PMCID: PMC9153119 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-022-00391-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of the stress responses in bacteria has given us a wealth of information regarding the mechanisms employed by these bacteria in aggressive or even non-optimal living conditions. This information has been applied by several researchers to identify molecular targets related to pathogeny, virulence, and survival, among others, and to design new prophylactic or therapeutic strategies against them. In this study, our knowledge of these mechanisms has been summarized with emphasis on some aquatic pathogenic bacteria of relevance to the health and productive aspects of Chilean salmon farming (Piscirickettsia salmonis, Tenacibaculum spp., Renibacterium salmoninarum, and Yersinia ruckeri). This study will aid further investigations aimed at shedding more light on possible lines of action for these pathogens in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derie E Fuentes
- Aquaculture and Marine Ecosystems, Center For Systems Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Chile Research, Santiago, Chile. .,Environmental Sustainability, Center for Systems Biotechnology (CSB-UNAB), Universidad Andres Bello, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Lillian G Acuña
- Laboratorio de RNAs Bacterianos, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Universidad Andres Bello, Viña del Mar, Santiago, Chile
| | - Iván L Calderón
- Laboratorio de RNAs Bacterianos, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
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10
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Rozas-Serri M. Why Does Piscirickettsia salmonis Break the Immunological Paradigm in Farmed Salmon? Biological Context to Understand the Relative Control of Piscirickettsiosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:856896. [PMID: 35386699 PMCID: PMC8979166 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis (SRS) has been the most important infectious disease in Chilean salmon farming since the 1980s. It was one of the first to be described, and to date, it continues to be the main infectious cause of mortality. How can we better understand the epidemiological situation of SRS? The catch-all answer is that the Chilean salmon farming industry must fight year after year against a multifactorial disease, and apparently only the environment in Chile seems to favor the presence and persistence of Piscirickettsia salmonis. This is a fastidious, facultative intracellular bacterium that replicates in the host’s own immune cells and antigen-presenting cells and evades the adaptive cell-mediated immune response, which is why the existing vaccines are not effective in controlling it. Therefore, the Chilean salmon farming industry uses a lot of antibiotics—to control SRS—because otherwise, fish health and welfare would be significantly impaired, and a significantly higher volume of biomass would be lost per year. How can the ever-present risk of negative consequences of antibiotic use in salmon farming be balanced with the productive and economic viability of an animal production industry, as well as with the care of the aquatic environment and public health and with the sustainability of the industry? The answer that is easy, but no less true, is that we must know the enemy and how it interacts with its host. Much knowledge has been generated using this line of inquiry, however it remains insufficient. Considering the state-of-the-art summarized in this review, it can be stated that, from the point of view of fish immunology and vaccinology, we are quite far from reaching an effective and long-term solution for the control of SRS. For this reason, the aim of this critical review is to comprehensively discuss the current knowledge on the interaction between the bacteria and the host to promote the generation of more and better measures for the prevention and control of SRS.
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11
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Herrera V, Olavarría N, Saavedra J, Yuivar Y, Bustos P, Almarza O, Mancilla M. Complete Lipopolysaccharide of Piscirickettsia salmonis Is Required for Full Virulence in the Intraperitoneally Challenged Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar, Model. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:845661. [PMID: 35372121 PMCID: PMC8972169 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.845661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cell envelopes play a critical role in host-pathogen interactions. Macromolecular components of these structures have been closely linked to the virulence of pathogens. Piscirickettsia salmonis is a relevant salmonid pathogen with a worldwide distribution. This bacterium is the etiological agent of piscirickettsiosis, a septicemic disease that causes a high economic burden, especially for the Chilean salmon farming industry. Although P. salmonis has been discovered long ago, its pathogenicity and virulence mechanisms are not completely understood. In this work, we present a genetic approach for producing in-frame deletion mutants on genes related to the biosynthesis of membrane-associated polysaccharides. We provide a detailed in vitro phenotype description of knock-out mutants on wzx and wcaJ genes, which encode predicted lipopolysaccharide (LPS) flippase and undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose phosphotransferase enzymes, respectively. We exhibit evidence that the wzx mutant strain carries a defect in the probably most external LPS moiety, while the wcaJ mutant proved to be highly susceptible to the bactericidal action of serum but retained the ability of biofilm production. Beyond that, we demonstrate that the deletion of wzx, but not wcaJ, impairs the virulence of P. salmonis in an intraperitoneally infected Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, model of piscirickettsiosis. Our findings support a role for LPS in the virulence of P. salmonis during the onset of piscirickettsiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole Olavarría
- Laboratorio de Diagnóstico y Biotecnología, R & D Department, ADL Diagnostic Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - José Saavedra
- Laboratorio de Diagnóstico y Biotecnología, R & D Department, ADL Diagnostic Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Yassef Yuivar
- Laboratorio de Diagnóstico y Biotecnología, R & D Department, ADL Diagnostic Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Patricio Bustos
- Laboratorio de Diagnóstico y Biotecnología, R & D Department, ADL Diagnostic Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Oscar Almarza
- Blue Genomics SpA, Puerto Varas, Chile
- *Correspondence: Oscar Almarza, ; Marcos Mancilla,
| | - Marcos Mancilla
- Laboratorio de Diagnóstico y Biotecnología, R & D Department, ADL Diagnostic Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
- *Correspondence: Oscar Almarza, ; Marcos Mancilla,
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12
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Mekasha S, Linke D. Secretion Systems in Gram-Negative Bacterial Fish Pathogens. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:782673. [PMID: 34975803 PMCID: PMC8714846 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.782673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial fish pathogens are one of the key challenges in the aquaculture industry, one of the fast-growing industries worldwide. These pathogens rely on arsenal of virulence factors such as toxins, adhesins, effectors and enzymes to promote colonization and infection. Translocation of virulence factors across the membrane to either the extracellular environment or directly into the host cells is performed by single or multiple dedicated secretion systems. These secretion systems are often key to the infection process. They can range from simple single-protein systems to complex injection needles made from dozens of subunits. Here, we review the different types of secretion systems in Gram-negative bacterial fish pathogens and describe their putative roles in pathogenicity. We find that the available information is fragmented and often descriptive, and hope that our overview will help researchers to more systematically learn from the similarities and differences between the virulence factors and secretion systems of the fish-pathogenic species described here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophanit Mekasha
- Section for Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dirk Linke
- Section for Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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13
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Ortiz-Severín J, Tandberg JI, Winther-Larsen HC, Chávez FP, Cambiazo V. Comparative Analysis of Salmon Cell Lines and Zebrafish Primary Cell Cultures Infection with the Fish Pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9122516. [PMID: 34946119 PMCID: PMC8706985 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9122516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the etiologic agent of piscirickettsiosis, a disease that causes significant losses in the salmon farming industry. In order to unveil the pathogenic mechanisms of P. salmonis, appropriate molecular and cellular studies in multiple cell lines with different origins need to be conducted. Toward that end, we established a cell viability assay that is suitable for high-throughput analysis using the alamarBlue reagent to follow the distinct stages of the bacterial infection cycle. Changes in host cell viability can be easily detected using either an absorbance- or fluorescence-based plate reader. Our method accurately tracked the infection cycle across two different Atlantic salmon-derived cell lines, with macrophage and epithelial cell properties, and zebrafish primary cell cultures. Analyses were also carried out to quantify intracellular bacterial replication in combination with fluorescence microscopy to visualize P. salmonis and cellular structures in fixed cells. In addition, dual gene expression analysis showed that the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-12, and TNFα were upregulated, while the cytokines IL1b and IFNγ were downregulated in the three cell culture types. The expression of the P. salmonis metal uptake and heme acquisition genes, together with the toxin and effector genes ospD3, ymt, pipB2 and pepO, were upregulated at the early and late stages of infection regardless of the cell culture type. On the other hand, Dot/Icm secretion system genes as well as stationary state and nutrient scarcity-related genes were upregulated only at the late stage of P. salmonis intracellular infection. We propose that these genes encoding putative P. salmonis virulence factors and immune-related proteins could be suitable biomarkers of P. salmonis infection. The infection protocol and cell viability assay described here provide a reliable method to compare the molecular and cellular changes induced by P. salmonis in other cell lines and has the potential to be used for high-throughput screenings of novel antimicrobials targeting this important fish intracellular pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Ortiz-Severín
- Laboratorio de Microbiología de Sistemas, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile; (J.O.-S.); (F.P.C.)
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7830489, Chile
- Center of Integrative Microbiology and Evolution, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (J.I.T.); (H.C.W.-L.)
| | - Julia I. Tandberg
- Center of Integrative Microbiology and Evolution, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (J.I.T.); (H.C.W.-L.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Hanne C. Winther-Larsen
- Center of Integrative Microbiology and Evolution, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway; (J.I.T.); (H.C.W.-L.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Francisco P. Chávez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología de Sistemas, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile; (J.O.-S.); (F.P.C.)
| | - Verónica Cambiazo
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7830489, Chile
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370415, Chile
- Correspondence:
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14
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Ruiz P, Sepulveda D, Vidal JM, Romero R, Contreras D, Barros J, Carrasco C, Ruiz-Tagle N, Romero A, Urrutia H, Oliver C. Piscirickettsia salmonis Produces a N-Acetyl-L-Homoserine Lactone as a Bacterial Quorum Sensing System-Related Molecule. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:755496. [PMID: 34760722 PMCID: PMC8573184 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.755496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the etiological agent of piscirickettsiosis, the most prevalent disease in salmonid species in Chilean salmonids farms. Many bacteria produce N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) as a quorum-sensing signal molecule to regulate gene expression in a cell density-dependent manner, and thus modulate physiological characteristics and several bacterial mechanisms. In this study, a fluorescent biosensor system method and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were combined to detect AHLs produced by P. salmonis. These analyses revealed an emitted fluorescence signal when the biosensor P. putida EL106 (RPL4cep) was co-cultured with both, P. salmonis LF-89 type strain and an EM-90-like strain Ps007, respectively. Furthermore, the production of an AHL-type molecule was confirmed by GC/MS by both P. salmonis strains, which identified the presence of a N-acetyl-L-homoserine Lactone in the supernatant extract. However, It is suggested that an alternate pathway could synthesizes AHLs, which should be address in future experiments in order to elucidate this important bacterial process. To the best of our knowledge, the present report is the first to describe the type of AHLs produced by P. salmonis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Talcahuano, Chile
| | - Daniela Sepulveda
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - José Miguel Vidal
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo, Ecombio limitada, Concepción, Chile
| | - Romina Romero
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones Medioambientales de Zonas Áridas (LIMZA), Depto. Ingeniería Mecánica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
| | - David Contreras
- Departamento de Química Analítica e Inorgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Javier Barros
- Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo, Micbiotech Spa, Concepción, Chile
| | - Carlos Carrasco
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Nathaly Ruiz-Tagle
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Alex Romero
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto de Patología Animal, Valdivia, Chile.,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción, Chile
| | - Homero Urrutia
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Cristian Oliver
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto de Patología Animal, Valdivia, Chile
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15
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Ortiz-Severín J, Stuardo CJ, Jiménez NE, Palma R, Cortés MP, Maldonado J, Maass A, Cambiazo V. Nutrient Scarcity in a New Defined Medium Reveals Metabolic Resistance to Antibiotics in the Fish Pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:734239. [PMID: 34707589 PMCID: PMC8542936 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.734239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Extensive use of antibiotics has been the primary treatment for the Salmonid Rickettsial Septicemia, a salmonid disease caused by the bacterium Piscirickettsia salmonis. Occurrence of antibiotic resistance has been explored in various P. salmonis isolates using different assays; however, P. salmonis is a nutritionally demanding intracellular facultative pathogen; thus, assessing its antibiotic susceptibility with standardized and validated protocols is essential. In this work, we studied the pathogen response to antibiotics using a genomic, a transcriptomic, and a phenotypic approach. A new defined medium (CMMAB) was developed based on a metabolic model of P. salmonis. CMMAB was formulated to increase bacterial growth in nutrient-limited conditions and to be suitable for performing antibiotic susceptibility tests. Antibiotic resistance was evaluated based on a comprehensive search of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) from P. salmonis genomes. Minimum inhibitory concentration assays were conducted to test the pathogen susceptibility to antibiotics from drug categories with predicted ARGs. In all tested P. salmonis strains, resistance to erythromycin, ampicillin, penicillin G, streptomycin, spectinomycin, polymyxin B, ceftazidime, and trimethoprim was medium-dependent, showing resistance to higher antibiotic concentrations in the CMMAB medium. The mechanism for antibiotic resistance to ampicillin in the defined medium was further explored and was proven to be associated to a decrease in the bacterial central metabolism, including the TCA cycle, the pentose-phosphate pathway, energy production, and nucleotide metabolism, and it was not associated with decreased growth rate of the bacterium or with the expression of any predicted ARG. Our results suggest that nutrient scarcity plays a role in the bacterial antibiotic resistance, protecting against the detrimental effects of antibiotics, and thus, we propose that P. salmonis exhibits a metabolic resistance to ampicillin when growing in a nutrient-limited medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Ortiz-Severín
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Camila J Stuardo
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Natalia E Jiménez
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Modelamiento Matemático (AFB170001), Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile and UMI-CNRS 2807, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ricardo Palma
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Modelamiento Matemático (AFB170001), Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile and UMI-CNRS 2807, Santiago, Chile
| | - María P Cortés
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Modelamiento Matemático (AFB170001), Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile and UMI-CNRS 2807, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jonathan Maldonado
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alejandro Maass
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Modelamiento Matemático (AFB170001), Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile and UMI-CNRS 2807, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica Cambiazo
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15200002), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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16
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Zuloaga R, Dettleff P, Bastias-Molina M, Meneses C, Altamirano C, Valdés JA, Molina A. RNA-Seq-Based Analysis of Cortisol-Induced Differential Gene Expression Associated with Piscirickettsia salmonis Infection in Rainbow Trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss) Myotubes. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082399. [PMID: 34438856 PMCID: PMC8388646 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonid rickettsial septicemia (SRS) is the major infectious disease of the Chilean salmonid aquaculture industry caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis. Intensive farming conditions generate stress and increased susceptibility to diseases, being skeletal muscle mainly affected. However, the interplay between pathogen infection and stress in muscle is poorly understood. In this study, we perform an RNA-seq analysis on rainbow trout myotubes that are pretreated for 3 h with cortisol (100 ng/mL) and then infected with P. salmonis strain LF-89 for 8 h (MOI 50). Twelve libraries are constructed from RNA samples (n = 3 per group) and sequenced on Illumina HiSeq 4000. A total of 704,979,454 high-quality reads are obtained, with 70.25% mapped against the reference genome. In silico DETs include 175 total genes-124 are upregulated and 51 are downregulated. GO enrichment analysis reveals highly impacted biological processes related to apoptosis, negative regulation of cell proliferation, and innate immune response. These results are validated by RT-qPCR of nine candidate transcripts. Furthermore, cortisol pretreatment significantly stimulated bacterial gene expression of ahpC and 23s compared to infection. In conclusion, for the first time, we describe a transcriptomic response of trout myotubes infected with P. salmonis by inducing apoptosis, downregulating cell proliferation, and intrinsic immune-like response that is differentially regulated by cortisol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Zuloaga
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile; (R.Z.); (P.D.); (J.A.V.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4030000, Chile
| | - Phillip Dettleff
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile; (R.Z.); (P.D.); (J.A.V.)
| | - Macarena Bastias-Molina
- Centro de Biotecnología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile; (M.B.-M.); (C.M.)
| | - Claudio Meneses
- Centro de Biotecnología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile; (M.B.-M.); (C.M.)
| | - Claudia Altamirano
- Laboratorio de Cultivos Celulares, Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso 2362803, Chile;
| | - Juan Antonio Valdés
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile; (R.Z.); (P.D.); (J.A.V.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4030000, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile
| | - Alfredo Molina
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370186, Chile; (R.Z.); (P.D.); (J.A.V.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4030000, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Valparaíso 2340000, Chile
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +56-227703067
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Levipan HA, Reyes-Garcia L, Avendaño-Herrera R. Piscirickettsia salmonis does not evidence quorum sensing based on acyl-homoserine lactones. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2021; 44:1047-1051. [PMID: 33900628 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Héctor A Levipan
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Luis Reyes-Garcia
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomás, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Quintay, Chile
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Carrizo V, Valenzuela CA, Aros C, Dettleff P, Valenzuela-Muñoz V, Gallardo-Escarate C, Altamirano C, Molina A, Valdés JA. Transcriptomic analysis reveals a Piscirickettsia salmonis-induced early inflammatory response in rainbow trout skeletal muscle. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2021; 39:100859. [PMID: 34087760 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2021.100859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in teleosts and is essential for movement and metabolism. Recently, it has been described that skeletal muscle can express and secrete immune-related molecules during pathogen infection. However, the role of this tissue during infection is poorly understood. To determine the immunocompetence of fish skeletal muscle, juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were challenged with Piscirickettsia salmonis strain LF-89. P. salmonis is the etiological agent of piscirickettsiosis, a severe disease that has caused major economic losses in the aquaculture industry. This gram-negative bacterium produces a chronic systemic infection that involves several organs and tissues in salmonids. Using high-throughput RNA-seq, we found that 60 transcripts were upregulated in skeletal muscle, mostly associated with inflammatory response and positive regulation of interleukin-8 production. Conversely, 141 transcripts were downregulated in association with muscle filament sliding and actin filament-based movement. To validate these results, we performed in vitro experiments using rainbow trout myotubes. In myotubes coincubated with P. salmonis strain LF-89 at an MOI of 50, we found increased expression of the proinflammatory cytokine il1b and the pattern recognition receptor tlr5s 8 and 12 h after infection. These results demonstrated that fish skeletal muscle is an immunologically active organ that can implement an early immunological response against P. salmonis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Carrizo
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, 8370186 Santiago, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile
| | - Cristián A Valenzuela
- Grupo de Marcadores Inmunológicos, Laboratorio de Genética e Inmunología Molecular, Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 2340000 Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Camila Aros
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, 8370186 Santiago, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile; Laboratorio de Cultivos Celulares, Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 2340000 Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Phillip Dettleff
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, 8370186 Santiago, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile
| | - Valentina Valenzuela-Muñoz
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, 8370186 Santiago, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile; Laboratory of Biotechnology and Aquatic Genomics, Barrio Universitario s/n, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Cristian Gallardo-Escarate
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile; Laboratory of Biotechnology and Aquatic Genomics, Barrio Universitario s/n, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Claudia Altamirano
- Laboratorio de Cultivos Celulares, Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 2340000 Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Alfredo Molina
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, 8370186 Santiago, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile; Universidad Andres Bello, Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, 2340000 Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Juan Antonio Valdés
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, 8370186 Santiago, Chile; Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), 4030000 Concepción, Chile; Universidad Andres Bello, Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, 2340000 Valparaíso, Chile.
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Pérez-Valenzuela J, Mejías M, Ortiz D, Salgado P, Montt L, Chávez-Báez I, Vera-Tamargo F, Mandakovic D, Wacyk J, Pulgar R. Increased dietary availability of selenium in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) improves its plasma antioxidant capacity and resistance to infection with Piscirickettsia salmonis. Vet Res 2021; 52:64. [PMID: 33933136 PMCID: PMC8088010 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00930-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonid Rickettsial Septicaemia (SRS), caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis, is the most important infectious disease in the Chilean salmon farming industry. An opportunity to control this disease is to use functional micronutrients to modulate host mechanisms of response to the infection. Since P. salmonis may affect the host antioxidant system in salmonids, particularly that dependent on selenium (Se), we hypothesized that fish’s dietary selenium supplementation could improve the response to the bacterial infection. To address this, we defined a non-antibiotic, non-cytotoxic concentration of selenium to evaluate its effect on the response to in vitro infections of SHK-1 cells with P. salmonis. The results indicated that selenium supplementation reduced the cytopathic effect, intracellular bacterial load, and cellular mortality of SHK-1 by increasing the abundance and activity of host glutathione peroxidase. We then prepared diets supplemented with selenium up to 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg to feed juvenile trout for 8 weeks. At the end of this feeding period, we obtained their blood plasma and evaluated its ability to protect SHK-1 cells from infection with P. salmonis in ex vivo assays. These results recapitulated the observed ability of selenium to protect against infection with P. salmonis by increasing the concentration of selenium and the antioxidant capacity in fish’s plasma. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the protective capacity of selenium against P. salmonis infection in salmonids, becoming a potential effective host-directed dietary therapy for SRS and other infectious diseases in animals at a non-antibiotic concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Pérez-Valenzuela
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile
| | - Madelaine Mejías
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniela Ortiz
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal (LABNA). Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Producción Animal, Universidad de Chile, 11315, Santa Rosa, La Pintana, Chile
| | - Pablo Salgado
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal (LABNA). Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Producción Animal, Universidad de Chile, 11315, Santa Rosa, La Pintana, Chile
| | - Liliana Montt
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ignacio Chávez-Báez
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisca Vera-Tamargo
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile
| | - Dinka Mandakovic
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile.,GEMA Center for Genomics, Ecology and Environment, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pirámide, 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jurij Wacyk
- Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile. .,Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal (LABNA). Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Producción Animal, Universidad de Chile, 11315, Santa Rosa, La Pintana, Chile.
| | - Rodrigo Pulgar
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, El Líbano, Macul, 5524, Santiago, Chile. .,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Santiago, Chile.
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20
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Díaz R, Troncoso J, Jakob E, Skugor S. "Limiting access to iron decreases infection of Atlantic salmon SHK-1 cells with bacterium Piscirickettsia salmonis". BMC Vet Res 2021; 17:155. [PMID: 33849522 PMCID: PMC8043062 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-02853-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vertebrate hosts limit the availability of iron to microbial pathogens in order to nutritionally starve the invaders. The impact of iron deficiency induced by the iron chelator deferoxamine mesylate (DFO) was investigated in Atlantic salmon SHK-1 cells infected with the facultative intracellular bacterium Piscirickettsia salmonis. RESULTS Effects of the DFO treatment and P. salmonis on SHK-1 cells were gaged by assessing cytopathic effects, bacterial load and activity, and gene expression profiles of eight immune biomarkers at 4- and 7-days post infection (dpi) in the control group, groups receiving single treatments (DFO or P. salmonis) and their combination. The chelator appears to be well-tolerated by host cells, while it had a negative impact on the number of bacterial cells and associated cytotoxicity. DFO alone had minor effects on gene expression of SHK-1 cells, including an early activation of IL-1β at 4 dpi. In contrast to few moderate changes induced by single treatments (either infection or chelator), most genes had highest upregulation in the infected groups receiving DFO. The mildest induction of hepcidin-1 (antimicrobial peptide precursor and regulator of iron homeostasis) was observed in cells exposed to DFO alone, followed by P. salmonis infected cells while the addition of DFO to infected cells further increased the mRNA abundance of this gene. Transcripts encoding TNF-α (immune signaling) and iNOS (immune effector) showed sustained increase at both time points in this group while cathelicidin-1 (immune effector) and IL-8 (immune signaling) were upregulated at 7 dpi. The stimulation of protective gene responses seen in infected cultures supplemented with DFO coincided with the reduction of bacterial load and activity (judged by the expression of P. salmonis 16S rRNA), and damage to cultured host cells. CONCLUSION The absence of immune gene activation under normal iron conditions suggests modulation of host responses by P. salmonis. The negative effect of iron deficiency on bacteria likely allowed host cells to respond in a more protective manner to the infection, further decreasing its progression. Presented findings encourage in vivo exploration of iron chelators as a promising strategy against piscirickettsiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Díaz
- Cargill Innovation Centre, Camino a Pargua km 57, Colaco km 5, Calbuco, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - José Troncoso
- Cargill Innovation Centre, Camino a Pargua km 57, Colaco km 5, Calbuco, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Eva Jakob
- Cargill Innovation Centre, Camino a Pargua km 57, Colaco km 5, Calbuco, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Stanko Skugor
- Cargill Innovation Centre, Dirdalsstranda 51, 4335, Dirdal, Norway.
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21
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Piscirickettsia salmonis-Triggered Extracellular Traps Formation as an Innate Immune Response of Atlantic Salmon-Derived Polymorphonuclear Neutrophils. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10030206. [PMID: 33803375 PMCID: PMC7999065 DOI: 10.3390/biology10030206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Within innate immunity, polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) are the most abundant leukocyte population. Alongside PMN, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils are also known to exist. All of them can release extracellular traps (ETs), a complex web-like structure composed of chromatin decorated with nuclear histones, granular enzymes, peptides, and proteins, to firmly entrap invasive pathogens, thereby slowing dissemination and helping to develop proper immune responses against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Here, we showed for the first time that Atlantic salmon-derived PMN released ETs-like structures in vitro, in response to highly pathogenic facultative intracellular rickettsial bacteria Piscirickettsia salmonis. The release of ET-like structures from PMN could be a new alternative to improve farmed salmon’s defense against pathogens. Abstract Extracellular traps (ETs) are webs of DNA, citrullinated histones, anti-microbial peptides, and proteins that were not previously reported in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). ETs are mainly released from polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) and are considered a novel PMN-derived effector mechanism against different invasive pathogens. Here, we showed that Atlantic salmon-derived PMN released ETs-like structures in vitro in response to highly pathogenic facultative intracellular rickettsial bacteria Piscirickettsia salmonis. PMN were isolated from pre-smolt Atlantic salmon and stimulated in vitro with oleic acid and P. salmonis. Extracellular DNA was measured using the PicoGreen™ dye, while immunofluorescence image analysis was used to confirm the classical components of salmonid-extruded ETs. Future studies are required to better understand the role of Atlantic salmon-derived ETs orchestrating innate/adaptive immunity and the knowledge on regulation pathways involved in this cell death process. Thus, comprehension of salmonid-derived ETs against P. salmonis might represent novel alternative strategies to improve host innate defense mechanisms of farmed salmon against closely related rickettsial bacteria, as a complement to disease prevention and control strategies.
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Moraleda CP, Robledo D, Gutiérrez AP, Del-Pozo J, Yáñez JM, Houston RD. Investigating mechanisms underlying genetic resistance to Salmon Rickettsial Syndrome in Atlantic salmon using RNA sequencing. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:156. [PMID: 33676414 PMCID: PMC7936450 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07443-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Salmon Rickettsial Syndrome (SRS), caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis, is one of the primary causes of morbidity and mortality in Atlantic salmon aquaculture, particularly in Chile. Host resistance is a heritable trait, and functional genomic studies have highlighted genes and pathways important in the response of salmon to the bacteria. However, the functional mechanisms underpinning genetic resistance are not yet well understood. In the current study, a large population of salmon pre-smolts were challenged with P. salmonis, with mortality levels recorded and samples taken for genotyping. In parallel, head kidney and liver samples were taken from animals of the same population with high and low genomic breeding values for resistance, and used for RNA-Sequencing to compare their transcriptome profile both pre and post infection. Results A significant and moderate heritability (h2 = 0.43) was shown for the trait of binary survival. Genome-wide association analyses using 38 K imputed SNP genotypes across 2265 animals highlighted that resistance is a polygenic trait. Several thousand genes were identified as differentially expressed between controls and infected samples, and enriched pathways related to the host immune response were highlighted. In addition, several networks with significant correlation with SRS resistance breeding values were identified, suggesting their involvement in mediating genetic resistance. These included apoptosis, cytoskeletal organisation, and the inflammasome. Conclusions While resistance to SRS is a polygenic trait, this study has highlighted several relevant networks and genes that are likely to play a role in mediating genetic resistance. These genes may be future targets for functional studies, including genome editing, to further elucidate their role underpinning genetic variation in host resistance. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07443-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina P Moraleda
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Diego Robledo
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Alejandro P Gutiérrez
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jorge Del-Pozo
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - José M Yáñez
- Faculty of Veterinary and Livestock Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Ross D Houston
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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Ortiz-Severín J, Travisany D, Maass A, Cambiazo V, Chávez FP. Global Proteomic Profiling of Piscirickettsia salmonis and Salmon Macrophage-Like Cells during Intracellular Infection. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8121845. [PMID: 33255149 PMCID: PMC7760863 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiasalmonis is an intracellular bacterial fish pathogen that causes piscirickettsiosis, a disease with numerous negative impacts in the Chilean salmon farming industry. Although transcriptomic studies of P. salmonis and its host have been performed, dual host–pathogen proteomic approaches during infection are still missing. Considering that gene expression does not always correspond with observed phenotype, and bacteriological culture studies inadequately reflect infection conditions, to improve the existing knowledge for the pathogenicity of P. salmonis, we present here a global proteomic profiling of Salmon salar macrophage-like cell cultures infected with P. salmonis LF-89. The proteomic analyses identified several P. salmonis proteins from two temporally different stages of macrophages infection, some of them related to key functions for bacterial survival in other intracellular pathogens. Metabolic differences were observed in early-stage infection bacteria, compared to late-stage infections. Virulence factors related to membrane, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and surface component modifications, cell motility, toxins, and secretion systems also varied between the infection stages. Pilus proteins, beta-hemolysin, and the type VI secretion system (T6SS) were characteristic of the early-infection stage, while fimbria, upregulation of 10 toxins or effector proteins, and the Dot/Icm type IV secretion system (T4SS) were representative of the late-infection stage bacteria. Previously described virulence-related genes in P. salmonis plasmids were identified by proteomic assays during infection in SHK-1 cells, accompanied by an increase of mobile-related elements. By comparing the infected and un-infected proteome of SHK-1 cells, we observed changes in cellular and redox homeostasis; innate immune response; microtubules and actin cytoskeleton organization and dynamics; alteration in phagosome components, iron transport, and metabolism; and amino acids, nucleoside, and nucleotide metabolism, together with an overall energy and ATP production alteration. Our global proteomic profiling and the current knowledge of the P. salmonis infection process allowed us to propose a model of the macrophage–P. salmonis interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javiera Ortiz-Severín
- Laboratorio de Microbiología de Sistemas, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile;
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7830490, Chile;
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15090007), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370415, Chile; (D.T.); (A.M.)
| | - Dante Travisany
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15090007), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370415, Chile; (D.T.); (A.M.)
- Centro de Modelamiento Matemático (AFB170001) and Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile and UMI-CNRS 2807, Santiago 8370415, Chile
| | - Alejandro Maass
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15090007), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370415, Chile; (D.T.); (A.M.)
- Centro de Modelamiento Matemático (AFB170001) and Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile and UMI-CNRS 2807, Santiago 8370415, Chile
| | - Verónica Cambiazo
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática y Expresión Génica, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7830490, Chile;
- Fondap Center for Genome Regulation (Fondap 15090007), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8370415, Chile; (D.T.); (A.M.)
| | - Francisco P. Chávez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología de Sistemas, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7800003, Chile;
- Correspondence:
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Caruffo M, Mandakovic D, Mejías M, Chávez-Báez I, Salgado P, Ortiz D, Montt L, Pérez-Valenzuela J, Vera-Tamargo F, Yánez JM, Wacyk J, Pulgar R. Pharmacological iron-chelation as an assisted nutritional immunity strategy against Piscirickettsia salmonis infection. Vet Res 2020; 51:134. [PMID: 33115510 PMCID: PMC7592559 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00845-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonid Rickettsial Septicaemia (SRS), caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis, is a severe bacterial disease in the Chilean salmon farming industry. Vaccines and antibiotics are the current strategies to fight SRS; however, the high frequency of new epizootic events confirms the need to develop new strategies to combat this disease. An innovative opportunity is perturbing the host pathways used by the microorganisms to replicate inside host cells through host-directed antimicrobial drugs (HDAD). Iron is a critical nutrient for P. salmonis infection; hence, the use of iron-chelators becomes an excellent alternative to be used as HDAD. The aim of this work was to use the iron chelator Deferiprone (DFP) as HDAD to treat SRS. Here, we describe the protective effect of the iron chelator DFP over P. salmonis infections at non-antibiotic concentrations, in bacterial challenges both in vitro and in vivo. At the cellular level, our results indicate that DFP reduced the intracellular iron content by 33.1% and P. salmonis relative load during bacterial infections by 78%. These findings were recapitulated in fish, where DFP reduced the mortality of rainbow trout challenged with P. salmonis in 34.9% compared to the non-treated group. This is the first report of the protective capacity of an iron chelator against infection in fish, becoming a potential effective host-directed therapy for SRS and other animals against ferrophilic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Caruffo
- Escuela de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio Inmunología en Peces, Facultad de Ciencia de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, República 239, Santiago, Chile.,Scimetrica Lab, Santiago, Chile
| | - Dinka Mandakovic
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,GEMA Center for Genomics, Ecology and Environment, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile.,Scimetrica Lab, Santiago, Chile
| | - Madelaine Mejías
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ignacio Chávez-Báez
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pablo Salgado
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal (LABNA). Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Producción Animal, Universidad de Chile, Santa Rosa, 11315, La Pintana, Chile
| | - Daniela Ortiz
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal (LABNA). Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Producción Animal, Universidad de Chile, Santa Rosa, 11315, La Pintana, Chile
| | - Liliana Montt
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Javiera Pérez-Valenzuela
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisca Vera-Tamargo
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - José Manuel Yánez
- Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santa Rosa, 11735, La Pintana, Chile
| | - Jurij Wacyk
- Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal (LABNA). Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Producción Animal, Universidad de Chile, Santa Rosa, 11315, La Pintana, Chile
| | - Rodrigo Pulgar
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Genética de Interacciones Biológicas (LG2IB), Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimento, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile. .,Center for Research and Innovation in Aquaculture (CRIA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile. .,Laboratory for Research in Functional Nutrition, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Av. El Líbano 5524, Macul, 7830490, Santiago, Chile. .,Scimetrica Lab, Santiago, Chile.
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25
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Santibañez N, Vega M, Pérez T, Yáñez A, González-Stegmaier R, Figueroa J, Enríquez R, Oliver C, Romero A. Biofilm Produced In Vitro by Piscirickettsia salmonis Generates Differential Cytotoxicity Levels and Expression Patterns of Immune Genes in the Atlantic Salmon Cell Line SHK-1. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1609. [PMID: 33092013 PMCID: PMC7594049 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8101609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the causative agent of Piscirickettsiosis, an infectious disease with a high economic impact on the Chilean salmonid aquaculture industry. This bacterium produces biofilm as a potential resistance and persistence strategy against stressful environmental stimuli. However, the in vitro culture conditions that modulate biofilm formation as well as the effect of sessile bacteria on virulence and immune gene expression in host cells have not been described for P. salmonis. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the biofilm formation by P. salmonis isolates under several NaCl and iron concentrations and to evaluate the virulence of planktonic and sessile bacteria, together with the immune gene expression induced by these bacterial conditions in an Atlantic salmon macrophage cell line. Our results showed that NaCl and Fe significantly increased biofilm production in the LF-89 type strain and EM-90-like isolates. Additionally, the planktonic EM-90 isolate and sessile LF-89 generated the highest virulence levels, associated with differential expression of il-1β, il-8, nf-κb, and iκb-α genes in SHK-1 cells. These results suggest that there is no single virulence pattern or gene expression profile induced by the planktonic or sessile condition of P. salmonis, which are dependent on each strain and bacterial condition used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natacha Santibañez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
| | - Matías Vega
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Tatiana Pérez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
| | - Alejandro Yáñez
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Roxana González-Stegmaier
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Jaime Figueroa
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Ricardo Enríquez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Cristian Oliver
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Alex Romero
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
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