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Samuel CS, Bennett RG. Relaxin as an anti-fibrotic treatment: Perspectives, challenges and future directions. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 197:114884. [PMID: 34968489 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Fibrosis refers to the scarring and hardening of tissues, which results from a failed immune system-coordinated wound healing response to chronic organ injury and which manifests from the aberrant accumulation of various extracellular matrix components (ECM), primarily collagen. Despite being a hallmark of prolonged tissue damage and related dysfunction, and commonly associated with high morbidity and mortality, there are currently no effective cures for its regression. An emerging therapy that meets several criteria of an effective anti-fibrotic treatment, is the recombinant drug-based form of the human hormone, relaxin (also referred to as serelaxin, which is bioactive in several other species). This review outlines the broad anti-fibrotic and related organ-protective roles of relaxin, mainly from studies conducted in preclinical models of ageing and fibrotic disease, including its ability to ameliorate several aspects of fibrosis progression and maturation, from immune cell infiltration, pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic cytokine secretion, oxidative stress, organ hypertrophy, cell apoptosis, myofibroblast differentiation and ECM production, to its ability to facilitate established ECM degradation. Studies that have compared and/or combined these therapeutic effects of relaxin with current standard of care medication have also been discussed, along with the main challenges that have hindered the translation of the anti-fibrotic efficacy of relaxin to the clinic. The review then outlines the future directions as to where scientists and several pharmaceutical companies that have recognized the therapeutic potential of relaxin are working towards, to progress its development as a treatment for human patients suffering from various fibrotic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrishan S Samuel
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Robert G Bennett
- Research Service, Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE 68105, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology & Metabolism, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-4130, USA.
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Ng HH, Soula M, Rivas B, Wilson KJ, Marugan JJ, Agoulnik AI. Anti-apoptotic and Matrix Remodeling Actions of a Small Molecule Agonist of the Human Relaxin Receptor, ML290 in Mice With Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction. Front Physiol 2021; 12:650769. [PMID: 34305630 PMCID: PMC8293094 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.650769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases, such as diabetes and hypertension, often lead to chronic kidney failure. The peptide hormone relaxin has been shown to have therapeutic effects in various organs. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that ML290, a small molecule agonist of the human relaxin receptor (RXFP1), is able to target the kidney to remodel the extracellular matrix and reduce apoptosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). UUO was performed on the left kidney of humanized RXFP1 mice, where the right kidneys served as contralateral controls. Mice were randomly allocated to receive either vehicle or ML290 (30 mg/kg) via daily intraperitoneal injection, and kidneys were collected for apoptosis, RNA, and protein analyses. UUO significantly increased expression of pro-apoptotic markers in both vehicle- and ML290-treated mice when compared to their contralateral control kidneys. Specifically, Bax expression and Erk1/2 activity were upregulated, accompanied by an increase of TUNEL-positive cells in the UUO kidneys. Additionally, UUO induced marked increase in myofibroblast differentiation and aberrant remodeling on the extracellular matrix. ML290 suppressed these processes by promoting a reduction of pro-apoptotic, fibroblastic, and inflammatory markers in the UUO kidneys. Finally, the potent effects of ML290 to remodel the extracellular matrix were demonstrated by its ability to reduce collagen gene expression in the UUO kidneys. Our data indicate that daily administration of ML290 has renal protective effects in the UUO mouse model, specifically through its anti-apoptotic and extracellular matrix remodeling properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hooi Hooi Ng
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Mariluz Soula
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Bryan Rivas
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kenneth J Wilson
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Juan J Marugan
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
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Diaz EC, Briggs M, Wen Y, Zhuang G, Wallace SL, Dobberfuhl AD, Kao CS, Chen BC. Characterizing relaxin receptor expression and exploring relaxin's effect on tissue remodeling/fibrosis in the human bladder. BMC Urol 2020; 20:44. [PMID: 32321501 PMCID: PMC7178754 DOI: 10.1186/s12894-020-00607-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Relaxin is an endogenous protein that has been shown to have antifibrotic properties in various organ systems. There has been no characterization of relaxin’s role in the human bladder. Our objective was to characterize relaxin receptor expression in the human bladder and assess relaxin’s effect on tissue remodeling/fibrosis pathways in bladder smooth muscle cells. Methods Relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1) and RXFP2 expression was assessed using quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) on primary bladder tissue. Primary human smooth muscle bladder cells were cultured and stimulated with various concentrations of relaxin. Western blot, qRTPCR, ELISA, and zymogram assays were used to analyze fibrosis/tissue remodeling pathway proteins. Results There was universal mRNA transcript detection and protein expression of relaxin receptors in primary bladder specimens. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated RXFP1 and RXFP2 localizing to both urothelial and smooth muscle cell layers of the bladder. 24 h of in vitro relaxin stimulation did not affect mRNA expression of selected proteins in human bladder smooth muscle cells. However, 48 h of in vitro relaxin stimulation resulted in upregulation of active (p = 0.004) and latent (p = 0.027) MMP-2 in cell lysate, and upregulation of active MMP-2 in supernatant (p = 0.04). There was a dose dependent relationship with increasing expression of MMP-2 with increasing relaxin concentration. Relaxin stimulation resulted in decreased levels of active and total TGF-β1 in supernatant and extracellular matrix (p < 0.005 with 100 ng/mL relaxin stimulation). Conclusions In the human bladder, relaxin receptors are expressed at the dome and trigone and localize to the urothelium and smooth muscle cell layers. Stimulation of human bladder SMCs with relaxin in vitro affects expression of MMP-2 and TGF-β1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C Diaz
- Department of Urology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Grant S-287, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA. .,Present Address: Division of Pediatric Urology, Advocate Children's Hospital, 8901 West Golf Road, Suite 301, Des Plaines, IL, 60016, USA.
| | - Mason Briggs
- Department of Urology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Grant S-287, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Rm A370, MC 5317, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Yan Wen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Rm A370, MC 5317, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Guobing Zhuang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Rm A370, MC 5317, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Shannon L Wallace
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Rm A370, MC 5317, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Amy D Dobberfuhl
- Department of Urology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Grant S-287, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Chia-Sui Kao
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Rm L235, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Bertha C Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University Medical Center, 300 Pasteur Drive, Rm A370, MC 5317, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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Kaftanovskaya EM, Ng HH, Soula M, Rivas B, Myhr C, Ho BA, Cervantes BA, Shupe TD, Devarasetty M, Hu X, Xu X, Patnaik S, Wilson KJ, Barnaeva E, Ferrer M, Southall NT, Marugan JJ, Bishop CE, Agoulnik IU, Agoulnik AI. Therapeutic effects of a small molecule agonist of the relaxin receptor ML290 in liver fibrosis. FASEB J 2019; 33:12435-12446. [PMID: 31419161 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201901046r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fibrosis is an underlying cause of cirrhosis and hepatic failure resulting in end stage liver disease with limited pharmacological options. The beneficial effects of relaxin peptide treatment were demonstrated in clinically relevant animal models of liver fibrosis. However, the use of relaxin is problematic because of a short half-life. The aim of this study was to test the therapeutic effects of recently identified small molecule agonists of the human relaxin receptor, relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1). The lead compound of this series, ML290, was selected based on its effects on the expression of fibrosis-related genes in primary human stellate cells. RNA sequencing analysis of TGF-β1-activated LX-2 cells showed that ML290 treatment primarily affected extracellular matrix remodeling and cytokine signaling, with expression profiles indicating an antifibrotic effect of ML290. ML290 treatment in human liver organoids with LPS-induced fibrotic phenotype resulted in a significant reduction of type I collagen. The pharmacokinetics of ML290 in mice demonstrated its high stability in vivo, as evidenced by the sustained concentrations of compound in the liver. In mice expressing human RXFP1 gene treated with carbon tetrachloride, ML290 significantly reduced collagen content, α-smooth muscle actin expression, and cell proliferation around portal ducts. In conclusion, ML290 demonstrated antifibrotic effects in liver fibrosis.-Kaftanovskaya, E. M., Ng, H. H., Soula, M., Rivas, B., Myhr, C., Ho, B. A., Cervantes, B. A., Shupe, T. D., Devarasetty, M., Hu, X., Xu, X., Patnaik, S., Wilson, K. J., Barnaeva, E., Ferrer, M., Southall, N. T., Marugan, J. J., Bishop, C. E., Agoulnik, I. U., Agoulnik, A. I. Therapeutic effects of a small molecule agonist of the relaxin receptor ML290 in liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena M Kaftanovskaya
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Hooi Hooi Ng
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Mariluz Soula
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Bryan Rivas
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Courtney Myhr
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Brian A Ho
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Briana A Cervantes
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Thomas D Shupe
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mahesh Devarasetty
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Xin Hu
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Xin Xu
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Samarjit Patnaik
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Kenneth J Wilson
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Elena Barnaeva
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Marc Ferrer
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Noel T Southall
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Juan J Marugan
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Colin E Bishop
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Irina U Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
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Ng HH, Esteban-Lopez M, Agoulnik AI. Targeting the relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 1 and 2 with small molecule compounds. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 487:40-44. [PMID: 30590098 PMCID: PMC6451876 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The peptide hormone relaxin has beneficial roles in several organs through its action on its cognate G protein-coupled receptor, RXFP1. Relaxin administration is limited to intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, or spinal injection. Another drawback of peptide-based therapy is the short half-life, which requires continuous delivery of the drug to achieve efficient concentration in target organs. The discovery of a non-peptide small molecule agonist of RXFP1, ML290, provides an alternative to the natural ligand. This review summarizes the development of ML290 and its potential future therapeutic applications in various diseases, including liver fibrosis and cardiovascular diseases. We also discuss the development of small molecule agonists targeting the insulin-like 3 receptor, RXFP2, and propose the potential use of these small molecules in the context of bone and muscle remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hooi Hooi Ng
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
| | - Maria Esteban-Lopez
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
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Martin B, Romero G, Salama G. Cardioprotective actions of relaxin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 487:45-53. [PMID: 30625345 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Relaxin is a hormone of pregnancy first discovered for its ability to induce ligament relaxation in nonpregnant guinea pig and is important for softening of the birth canal during parturition, decidualization, implantation, nipple development and increased maternal renal perfusion, glomerular filtration, and cardiac output. Subsequently, relaxin has been shown to exert multiple beneficial cardiovascular effects during pathological events such as hypertension, atrial fibrillation, heart failure and myocardial infarction, including suppression of arrhythmia and inflammation, and reversal of fibrosis. Despite extensive studies, the mechanisms underlying relaxin's effects are not well understood. Relaxin signals primarily through its G protein coupled receptor, the relaxin family peptide receptor-1, to activate multiple signaling pathways and this review summarizes our understanding of these pathways as they relate to the cardioprotective actions of relaxin, focusing on relaxin's anti-fibrotic, anti-arrhythmic and anti-inflammatory properties. Further, this review includes a brief overview of relaxin in clinical trials for heart failure and progress in the development of relaxin mimetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Martin
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Guillermo Romero
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Guy Salama
- Department of Medicine, Heart and Vascular Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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7
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Recent developments in relaxin mimetics as therapeutics for cardiovascular diseases. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2019; 45:42-48. [PMID: 31048209 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2018] [Revised: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of mortality worldwide, accounting for almost 50% of all deaths globally. Vascular endothelial dysfunction and fibrosis are critical in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease. Relaxin, an insulin-like peptide, is known to have beneficial actions in the cardiovascular system through its vasoprotective and anti-fibrotic effects. However, relaxin has several limitations of peptide-based drugs such as poor oral bioavailability, laborious, and expensive to synthesize. This review will focus on recent developments in relaxin mimetics, their pharmacology, associated signalling mechanisms, and their therapeutic potential for the management and treatment of cardiovascular disease.
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8
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Hoare BL, Bruell S, Sethi A, Gooley PR, Lew MJ, Hossain MA, Inoue A, Scott DJ, Bathgate RAD. Multi-Component Mechanism of H2 Relaxin Binding to RXFP1 through NanoBRET Kinetic Analysis. iScience 2018; 11:93-113. [PMID: 30594862 PMCID: PMC6309025 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2018.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptide hormone H2 relaxin has demonstrated promise as a therapeutic, but mimetic development has been hindered by the poorly understood relaxin receptor RXFP1 activation mechanism. H2 relaxin is hypothesized to bind to two distinct ECD sites, which reorientates the N-terminal LDLa module to activate the transmembrane domain. Here we provide evidence for this model in live cells by measuring bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) between nanoluciferase-tagged RXFP1 constructs and fluorescently labeled H2 relaxin (NanoBRET). Additionally, we validate these results using the related RXFP2 receptor and chimeras with an inserted RXFP1-binding domain utilizing NanoBRET and nuclear magnetic resonance studies on recombinant proteins. We therefore provide evidence for the multi-component molecular mechanism of H2 relaxin binding to RXFP1 on the full-length receptor in cells. Also, we show the utility of NanoBRET real-time binding kinetics to reveal subtle binding complexities, which may be overlooked in traditional equilibrium binding assays. NanoBRET was used to assess relaxin binding kinetics to its receptor RXFP1 Binding on wild-type and mutant RXFP1 demonstrated a multi-component mechanism This binding mode was validated using RXFP2/RXFP1 chimeras and protein NMR studies NanoBRET binding can reveal subtle GPCR binding modes to aid drug development
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley L Hoare
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Shoni Bruell
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Ashish Sethi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Bio21 Molecular and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul R Gooley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Bio21 Molecular and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael J Lew
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Mohammed A Hossain
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
| | - Daniel J Scott
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Ross A D Bathgate
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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Abstract
The hormone relaxin has long been recognized for its involvement in maternal adaptation during pregnancy. However, discoveries during the past two decades on the mechanism of action of relaxin, its family of receptors, and newly described roles in attenuating ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, inflammation, and arrhythmias have prompted vast interest in exploring its therapeutic potential in cardiovascular disease. These observations inspired recently concluded clinical trials in patients with acute heart failure. This review discusses our current understanding of the protective signaling pathways elicited by relaxin in the heart, and highlights important new breakthroughs about relaxin signaling that may pave the way to more carefully designed future trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teja Devarakonda
- Pauley Heart Center, Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0204, USA
| | - Fadi N Salloum
- Pauley Heart Center, Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0204, USA.
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10
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McBride A, Hoy AM, Bamford MJ, Mossakowska DE, Ruediger MP, Griggs J, Desai S, Simpson K, Caballero-Hernandez I, Iredale JP, Pell T, Aucott RL, Holmes DS, Webster SP, Fallowfield JA. In search of a small molecule agonist of the relaxin receptor RXFP1 for the treatment of liver fibrosis. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10806. [PMID: 28883402 PMCID: PMC5589886 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10521-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptide hormone human relaxin-2 (H2-RLX) has emerged as a potential therapy for cardiovascular and fibrotic diseases, but its short in vivo half-life is an obstacle to long-term administration. The discovery of ML290 demonstrated that it is possible to identify small molecule agonists of the cognate G-protein coupled receptor for H2-RLX (relaxin family peptide receptor-1 (RXFP1)). In our efforts to generate a new medicine for liver fibrosis, we sought to identify improved small molecule functional mimetics of H2-RLX with selective, full agonist or positive allosteric modulator activity against RXFP1. First, we confirmed expression of RXFP1 in human diseased liver. We developed a robust cellular cAMP reporter assay of RXFP1 signaling in HEK293 cells transiently expressing RXFP1. A high-throughput screen did not identify further specific agonists or positive allosteric modulators of RXFP1, affirming the low druggability of this receptor. As an alternative approach, we generated novel ML290 analogues and tested their activity in the HEK293-RXFP1 cAMP assay and the human hepatic cell line LX-2. Differences in activity of compounds on cAMP activation compared with changes in expression of fibrotic markers indicate the need to better understand cell- and tissue-specific signaling mechanisms and their disease-relevant phenotypes in order to enable drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew McBride
- BHF/University of Edinburgh Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Anna M Hoy
- MRC/University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Mark J Bamford
- Discovery Partnerships with Academia DPU, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Danuta E Mossakowska
- Discovery Partnerships with Academia DPU, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Martin P Ruediger
- Platform Technologies and Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Jeremy Griggs
- Discovery Partnerships with Academia DPU, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Sapna Desai
- Platform Technologies and Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Kate Simpson
- Platform Technologies and Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Ivan Caballero-Hernandez
- GlaxoSmithKline, Parque Tecnológico de Madrid, Calle de Severo Ochoa, 2, 28760, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - John P Iredale
- MRC/University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Theresa Pell
- Platform Technologies and Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Rebecca L Aucott
- MRC/University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Duncan S Holmes
- Discovery Partnerships with Academia DPU, Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Scott P Webster
- BHF/University of Edinburgh Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Jonathan A Fallowfield
- MRC/University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
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11
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ML290 is a biased allosteric agonist at the relaxin receptor RXFP1. Sci Rep 2017; 7:2968. [PMID: 28592882 PMCID: PMC5462828 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02916-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of the relaxin receptor RXFP1 has been associated with improved survival in acute heart failure. ML290 is a small molecule RXFP1 agonist with simple structure, long half-life and high stability. Here we demonstrate that ML290 is a biased agonist in human cells expressing RXFP1 with long-term beneficial actions on markers of fibrosis in human cardiac fibroblasts (HCFs). ML290 did not directly compete with orthosteric relaxin binding and did not affect binding kinetics, but did increase binding to RXFP1. In HEK-RXFP1 cells, ML290 stimulated cAMP accumulation and p38MAPK phosphorylation but not cGMP accumulation or ERK1/2 phosphorylation although prior addition of ML290 increased p-ERK1/2 responses to relaxin. In human primary vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells that endogenously express RXFP1, ML290 increased both cAMP and cGMP accumulation but not p-ERK1/2. In HCFs, ML290 increased cGMP accumulation but did not affect p-ERK1/2 and given chronically activated MMP-2 expression and inhibited TGF-β1-induced Smad2 and Smad3 phosphorylation. In vascular cells, ML290 was 10x more potent for cGMP accumulation and p-p38MAPK than for cAMP accumulation. ML290 caused strong coupling of RXFP1 to Gαs and GαoB but weak coupling to Gαi3. ML290 exhibited signalling bias at RXFP1 possessing a signalling profile indicative of vasodilator and anti-fibrotic properties.
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Kaftanovskaya EM, Soula M, Myhr C, Ho BA, Moore SN, Yoo C, Cervantes B, How J, Marugan J, Agoulnik IU, Agoulnik AI. Human Relaxin Receptor Is Fully Functional in Humanized Mice and Is Activated by Small Molecule Agonist ML290. J Endocr Soc 2017; 1:712-725. [PMID: 28825052 PMCID: PMC5562169 DOI: 10.1210/js.2017-00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Relaxin, a small peptide hormone of the insulin/relaxin family, demonstrated antifibrotic, organ protective, vasodilatory, and proangiogenic properties in clinical trials and several animal models of human diseases. Relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1) is the relaxin cognate G protein-coupled receptor. We have identified a series of small molecule agonists of human RXFP1. The lead compound ML290 demonstrated preferred absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion profiles, is easy to synthesize, and has high stability in vivo. However, ML290 does not activate rodent RXFP1s and therefore cannot be tested in common preclinical animal models. Here we describe the production and analysis of a mouse transgenic model, a knock-out/knock-in of the human RXFP1 (hRXFP1) complementary DNA into the mouse Rxfp1 (mRxfp1) gene. Insertion of the vector into the mRxfp1 locus caused disruption of mRxfp1 and expression of hRXFP1. The transcriptional expression pattern of the hRXFP1 allele was similar to mRxfp1. Female mice homozygous for hRXFP1 showed relaxation of the pubic symphysis at parturition and normal development of mammary nipples and vaginal epithelium, indicating full complementation of mRxfp1 gene ablation. Intravenous injection of relaxin led to an increase in heart rate in humanized and wild-type females but not in Rxfp1-deficient mice, whereas ML290 increased heart rate in humanized but not wild-type animals, suggesting specific target engagement by ML290. Moreover, intraperitoneal injection of ML290 caused a decrease in blood osmolality. Taken together, our data show humanized RXFP1 mice can be used for testing relaxin receptor modulators in various preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena M Kaftanovskaya
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Mariluz Soula
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Courtney Myhr
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Brian A Ho
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Stefanie N Moore
- Department of Biostatistics, Robert Stempel College of Public Health and Social Work, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Changwon Yoo
- Department of Biostatistics, Robert Stempel College of Public Health and Social Work, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Briana Cervantes
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Javier How
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Juan Marugan
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20850
| | - Irina U Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199
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Ivell R, Agoulnik AI, Anand‐Ivell R. Relaxin-like peptides in male reproduction - a human perspective. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:990-1001. [PMID: 27933606 PMCID: PMC5406299 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The relaxin family of peptide hormones and their cognate GPCRs are becoming physiologically well-characterized in the cardiovascular system and particularly in female reproductive processes. Much less is known about the physiology and pharmacology of these peptides in male reproduction, particularly as regards humans. H2-relaxin is involved in prostate function and growth, while insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) is a major product of the testicular Leydig cells and, in the adult, appears to modulate steroidogenesis and germ cell survival. In the fetus, INSL3 is a key hormone expressed shortly after sex determination and is responsible for the first transabdominal phase of testicular descent. Importantly, INSL3 is becoming a very useful constitutive biomarker reflecting both fetal and post-natal development. Nothing is known about roles for INSL4 in male reproduction and only very little about relaxin-3, which is mostly considered as a brain peptide, or INSL5. The former is expressed at very low levels in the testes, but has no known physiology there, whereas the INSL5 knockout mouse does exhibit a testicular phenotype with mild effects on spermatogenesis, probably due to a disruption of glucose homeostasis. INSL6 is a major product of male germ cells, although it is relatively unexplored with regard to its physiology or pharmacology, except that in mice disruption of the INSL6 gene leads to a disruption of spermatogenesis. Clinically, relaxin analogues may be useful in the control of prostate cancer, and both relaxin and INSL3 have been considered as sperm adjuvants for in vitro fertilization. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Recent Progress in the Understanding of Relaxin Family Peptides and their Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.10/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ivell
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamLE12 5RDUK
- School of Veterinary and Medical SciencesUniversity of NottinghamNottinghamLE12 5RDUK
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of MedicineFlorida International UniversityMiamiFLUSA
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Agoulnik AI, Agoulnik IU, Hu X, Marugan J. Synthetic non-peptide low molecular weight agonists of the relaxin receptor 1. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:977-989. [PMID: 27771940 PMCID: PMC5406302 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Relaxin is a small heterodimeric peptide hormone of the insulin/relaxin superfamily produced mainly in female and male reproductive organs. It has potent antifibrotic, vasodilatory and angiogenic effects and regulates the normal function of various physiological systems. Preclinical studies and recent clinical trials have shown the promise of recombinant relaxin as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of cardiovascular and fibrotic diseases. However, there are the universal drawbacks of peptide-based pharmacology that apply to relaxin: a short half-life in vivo requires its continuous delivery, and there are high costs of production, storage and treatment, as well as the possibility of immune responses. All these issues can be resolved by the development of low non-peptide MW agonists of the relaxin receptors which are stable, bioavailable, easily synthesized and specific. In this review, we describe the discovery and characterization of the first series of such compounds. The lead compound, ML290, binds to an allosteric site of the relaxin GPCR, RXFP1. ML290 shows high activity and efficacy, measured by cAMP response, in cells expressing endogenous or transfected RXFP1. Relaxin-like effects of ML290 were shown in various functional cellular assays in vitro. ML290 has excellent absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion properties and in vivo stability. The identified series of low MW agonists does not activate rodent RXFP1 receptors and thus, the production of a RXFP1 humanized mouse model is needed for preclinical studies. The future analysis and clinical perspectives of relaxin receptor agonists are discussed. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Recent Progress in the Understanding of Relaxin Family Peptides and their Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.10/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of MedicineFlorida International UniversityMiamiFLUSA
| | - Irina U Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of MedicineFlorida International UniversityMiamiFLUSA
| | - Xin Hu
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational SciencesNational Institutes of HealthRockvilleMDUSA
| | - Juan Marugan
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational SciencesNational Institutes of HealthRockvilleMDUSA
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Pini A, Boccalini G, Baccari MC, Becatti M, Garella R, Fiorillo C, Calosi L, Bani D, Nistri S. Protection from cigarette smoke-induced vascular injury by recombinant human relaxin-2 (serelaxin). J Cell Mol Med 2016; 20:891-902. [PMID: 26915460 PMCID: PMC4831370 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Smoking is regarded as a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). This study investigates whether serelaxin (RLX, recombinant human relaxin-2) endowed with promising therapeutic properties in CVD, can be credited of a protective effect against cigarette smoke (CS)-induced vascular damage and dysfunction. Guinea pigs exposed daily to CS for 8 weeks were treated with vehicle or RLX, delivered by osmotic pumps at daily doses of 1 or 10 μg. Controls were non-smoking animals. Other studies were performed on primary guinea pig aortic endothelial (GPAE) cells, challenged with CS extracts (CSE) in the absence and presence of 100 ng/ml (17 nmol/l) RLX. In aortic specimens from CS-exposed guinea pigs, both the contractile and the relaxant responses to phenylephrine and acetylcholine, respectively, were significantly reduced in amplitude and delayed, in keeping with the observed adverse remodelling of the aortic wall, endothelial injury and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) down-regulation. RLX at both doses maintained the aortic contractile and relaxant responses to a control-like pattern and counteracted aortic wall remodelling and endothelial derangement. The experiments with GPAE cells showed that CSE significantly decreased cell viability and eNOS expression and promoted apoptosis by sparkling oxygen free radical-related cytotoxicity, while RLX counterbalanced the adverse effects of CSE. These findings demonstrate that RLX is capable of counteracting CS-mediated vascular damage and dysfunction by reducing oxidative stress, thus adding a tile to the growing mosaic of the beneficial effects of RLX in CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Pini
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Section of Anatomy & Histology & Research Unit of Histology & Embryology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Giulia Boccalini
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Section of Anatomy & Histology & Research Unit of Histology & Embryology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | | | - Matteo Becatti
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Biomedical Sciences 'Mario Serio', Section of Biochemistry, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Rachele Garella
- Section of Physiology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Claudia Fiorillo
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Biomedical Sciences 'Mario Serio', Section of Biochemistry, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Laura Calosi
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Section of Anatomy & Histology & Research Unit of Histology & Embryology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Daniele Bani
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Section of Anatomy & Histology & Research Unit of Histology & Embryology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Silvia Nistri
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Section of Anatomy & Histology & Research Unit of Histology & Embryology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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Hu X, Myhr C, Huang Z, Xiao J, Barnaeva E, Ho BA, Agoulnik IU, Ferrer M, Marugan JJ, Southall N, Agoulnik AI. Structural Insights into the Activation of Human Relaxin Family Peptide Receptor 1 by Small-Molecule Agonists. Biochemistry 2016; 55:1772-83. [PMID: 26866459 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b01195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The GPCR relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1) mediates the action of relaxin peptide hormone, including its tissue remodeling and antifibrotic effects. The peptide has a short half-life in plasma, limiting its therapeutic utility. However, small-molecule agonists of human RXFP1 can overcome this limitation and may provide a useful therapeutic approach, especially for chronic diseases such as heart failure and fibrosis. The first small-molecule agonists of RXFP1 were recently identified from a high-throughput screening, using a homogeneous cell-based cAMP assay. Optimization of the hit compounds resulted in a series of highly potent and RXFP1 selective agonists with low cytotoxicity, and excellent in vitro ADME and pharmacokinetic properties. Here, we undertook extensive site-directed mutagenesis studies in combination with computational modeling analysis to probe the molecular basis of the small-molecule binding to RXFP1. The results showed that the agonists bind to an allosteric site of RXFP1 in a manner that closely interacts with the seventh transmembrane domain (TM7) and the third extracellular loop (ECL3). Several residues were determined to play an important role in the agonist binding and receptor activation, including a hydrophobic region at TM7 consisting of W664, F668, and L670. The G659/T660 motif within ECL3 is crucial to the observed species selectivity of the agonists for RXFP1. The receptor binding and activation effects by the small molecule ML290 were compared with the cognate ligand, relaxin, providing valuable insights on the structural basis and molecular mechanism of receptor activation and selectivity for RXFP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hu
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health , 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | | | | | - Jingbo Xiao
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health , 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Elena Barnaeva
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health , 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | | | | | - Marc Ferrer
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health , 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Juan J Marugan
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health , 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | - Noel Southall
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health , 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
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