Targeting C-Type Lectin Receptors for Cancer Immunity

An insight into the role of innate immune cells in breast tumor microenvironment

The immune background of breast cancer is highly heterogeneous and the immune system of the human body plays a dual role by both promoting and suppressing its progression. Innate immune cells are the first line of defense in the immune system and impart protection by identifying and interacting with foreign pathogens and cancer cells. Different innate immune cells like natural killer cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and myeloid suppressor cells take part in hosting the cancer cells. Autophagy is another key component inside the tumor microenvironment and is linked to the disintegration and recycling of cellular components. Within the tumor microenvironment autophagy is involved with Pattern Recognition Receptors and inflammation. Various clinical studies have shown prominent results where innate immune cells and autophagy in combination are used for pathogen as well as cancer cell clearance. However, it is necessary to comprehend the complex tumor microenvironment so that different therapeutic approaches can be developed to enhance the suppressive actions of the cells toward breast cancer cells. In this review article, the complex interaction between immune cells and breast cancer cells and their role in developing effective immunotherapies to improve patient outcomes are discussed in detail.

Mannose and Lactobionic Acid in Nasal Vaccination: Enhancing Antigen Delivery via C-Type Lectin Receptors

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Nasal vaccines are a promising strategy for enhancing mucosal immune responses and preventing diseases at mucosal sites by stimulating the secretion of secretory IgA, which is crucial for early pathogen neutralization. However, designing effective nasal vaccines is challenging due to the complex immunological mechanisms in the nasal mucosa, which must balance protection and tolerance against constant exposure to inhaled pathogens. The nasal route also presents unique formulation and delivery hurdles, such as the mucous layer hindering antigen penetration and immune cell access.

METHODS

This review focuses on cutting-edge approaches to enhance nasal vaccine delivery, particularly those targeting C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) like the mannose receptor and macrophage galactose-type lectin (MGL) receptor. It elucidates the roles of these receptors in antigen recognition and uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), providing insights into optimizing vaccine delivery.

RESULTS

While a comprehensive examination of targeted glycoconjugate vaccine development is outside the scope of this study, we provide key examples of glycan-based ligands, such as lactobionic acid and mannose, which can selectively target CLRs in the nasal mucosa.

CONCLUSIONS

With the rise of new viral infections, this review aims to facilitate the design of innovative vaccines and equip researchers, clinicians, and vaccine developers with the knowledge to enhance immune defenses against respiratory pathogens, ultimately protecting public health.

Glycosylation in cancer as a source of biomarkers

INTRODUCTION

Glycosylation, the process of glycan synthesis and attachment to target molecules, is a crucial and common post-translational modification (PTM) in mammalian cells. It affects the protein's hydrophilicity, charge, solubility, structure, localization, function, and protection from proteolysis. Aberrant glycosylation in proteins can reveal new detection and therapeutic Glyco-biomarkers, which help to improve accurate early diagnosis and personalized treatment. This review underscores the pivotal role of glycans and glycoproteins as a source of biomarkers in human diseases, particularly cancer.

AREAS COVERED

This review delves into the implications of glycosylation, shedding light on its intricate roles in cancer-related cellular processes influencing biomarkers. It is underpinned by a thorough examination of literature up to June 2024 in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar; concentrating on the terms: (Glycosylation[Title/Abstract]) OR (Glycan[Title/Abstract]) OR (glycoproteomics[Title/Abstract]) OR (Proteoglycans[Title/Abstract]) OR (Glycomarkers[Title/Abstract]) AND (Cancer[Title/Abstract]) AND ((Diagno*[Title/Abstract]) OR (Progno*[Title/Abstract])).

EXPERT OPINION

Glyco-biomarkers enhance early cancer detection, allow early intervention, and improve patient prognoses. However, the abundance and complex dynamic glycan structure may make their scientific and clinical application difficult. This exploration of glycosylation signatures in cancer biomarkers can provide a detailed view of cancer etiology and instill hope in the potential of glycosylation to revolutionize cancer research.

Navigating Skin Delivery Horizon: An Innovative Approach in Pioneering Surface Modification of Ultradeformable Vesicles

In the dynamic landscape of pharmaceutical advancements, the strategic application of active pharmaceutical ingredients to the skin through topical and transdermal routes has emerged as a compelling avenue for therapeutic interventions. This non-invasive approach has garnered considerable attention in recent decades, with numerous attempts yielding approaches and demonstrating substantial clinical potential. However, the formidable barrier function of the skin, mainly the confinement of drugs on the upper layers of the stratum corneum, poses a substantial hurdle, impeding successful drug delivery via this route. Ultradeformable vesicles/carriers (UDVs), positioned within the expansive realm of nanomedicine, have emerged as a promising tool for developing advanced dermal and transdermal therapies. The current review focuses on improving the passive dermal and transdermal targeting capacity by integrating functionalization groups by strategic surface modification of drug-loaded UDV nanocarriers. The present review discusses the details of case studies of different surface-modified UDVs with their bonding strategies and covers the recent patents and clinical trials. The design of surface modifications holds promise for overcoming existing challenges in drug delivery by marking a significant leap forward in the field of pharmaceutical sciences.

Group XIV C-type lectins: emerging targets in tumor angiogenesis

C-type lectins, distinguished by a C-type lectin binding domain (CTLD), are an evolutionarily conserved superfamily of glycoproteins that are implicated in a broad range of physiologic processes. The group XIV subfamily of CTLDs are comprised of CD93, CD248/endosialin, CLEC14a, and thrombomodulin/CD141, and have important roles in creating and maintaining blood vessels, organizing extracellular matrix, and balancing pro- and anti-coagulative processes. As such, dysregulation in the expression and downstream signaling pathways of these proteins often lead to clinically relevant pathology. Recently, group XIV CTLDs have been shown to play significant roles in cancer progression, namely tumor angiogenesis and metastatic dissemination. Interest in therapeutically targeting tumor vasculature is increasing and the search for novel angiogenic targets is ongoing. Group XIV CTLDs have emerged as key moderators of tumor angiogenesis and metastasis, thus offering substantial therapeutic promise for the clinic. Herein, we review our current knowledge of group XIV CTLDs, discuss each's role in malignancy and associated potential therapeutic avenues, briefly discuss group XIV CTLDs in the context of two other relevant lectin families, and offer future direction in further elucidating mechanisms by which these proteins function and facilitate tumor growth.

BET inhibitors drive Natural Killer activation in non-small cell lung cancer via BRD4 and SMAD3

Non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is the most common lung cancer and one of the pioneer tumors in which immunotherapy has radically changed patients' outcomes. However, several issues are emerging and their implementation is required to optimize immunotherapy-based protocols. In this work, we investigate the ability of the Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal protein inhibitors (BETi) to stimulate a proficient anti-tumor immune response toward NSCLC. By using in vitro, ex-vivo, and in vivo models, we demonstrate that these epigenetic drugs specifically enhance Natural Killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity. BETi down-regulate a large set of NK inhibitory receptors, including several immune checkpoints (ICs), that are direct targets of the transcriptional cooperation between the BET protein BRD4 and the transcription factor SMAD3. Overall, BETi orchestrate an epigenetic reprogramming that leads to increased recognition of tumor cells and the killing ability of NK cells. Our results unveil the opportunity to exploit and repurpose these drugs in combination with immunotherapy.

CLEC11A expression as a prognostic biomarker in correlation to immune cells of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is a prevalent malignant cancer characterized by a poor survival rate. The C-type lectin domain family 11 member A (CLEC11A) is part of the C-type lectin superfamily, and its dysregulation has been implicated in the progression of several cancers. The specific role of CLEC11A and its association with immune infiltration in GC, however, remains unclear. In this study, we employed The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, Tumor IMmune Estimation Resource (TIMER) database, Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA), UALCAN, Kaplan-Meier plotter databases, gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), and the CIBERSORT algorithm to investigate CLEC11A expression, its prognostic significance, its association with tumor immune infiltration, and gene function enrichment in GC. We conducted western blotting, Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), wound healing, and transwell assays to validate CLEC11A's function. We found that CLEC11A expression was significantly elevated in GC when compared to adjacent non-tumor tissues. Elevated CLEC11A expression was strongly associated with poor survival outcomes and advanced clinicopathological stages.  Moreover, heightened CLEC11A expression positively correlated with immunomodulators, chemokines, and the infiltration of immune cells, especially M2 macrophages, in GC. Additionally, CLEC11A silencing suppressed GC cells proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro. Our results elucidate the functions of CLEC11A in GC, suggesting its potential as a valuable prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for GC immunotherapy.

CLEC12A sensitizes differentially responsive breast cancer cells to the anti-cancer effects of artemisinin by repressing autophagy and inflammation

Background

Enhanced inflammatory responses promote tumor progression by activating toll-like receptors (TLRs), which in turn are inhibited by C-type lectin like receptors (CTLRs), like CLEC12A. Although the presence of CLEC12A in acute myeloid leukemia is well established, its role in non-hematopoietic tumors is still obscure. In hematopoietic tumors, CLEC12A mostly inhibits TLRs and modulates inflammatory responses via NF-κB signaling. In this study, the fate of tumor progression was determined by modulating CLEC12A using artemisinin (ART), a FDA-approved anti-malarial drug, known for its anti-cancer and immunomodulatory properties with minimal adverse effects on normal cells.

Method

Effects of ART were primarily determined on hematological factors and primary metastatic organs, such as lungs, kidney and liver in normal and tumor-bearing BALB/c mice. Tumor-bearing mice were treated with different concentrations of ART and expressions of CLEC12A and associated downstream components were determined. CLEC12A was overexpressed in MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells, and the effects of ART were analyzed in the overexpressed cells. Silencing TLR4 using vivo morpholino was performed to elucidate its role in tumor progression in response to ART. Finally, CLEC12A modulation by ART was evaluated in the resident cancer stem cell (CSC) population.

Results

ART did not alter physiology of normal mice, in contrast to tumor-bearing mice, where ART led to tumor regression. In addition, ART reduced expression of CLEC12A. Expectedly, TLR4 expression increased, but surprisingly, that of NF-κB (RelA) and JNK/pJNK decreased, along with reduced inflammation, reduced autophagy and increased apoptosis. All the above observations reverted on overexpression of CLEC12A in MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells. Inhibition of TLR4, however, indicated no change in the expressions of CLEC12A, NF-κB, or apoptotic markers. The effect of ART showed a similar trend in the CSC population as in cancer cells.

Conclusion

This study, for the first time, confirmed a differential role of CLEC12A in non-hematopoietic tumor and cancer stem cells in response to ART. Subsequent interaction and modulation of CLEC12A with ART induced tumor cell death and abrogation of CSCs, confirming a more comprehensive tumor therapy with reduced risk of recurrence. Therefore, ART may be repurposed as an effective drug for cancer treatment in future.

Lactose-Functionalized Carbosilane Glycodendrimers Are Highly Potent Multivalent Ligands for Galectin-9 Binding: Increased Glycan Affinity to Galectins Correlates with Aggregation Behavior

Galectins, the glycan binding proteins, and their respective carbohydrate ligands represent a unique fundamental regulatory network modulating a plethora of biological processes. The advances in galectin-targeted therapy must be based on a deep understanding of the mechanism of ligand-protein recognition. Carbosilane dendrimers, the well-defined and finely tunable nanoscaffolds with low toxicity, are promising for multivalent carbohydrate ligand presentation to target galectin receptors. The study discloses a synthetic method for two types of lactose-functionalized carbosilane glycodendrimers (Lac-CS-DDMs). Furthermore, we report their outstanding, dendritic effect-driven affinity to tandem-type galectins, especially Gal-9. In the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the affinity of the third-generation multivalent dendritic ligand bearing 32 lactose units to Gal-9 reached nanomolar values (IC50 = 970 nM), being a 1400-fold more effective inhibitor than monovalent lactose for this protein. This demonstrates a game-changing impact of multivalent presentation on the inhibitory effect of a ligand as simple as lactose. Moreover, using DLS hydrodynamic diameter measurements, we correlated the increased affinity of the glycodendrimer ligands to Gal-3 and Gal-8 but especially to Gal-9 with the formation of relatively uniform and stable galectin/Lac-CS-DDM aggregates.

Integrated Analysis of Gene Expression and Protein–Protein Interaction with Tensor Decomposition

Integration of gene expression (GE) and protein–protein interaction (PPI) is not straightforward because the former is provided as a matrix, whereas the latter is provided as a network. In many cases, genes processed with GE analysis are refined further based on a PPI network or vice versa. This is hardly regarded as a true integration of GE and PPI. To address this problem, we proposed a tensor decomposition (TD)-based method that can integrate GE and PPI prior to any analyses where PPI is also formatted as a matrix to which singular value decomposition (SVD) is applied. Integrated analyses with TD improved the coincidence between vectors attributed to samples and class labels over 27 cancer types retrieved from The Cancer Genome Atlas Program (TCGA) toward five class labels. Enrichment using genes selected with this strategy was also improved with the integration using TD. The PPI network associated with the information on the strength of the PPI can improve the performance than PPI that stores only if the interaction exists in individual pairs. In addition, even restricting genes to the intersection of GE and PPI can improve coincidence and enrichment.

Bio-inspired glycosylated nano-hydroxyapatites enhance endogenous bone regeneration by modulating macrophage M2 polarization

A macrophage-associated immune response is vital in bone regeneration. Mannose receptor (MR), a macrophage pattern-recognition receptor, is crucial for the maintenance of immune homeostasis. Here, we designed MR-targeted glycosylated nano-hydroxyapatites (GHANPs) to reprogram macrophages into polarized M2s, promoting bone regeneration by improving the osteoimmune microenvironment. The prepared GHANPs induced macrophage M2 polarization, which then promoted osteoblastic differentiation of stem cells. Further, the mechanistic study showed that GHANPs might influence macrophage polarization by modulating cell metabolism, including enhancing mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and activating autophagy. Finally, a rat cranial defect model was used to verify the effect of GHANPs on endogenous bone regeneration in vivo, revealing that GHANPs promoted bone regeneration within the defect and increased the ratio of M2/M1 macrophages in early bone repair. Our results indicate that the MR-targeted macrophage M2 polarization strategy is promising in endogenous bone regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Macrophage is a pivotal immunity component for bone regeneration. A switch to M2 macrophage has been considered to contribute to osteogenesis. For inducing macrophage M2 polarization, an effective strategy to overcome off-target effects and insufficient specificity is a critical challenge. The mannose receptor on the surface of macrophages has been involved in regulating macrophage directional polarization. The glucomannan presented on the nano-hydroxyapatite rods acts as ligands targeting macrophage mannose receptors to promote their M2 polarization, improving the immunomicroenvironment and achieving bone regeneration. This approach has the advantage of easy preparation, specific regulation, and safety.

Dendritic cell subsets in cancer immunity and tumor antigen sensing

Dendritic cells (DCs) exhibit a specialized antigen-presenting function and play crucial roles in both innate and adaptive immune responses. Due to their ability to cross-present tumor cell-associated antigens to naïve T cells, DCs are instrumental in the generation of specific T-cell-mediated antitumor effector responses in the control of tumor growth and tumor cell dissemination. Within an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, DC antitumor functions can, however, be severely impaired. In this review, we focus on the mechanisms of DC capture and activation by tumor cell antigens and the role of the tumor microenvironment in shaping DC functions, taking advantage of recent studies showing the phenotype acquisition, transcriptional state and functional programs revealed by scRNA-seq analysis. The therapeutic potential of DC-mediated tumor antigen sensing in priming antitumor immunity is also discussed.

C-Type Lectin Receptors-Triggered Antifungal Immunity May Synergize with and Optimize the Effects of Immunotherapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors of the digestive system worldwide, and there is a lack of effective treatment for late-stage HCC. Recent experimental studies have demonstrated that dysfunction of the intestinal flora has a significant impact on hepatocarcinogenesis. The pathophysiological link between the intestine, its microbiota, and the liver has been described as the "gut-liver axis". Dysbiosis of the intestinal flora and increased permeability of the intestinal wall are closely associated with liver pathology through the immune response. The "gut-liver axis" theory has been applied to the clinical study of the pathogenesis and treatment of HCC. The intestinal fungal community, as part of the gut microbiome, has a significant impact on human health and disease, while relatively little research has been done in HCC. In this study, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the expression and potential biological functions of the fungal recognition receptors C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) (Dectin-1, Dectin-2, Dectin-3, and Mincle) in HCC. We found that CLRs were downregulated in HCC, and their expressions were correlated with the clinical prognosis of HCC patients. Further studies suggested that the expression of CLRs were significantly correlated with immune infiltration and immunotherapy efficacy in HCC. Based on previous studies and our findings, we hypothesize that intestinal fungal communities and CLRs-triggered antifungal immunity have a key role in the pathogenesis of HCC, and these findings may provide new perspectives and targets for HCC immunotherapy.

CLEC-1 is a death sensor that limits antigen cross-presentation by dendritic cells and represents a target for cancer immunotherapy

Tumors exploit numerous immune checkpoints, including those deployed by myeloid cells to curtail antitumor immunity. Here, we show that the C-type lectin receptor CLEC-1 expressed by myeloid cells senses dead cells killed by programmed necrosis. Moreover, we identified Tripartite Motif Containing 21 (TRIM21) as an endogenous ligand overexpressed in various cancers. We observed that the combination of CLEC-1 blockade with chemotherapy prolonged mouse survival in tumor models. Loss of CLEC-1 reduced the accumulation of immunosuppressive myeloid cells in tumors and invigorated the activation state of dendritic cells (DCs), thereby increasing T cell responses. Mechanistically, we found that the absence of CLEC-1 increased the cross-presentation of dead cell-associated antigens by conventional type-1 DCs. We identified antihuman CLEC-1 antagonist antibodies able to enhance antitumor immunity in CLEC-1 humanized mice. Together, our results demonstrate that CLEC-1 acts as an immune checkpoint in myeloid cells and support CLEC-1 as a novel target for cancer immunotherapy.

Tumor Cell-Surface Binding of Immune Stimulating Polymeric Glyco-Adjuvant via Cysteine-Reactive Pyridyl Disulfide Promotes Antitumor Immunity

Immune stimulating agents like Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonists induce potent antitumor immunity but are limited in their therapeutic window due to off-target immune activation. Here, we developed a polymeric delivery platform that binds excess unpaired cysteines on tumor cell surfaces and debris to adjuvant tumor neoantigens as an in situ vaccine. The metabolic and enzymatic dysregulation in the tumor microenvironment produces these exofacial free thiols, which can undergo efficient disulfide exchange with thiol-reactive pyridyl disulfide moieties upon intratumoral injection. These functional monomers are incorporated into a copolymer with pendant mannose groups and TLR7 agonists to target both antigen and adjuvant to antigen presenting cells. When tethered in the tumor, the polymeric glyco-adjuvant induces a robust antitumor response and prolongs survival of tumor-bearing mice, including in checkpoint-resistant B16F10 melanoma. The construct additionally reduces systemic toxicity associated with clinically relevant small molecule TLR7 agonists.

Immunomodulatory Role of Surfactant Protein-D in a Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) Model

Surfactant protein D (SP-D), a pattern recognition molecule, is emerging as a potent anti-tumoural innate immune defense molecule in a range of cancers. Previously, SP-D expression was found to be significantly downregulated at the malignant sites of human prostate adenocarcinoma and associated with an increasing Gleason score and severity. We recently reported selective induction of intrinsic apoptosis by a recombinant fragment of human SP-D (rfhSP-D) in the human Prostate cancer (PCa) biopsy explants and cells with glucose regulated protein of 78 (GRP78) as one of the key interacting partners. The present study evaluated the expression of SP-D in early and advanced stages of PCa using transgenic adenocarcinoma of mouse prostate (TRAMP) model. Both early and late stages of PCa showed significantly decreased SP-D mRNA expression and increased proteolytic degradation of SP-D protein. Systemic and tumoural immunophenotyping of TRAMP model revealed increased serine proteases producing granulocytes and polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN MDSCs) in the late stage; the serine proteases secreted by these cells could be involved in the degradation of SP-D. Susceptibility of rfhSP-D to elastase-mediated proteolysis provided the rationale to use an elastase-inhibitor to sustain intact rfhSP-D in the tumour microenvironment. The study revealed an immunomodulatory potential of rfhSP-D and elastase inhibitor, sivelestat, to induce macrophage polarization towards M1 with downregulation of PMN MDSCs in ex-vivo cultured TRAMP tumours. Furthermore, rfhSP-D induced immunogenic cell death in murine PCa cells and in TRAMP explants. The findings highlight that SP-D plays an anti-tumourigenic role in PCa by inducing immunogenic cell death and immunomodulation while the prostate tumour milieu adversely impacts SP-D by inhibiting its transcription, and enhancing its proteolytic degradation. Transformation of an immunologically "cold tumour" into a "hot tumour" implicates therapeutic potential of rfhSP-D in PCa.

Context-dependent functions of pattern recognition receptors in cancer

The immune system plays a critical role in shaping all facets of cancer, from the early initiation stage through to metastatic disease and resistance to therapy. Our understanding of the importance of the adaptive arm of the immune system in antitumour immunity has led to the implementation of immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors in numerous cancers, albeit with differing efficacy. By contrast, the clinical utility of innate immunity in cancer has not been exploited, despite dysregulated innate immunity being a feature of at least one-third of all cancers associated with tumour-promoting chronic inflammation. The past two decades have seen innate immune pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) emerge as critical regulators of the immune response to microbial infection and host tissue damage. More recently, it has become apparent that in many cancer types, PRRs play a central role in modulating a vast array of tumour-inhibiting and tumour-promoting cellular responses both in immune cells within the tumour microenvironment and directly in cancer cells. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of the fast-evolving field of PRRs in cancer, and discuss the potential to target PRRs for drug development and biomarker discovery in a wide range of oncology settings.

Carbohydrates based stimulus responsive nanocarriers for cancer-targeted chemotherapy: A review of current practices

INTRODUCTION

Many nanocarriers have been developed to react physicochemically to exterior stimuli like ultrasonic, light, heat, and magnetic fields, along with various internal stimuli including pH, hypoxia, enzyme, and redox potential. Nanocarriers are capable to respond various stimuli within the cancer cells to enable on-demand drug delivery, activation of bioactive compounds, controlled drug release, and targeting ligands, as well as size, charge, and conformation conversion, enabling sensing and signaling, overcoming multidrug resistance, accurate diagnosis, and precision therapy.

AREAS COVERED

Carbohydrates are ubiquitous biomolecules with a high proclivity for supramolecular network formation. Numerous carbohydrate-based nanomaterials have been used in biological solicitations and stimuli-based responses. Particular emphasis has been placed on the utilization of carbohydrate-based NPs and nanogels in various fields including imaging, drug administration, and tissue engineering. Because the assembly process is irreversible, carbohydrate-based systems are excellent ingredients for the development of stimulus-responsive nanocarriers for cancer-targeted chemotherapy. This review aims to summarise current research on carbohydrate-based nanomaterials, with an emphasis on stimuli-sensitive nanocarriers for cancer-targeted chemotherapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Carbohydrates-based stimulus-responsive nanomaterials have been proved highly efficient for targeted delivery of anticancer drugs, thus leading to effective chemotherapy with minimum off-target effects.

Subtype-Specific Surface Proteins on Adipose Tissue Macrophages and Their Association to Obesity-Induced Insulin Resistance

A chronic low-grade inflammation, originating in the adipose tissue, is considered a driver of obesity-associated insulin resistance. Macrophage composition in white adipose tissue is believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases, but a detailed characterization of pro- and anti-inflammatory adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) in human obesity and how they are distributed in visceral- and subcutaneous adipose depots is lacking. In this study, we performed a surface proteome screening of pro- and anti-inflammatory ATMs in both subcutaneous- (SAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and evaluated their relationship with systemic insulin resistance. From the proteomics screen we found novel surface proteins specific to M1-like- and M2-like macrophages, and we identified depot-specific immunophenotypes in SAT and VAT. Furthermore, we found that insulin resistance, assessed by HOMA-IR, was positively associated with a relative increase in pro-inflammatory M1-like macrophages in both SAT and VAT.

Immune Regulatory Processes of the Tumor Microenvironment under Malignant Conditions

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a critical regulator of tumor growth, progression, and metastasis. Since immune cells represent a large fraction of the TME, they play a key role in mediating pro- and anti-tumor immune responses. Immune escape, which suppresses anti-tumor immunity, enables tumor cells to maintain their proliferation and growth. Numerous mechanisms, which have been intensively studied in recent years, are involved in this process and based on these findings, novel immunotherapies have been successfully developed. Here, we review the composition of the TME and the mechanisms by which immune evasive processes are regulated. In detail, we describe membrane-bound and soluble factors, their regulation, and their impact on immune cell activation in the TME. Furthermore, we give an overview of the tumor/antigen presentation and how it is influenced under malignant conditions. Finally, we summarize novel TME-targeting agents, which are already in clinical trials for different tumor entities.

Therapeutic Interventions Targeting Innate Immune Receptors: A Balancing Act

The innate immune system is an organism's first line of defense against an onslaught of internal and external threats. The downstream adaptive immune system has been a popular target for therapeutic intervention, while there is a relative paucity of therapeutics targeting the innate immune system. However, the innate immune system plays a critical role in many human diseases, such as microbial infection, cancer, and autoimmunity, highlighting the need for ongoing therapeutic research. In this review, we discuss the major innate immune pathways and detail the molecular strategies underpinning successful therapeutics targeting each pathway as well as previous and ongoing efforts. We will also discuss any recent discoveries that could inform the development of novel therapeutic strategies. As our understanding of the innate immune system continues to develop, we envision that therapies harnessing the power of the innate immune system will become the mainstay of treatment for a wide variety of human diseases.

The Influence of High and Low Negative Pressure Liposuction and Various Harvesting Techniques on the Viability and Function of Harvested Cells-a Systematic Review of Animal and Human Studies

BACKGROUND

An understanding of fat grafting methodology, techniques and patient-related factors is crucial when considering fat grafting. Multiple factors can influence the success of a fat graft and consequently the outcome of the procedure. The aim of this systematic review is to elucidate the influence of negative pressure and various techniques of fat harvesting on the viability and function of cells, particularly adipocytes and adipose-derived stem cells.

METHODS

We conducted a literature search from 1975 to 2020 using the PubMed bibliography, ScienceDirect, SCOPUS and the Google Scholar databases which produced 168,628 articles on the first pass. After applying all the exclusion criteria by two independent reviewers, we were left with 21 articles (level IV of Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Studies and Grade C of Grade Practice Recommendation from the American Society of Plastic Surgeons) on which this review is based.

RESULTS

From 11 studies focused on different negative pressures, no one found using high negative pressure advantageous. Summarising 13 studies focused on various harvesting techniques (excision, syringe, and pump-machine), most often equal results were reported, followed by excision being better than either syringe or liposuction.

CONCLUSION

From our systematic review, we can conclude that the low negative pressure seems to yield better results and that the excision seems to be the most sparing method for fat graft harvesting. However, we have to point out that this conclusion is based on a very limited number of statistically challengeable articles and we recommend well-conducted further research.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE III

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Knockout of immunotherapy prognostic marker genes eliminates the effect of the anti-PD-1 treatment

The efficacy of immunotherapy is largely patient-specific due to heterogeneity in tumors. Combining statistic power from a variety of immunotherapies across cancer types, we found four biological pathways significantly correlated with patient survival following immunotherapy. The expression of immunotherapy prognostic marker genes (IPMGs) in these pathways can predict the patient survival with high accuracy not only in the TCGA cohort (89.36%) but also in two other independent cohorts (80.91%), highlighting that the activity of the IPMGs can reflect the sensitivity of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) to immunotherapies. Using mouse models, we show that knockout of one of the IPMGs, MALT1, which is critical for the T-cell receptor signaling, can eliminate the antitumor effect of anti-PD-1 treatment completely by impairing the activation of CD8⁺ T cells. Notably, knockout of another IPMG, CLEC4D, a C-type lectin receptor that expressed on myeloid cells, also reduced the effect of anti-PD-1 treatment potentially through maintaining the immunosuppressive effects of myeloid cells. Our results suggest that priming TIME via activating the IPMGs may increase the response rate and the effect of immune checkpoint blockers.

Recent advances on smart glycoconjugate vaccines in infections and cancer

Vaccination is one of the greatest achievements in biomedical research preventing death and morbidity in many infectious diseases through the induction of pathogen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Currently, no effective vaccines are available for pathogens with a highly variable antigenic load, such as the human immunodeficiency virus or to induce cellular T-cell immunity in the fight against cancer. The recent SARS-CoV-2 outbreak has reinforced the relevance of designing smart therapeutic vaccine modalities to ensure public health. Indeed, academic and private companies have ongoing joint efforts to develop novel vaccine prototypes for this virus. Many pathogens are covered by a dense glycan-coat, which form an attractive target for vaccine development. Moreover, many tumor types are characterized by altered glycosylation profiles that are known as "tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens". Unfortunately, glycans do not provoke a vigorous immune response and generally serve as T-cell-independent antigens, not eliciting protective immunoglobulin G responses nor inducing immunological memory. A close and continuous crosstalk between glycochemists and glycoimmunologists is essential for the successful development of efficient immune modulators. It is clear that this is a key point for the discovery of novel approaches, which could significantly improve our understanding of the immune system. In this review, we discuss the latest advancements in development of vaccines against glycan epitopes to gain selective immune responses and to provide an overview on the role of different immunogenic constructs in improving glycovaccine efficacy.

Fucosylated lipid nanocarriers loaded with antibiotics efficiently inhibit mycobacterial propagation in human myeloid cells

Antibiotic treatment of tuberculosis (TB) is complex, lengthy, and can be associated with various adverse effects. As a result, patient compliance often is poor, thus further enhancing the risk of selecting multi-drug resistant bacteria. Macrophage mannose receptor (MMR)-positive alveolar macrophages (AM) constitute a niche in which Mycobacterium tuberculosis replicates and survives. Therefore, we encapsulated levofloxacin in lipid nanocarriers functionalized with fucosyl residues that interact with the MMR. Indeed, such nanocarriers preferentially targeted MMR-positive myeloid cells, and in particular, AM. Intracellularly, fucosylated lipid nanocarriers favorably delivered their payload into endosomal compartments, where mycobacteria reside. In an in vitro setting using infected human primary macrophages as well as dendritic cells, the encapsulated antibiotic cleared the pathogen more efficiently than free levofloxacin. In conclusion, our results point towards carbohydrate-functionalized nanocarriers as a promising tool for improving TB treatment by targeted delivery of antibiotics.

Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

CLEC10A is a prognostic biomarker and correlated with clinical pathologic features and immune infiltrates in lung adenocarcinoma

CLEC10A, (C-type lectin domain family 10, member A), as the member of C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), plays a vital role in modulating innate immunity and adaptive immunity and has shown great potential as an immunotherapy target for cancers. However, there is no functional research of CLEC10A in prognostic risk, immunotherapy or any other treatment of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). We performed bioinformatics analysis on LUAD data downloaded from TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas) and GEO (Gene Expression Omnibus), and jointly analysed with online databases such as HPA, LinkedOmics, TIMER, ESTIMATE and TISIDB. We found that lower expression of CLEC10A was accompanied with worse outcomes of LUAD patients. Moreover, CLEC10A expression was significantly correlated with a variety of the tumour-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs). As a promising prognosis predictor and potential immunotherapy target, the potential influence and mechanisms of CLEC10A in LUAD deserve further exploring.

Designing and Immunomodulating Multiresponsive Nanomaterial for Cancer Theranostics

Cancer has been widely investigated yet limited in its manifestation. Cancer treatment holds innovative and futuristic strategies considering high disease heterogeneity. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery are the most explored pillars; however optimal therapeutic window and patient compliance recruit constraints. Recently evolved immunotherapy demonstrates a vital role of the host immune system to prevent metastasis recurrence, still undesirable clinical response and autoimmune adverse effects remain unresolved. Overcoming these challenges, tunable biomaterials could effectively control the co-delivery of anticancer drugs and immunomodulators. Current status demands a potentially new approach for minimally invasive, synergistic, and combinatorial nano-biomaterial assisted targeted immune-based treatment including therapeutics, diagnosis and imaging. This review discusses the latest findings of engineering biomaterial with immunomodulating properties and implementing novel developments in designing versatile nanosystems for cancer theranostics. We explore the functionalization of nanoparticle for delivering antitumor therapeutic and diagnostic agents promoting immune response. Through understanding the efficacy of delivery system, we have enlightened the applicability of nanomaterials as immunomodulatory nanomedicine further advancing to preclinical and clinical trials. Future and present ongoing improvements in engineering biomaterial could result in generating better insight to deal with cancer through easily accessible immunological interventions.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Respiratory Tissue and Cell Line Models to Examine Glycosylation Machinery during SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Glycosylation, being the most abundant post-translational modification, plays a profound role affecting expression, localization and function of proteins and macromolecules in immune response to infection. Presented are the findings of a transcriptomic analysis performed using high-throughput functional genomics data from public repository to examine the altered transcription of the human glycosylation machinery in response to SARS-CoV-2 stimulus and infection. In addition to the conventional in silico functional enrichment analysis methods we also present results from the manual analysis of biomedical literature databases to bring about the biological significance of glycans and glycan-binding proteins in modulating the host immune response during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our analysis revealed key immunomodulatory lectins, proteoglycans and glycan epitopes implicated in exerting both negative and positive downstream inflammatory signaling pathways, in addition to its vital role as adhesion receptors for SARS-CoV-2 pathogen. A hypothetical correlation of the differentially expressed human glycogenes with the altered host inflammatory response and the cytokine storm-generated in response to SARS-CoV-2 pathogen is proposed. These markers can provide novel insights into the diverse roles and functioning of glycosylation pathways modulated by SARS-CoV-2, provide avenues of stratification, treatment, and targeted approaches for COVID-19 immunity and other viral infectious agents.

Identification and validation of an immune-related gene signature predictive of overall survival in colon cancer

The heterogeneity and complexity of tumor-immune microenvironments lead to diverse immunotherapy effects among colon cancer patients. It is crucial to identify immune microenvironment-related biomarkers and construct prognostic risk models. In this study, the immune and stromal scores of 415 cases from TCGA were calculated using the ESTIMATE algorithm. AXIN2, CCL22, CLEC10A, CRIP2, RUNX3, and TRPM5 were screened and established a prognostic immune-related gene (IRG) signature using by univariate, LASSO, and multivariate Cox regression models. The predicted performance of IRG signature was external validated by GSE39582 (n=519). Stratified survival analysis showed IRG signature was an effective predictor of survival in patients with different clinical characteristics. The protein expression level of six genes was validated by immunohistochemistry analysis. Difference analysis indicated the mutation rate, immune cell of resting NK cells and regulatory T cells infiltration and four immune checkpoints of PD-1, PD-L1, LAG3 and VSIR expression levels in the high-risk group were significantly higher than those in the low-risk group. A nomogram incorporating the gene signatures and clinical factors was demonstrated had a good accuracy (1-, 3-, and 5-year AUC= 0.799, 0.791, 0.738). Our study identified a novel IRG signature, which may provide some references for the clinical precision immunotherapy of patients.

Glycosylated Nanoparticles for Cancer-Targeted Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles (NPs) are novel platforms that can carry both cancer-targeting molecules and drugs to avoid severe side effects due to nonspecific drug delivery in standard chemotherapy treatments. Cancer cells are characterized by abnormal membranes, metabolic changes, the presence of lectin receptors, glucose transporters (GLUT) overexpression, and glycosylation of immune receptors of programmed death on cell surfaces. These characteristics have led to the development of several strategies for cancer therapy, including a large number of carbohydrate-modified NPs, which have become desirable for use in cell-selective drug delivery systems because they increase nanoparticle-cell interactions and uptake of carried drugs. Currently, the potential of NP glycosylation to enhance the safety and efficacy of carried therapeutic antitumor agents has been widely acknowledged, and much information is accumulating in this field. This review seeks to highlight recent advances in NP stabilization, toxicity reduction, and pharmacokinetic improvement and the promising potential of NP glycosylation from the perspective of molecular mechanisms described for drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. From preclinical proof-of-concept to demonstration of therapeutic value in the clinic, the challenges and opportunities presented by glycosylated NPs, with a focus on their applicability in the development of nanodrugs, are discussed in this review.

Nanomedicine-based tumor photothermal therapy synergized immunotherapy

The emerging anti-tumor immunotherapy has made significant progress in clinical application. However, single immunotherapy is not effective for all anti-tumor treatments, owing to the low objective response rate and the risk of immune-related side effects. Meanwhile, photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted significant attention because of its non-invasiveness, spatiotemporal controllability and small side effects. Combining PTT with immunotherapy overcomes the issue that single photothermal therapy cannot eradicate tumors with metastasis and recurrence. However, it improves the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy, as the photothermal therapy usually promotes release of tumor-related antigens, triggers immune response by the immunogenic cell death (ICD), thereby, endowing unique synergistic mechanisms for cancer therapy. This review summarizes recent research advances in utilizing nanomedicines for PTT in combination with immunotherapy to improve the outcome of cancer treatment. The strategies include immunogenic cell death, immune agonists and cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint blockades and tumor specific monoclonal antibodies, and small-molecule immune inhibitors. The combination of synergized PTT-immunotherapy with other therapeutic strategies is also discussed.

C-Type Lectin Receptors in Host Defense Against Bacterial Pathogens

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are present throughout the human body—in tissues, at barrier sites and in the circulation. They are critical for processing external signals to instruct both local and systemic responses toward immune tolerance or immune defense. APCs express an extensive repertoire of pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) to detect and transduce these signals. C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) comprise a subfamily of PRRs dedicated to sensing glycans, including those expressed by commensal and pathogenic bacteria. This review summarizes recent findings on the recognition of and responses to bacteria by membrane-expressed CLRs on different APC subsets, which are discussed according to the primary site of infection. Many CLR-bacterial interactions promote bacterial clearance, whereas other interactions are exploited by bacteria to enhance their pathogenic potential. The discrimination between protective and virulence-enhancing interactions is essential to understand which interactions to target with new prophylactic or treatment strategies. CLRs are also densely concentrated at APC dendrites that sample the environment across intact barrier sites. This suggests an–as yet–underappreciated role for CLR-mediated recognition of microbiota-produced glycans in maintaining tolerance at barrier sites. In addition to providing a concise overview of identified CLR-bacteria interactions, we discuss the main challenges and potential solutions for the identification of new CLR-bacterial interactions, including those with commensal bacteria, and for in-depth structure-function studies on CLR-bacterial glycan interactions. Finally, we highlight the necessity for more relevant tissue-specific in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo models to develop therapeutic applications in this area.

Cross-Presenting XCR1+ Dendritic Cells as Targets for Cancer Immunotherapy

The use of dendritic cells (DCs) to generate effective anti-tumor T cell immunity has garnered much attention over the last thirty-plus years. Despite this, limited clinical benefit has been demonstrated thus far. There has been a revival of interest in DC-based treatment strategies following the remarkable patient responses observed with novel checkpoint blockade therapies, due to the potential for synergistic treatment. Cross-presenting DCs are recognized for their ability to prime CD8⁺ T cell responses to directly induce tumor death. Consequently, they are an attractive target for next-generation DC-based strategies. In this review, we define the universal classification system for cross-presenting DCs, and the vital role of this subset in mediating anti-tumor immunity. Furthermore, we will detail methods of targeting these DCs both ex vivo and in vivo to boost their function and drive effective anti-tumor responses.

C-Type Lectin-Like Receptors: Head or Tail in Cell Death Immunity

C-type lectin-like receptors (CLRs) represent a family of transmembrane pattern recognition receptors, expressed primarily by myeloid cells. They recognize not only pathogen moieties for host defense, but also modified self-antigens such as damage-associated molecular patterns released from dead cells. Upon ligation, CLR signaling leads to the production of inflammatory mediators to shape amplitude, duration and outcome of the immune response. Thus, following excessive injury, dysregulation of these receptors leads to the development of inflammatory diseases. Herein, we will focus on four CLRs of the "Dectin family," shown to decode the immunogenicity of cell death. CLEC9A on dendritic cells links F-actin exposed by dying cells to favor cross-presentation of dead-cell associated antigens to CD8⁺ T cells. Nevertheless, CLEC9A exerts also feedback mechanisms to temper neutrophil recruitment and prevent additional tissue damage. MINCLE expressed by macrophages binds nuclear SAP130 released by necrotic cells to potentiate pro-inflammatory responses. However, the consequent inflammation can exacerbate pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. Moreover, in a tumor microenvironment, MINCLE induces macrophage-induced immune suppression and cancer progression. Similarly, triggering of LOX-1 by oxidized LDL, amplifies pro-inflammatory response but promotes tumor immune escape and metastasis. Finally, CLEC12A that recognizes monosodium urate crystals formed during cell death, inhibits activating signals to prevent detrimental inflammation. Interestingly, CLEC12A also sustains type-I IFN response to finely tune immune responses in case of viral-induced collateral damage. Therefore, CLRs acting in concert as sensors of injury, could be used in a targeted way to treat numerous diseases such as allergies, obesity, tumors, and autoimmunity.

Synthesis and immunostimulatory activity of sugar-conjugated TLR7 ligands

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a type of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are activated by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The activation of TLRs initiates innate immune responses and subsequently leads to adaptive immune responses. TLR agonists are effective immuomodulators in vaccine adjuvants for infectious diseases and cancer immunotherapy. In exploring hydrophilic small molecules of TLR7 ligands using the cell-targeted property of a vaccine adjuvant, we conjugated 1V209, a small TLR7 ligand molecule, with various low or middle molecular weight sugar molecules that work as carriers. The sugar-conjugated 1V209 derivatives showed increased water solubility and higher immunostimulatory activity in both mouse and human cells compared to unmodified 1V209. The improved immunostimulatory potency of sugar-conjugates was attenuated by an inhibitor of endocytic process, cytochalasin D, suggesting that conjugation of sugar moieties may enhance the uptake of TLR7 ligand into the endosomal compartment. Collectively our results support that sugar-conjugated TLR7 ligands are applicable to novel drugs for cancer and vaccine therapy.

pathfindR: An R Package for Comprehensive Identification of Enriched Pathways in Omics Data Through Active Subnetworks

Pathway analysis is often the first choice for studying the mechanisms underlying a phenotype. However, conventional methods for pathway analysis do not take into account complex protein-protein interaction information, resulting in incomplete conclusions. Previously, numerous approaches that utilize protein-protein interaction information to enhance pathway analysis yielded superior results compared to conventional methods. Hereby, we present pathfindR, another approach exploiting protein-protein interaction information and the first R package for active-subnetwork-oriented pathway enrichment analyses for class comparison omics experiments. Using the list of genes obtained from an omics experiment comparing two groups of samples, pathfindR identifies active subnetworks in a protein-protein interaction network. It then performs pathway enrichment analyses on these identified subnetworks. To further reduce the complexity, it provides functionality for clustering the resulting pathways. Moreover, through a scoring function, the overall activity of each pathway in each sample can be estimated. We illustrate the capabilities of our pathway analysis method on three gene expression datasets and compare our results with those obtained from three popular pathway analysis tools. The results demonstrate that literature-supported disease-related pathways ranked higher in our approach compared to the others. Moreover, pathfindR identified additional pathways relevant to the conditions that were not identified by other tools, including pathways named after the conditions.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of immunostimulating mannosylated desmuramyl peptides

Muramyl dipeptide is the minimal structure of peptidoglycan with adjuvant properties. Replacement of the N-acetylmuramyl moiety and increase of lipophilicity are important approaches in the preparation of muramyl dipeptide analogues with improved pharmacological properties. Mannose receptors present on immunocompetent cells are pattern-recognition receptors and by mannose ligands binding they affect the immune system. Here we present the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel mannosylated desmuramyl peptide derivatives. Mannose was coupled to dipeptides containing a lipophilic adamantane on N- or C-terminus through a glycolyl or hydroxyisobutyryl linker. Adjuvant activities of synthesized compounds were investigated in the mouse model using ovalbumin as an antigen. Their activities were compared to the previously described mannosylated adamantane-containing desmuramyl peptide and peptidoglycan monomer. Tested compounds exhibited adjuvant activity and the strongest enhancement of IgG production was stimulated by compound 21 (Man-OCH₂-ᴅ-(1-Ad)Gly-ʟ-Ala-ᴅ-isoGln).

Histidine-rich glycoprotein augments natural killer cell function by modulating PD-1 expression via CLEC-1B

Augmentation of natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity is one of the greatest challenges for cancer immunotherapy. Although histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG), a 75-kDa glycoprotein with various immunomodulatory activities, reportedly elicits antitumor immunity, its effect on NK cell cytotoxicity is unclear. We assessed NK cell cytotoxicity against K562 cells. We also measured concentrations of cytokines and granzyme B in the cell supernatant. The proportion of CD56bright NK cells and NK cell surface PD-1 expression was assessed with flow cytometry. The neutralizing effects of anti-C-type lectin-like receptor (CLEC) 1B against HRG were also measured. NK cell morphological changes were analyzed via confocal microscopy. HRG significantly increased NK cell cytotoxicity against K562 cell lines. HRG also increased the release of granzyme B and the proportion of CD56bright NK cells. Further, HRG was able to decrease NK cell surface PD-1 expression. The effects of HRG on NK cells were reversed with anti-CLEC-1B antibodies. Additionally, we confirmed NK cell nuclear morphology and F-actin distribution, which are involved in the regulation of cytotoxic granule secretion. Because both PD-1 and CLEC-1B are associated with prognosis during malignancy, HRG incorporates these molecules to exert the antitumor immunity role. These facts indicate the potential of HRG to be a new target for cancer immunotherapy.

Ingestion of Non-digestible Carbohydrates From Plant-Source Foods and Decreased Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Review on the Biological Effects and the Mechanisms of Action

The hypothesis that links the increase in the intake of plant-source foods to a decrease in colorectal cancer (CRC) risk has almost 50 years. Nowadays, systematic reviews and meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies confirmed the association between dietary patterns and CRC risk, in which the non-digestible carbohydrates (NDC) from plant-source foods are known to play beneficial effects. However, the mechanisms behind the physicochemical properties and biological effects induced by NDC on the decrease of CRC development and progression remain not fully understood. NDC from plant-source foods consist mainly of complex carbohydrates from plant cell wall including pectin and hemicellulose, which vary among foods in structure and in composition, therefore in both physicochemical properties and biological effects. In the present review, we highlighted the mechanisms and described the recent findings showing how these complex NDC from plant-source foods are related to a decrease in CRC risk through induction of both physicochemical effects in the gastrointestinal tract, fermentation-related effects, and direct effects resulting from the interaction between NDC and cellular components including toll-like receptors and galectin-3. Studies support that the definition of the structure-function relationship-especially regarding the fermentation-related effects of NDC, as well as the direct effects of these complex carbohydrates in cells-is crucial for understanding the possible NDC anticancer effects. The dietary recommendations for the intake of NDC are usually quantitative, describing a defined amount of intake per day. However, as NDC from plant-source foods can exert effects that vary widely according to the NDC structure, the dietary recommendations for the intake of NDC plant-source foods are expected to change from a quantitative to a qualitative perspective in the next few years, as occurred for lipid recommendations. Thus, further studies are necessary to define whether specific and well-characterized NDC from plant-source foods induce beneficial effects related to a decrease in CRC risk, thereby improving nutritional recommendations of healthy individuals and CRC patients.

Nanostructured carriers as innovative tools for cancer diagnosis and therapy

Cancer accounts for millions of deaths every year and, due to the increase and aging of the world population, the number of new diagnosed cases is continuously rising. Although many progresses in early diagnosis and innovative therapeutic protocols have been already set in clinical practice, still a lot of critical aspects need to be addressed in order to efficiently treat cancer and to reduce several drawbacks caused by conventional therapies. Nanomedicine has emerged as a very promising approach to support both early diagnosis and effective therapy of tumors, and a plethora of different inorganic and organic multifunctional nanomaterials have been ad hoc designed to meet the constant demand for new solutions in cancer treatment. Given their unique features and extreme versatility, nanocarriers represent an innovative and easily adaptable tool both for imaging and targeted therapy purposes, in order to improve the specific delivery of drugs administered to cancer patients. The current review reports an in-depth analysis of the most recent research studies aiming at developing both inorganic and organic materials for nanomedical applications in cancer diagnosis and therapy. A detailed overview of different approaches currently undergoing clinical trials or already approved in clinical practice is provided.

Pinpointing a potential role for CLEC12B in cancer predisposition through familial exome sequencing

Predisposition to cancer is only partly understood, and thus, the contribution of still undiscovered cancer predisposing variants necessitates further research. In search of such variants, we performed exome sequencing on the germline DNA of a family with two children affected by ganglioneuroma and neuroblastoma. Applying stringent selection criteria, we identified a potential deleterious, missense mutation in CLEC12B, coding for a lectin C-type receptor that is predicted to regulate immune function. Although further screening in a larger population and functional characterization is needed, we propose CLEC12B as a candidate cancer predisposition gene.

Theranostics Applications of Nanoparticles in Cancer Immunotherapy

With the advancement in the mechanism of immune surveillance and immune evasion in cancer cells, cancer immunotherapy shows promising results for treating cancer with established efficacy and less toxicity. As a result of the off-target effect, the approach for delivering vaccines, adjuvants, or antibodies directly to tumor sites is gaining widespread attention. An effective alternative is to utilize nanoengineered particles, functioning as drug-delivery systems or as antigens themselves. This article reviews the practical implementation of nanotechnology in cancer immunotherapy.

Improved prediction of breast cancer outcome by identifying heterogeneous biomarkers

Motivation

Identification of genes that can be used to predict prognosis in patients with cancer is important in that it can lead to improved therapy, and can also promote our understanding of tumor progression on the molecular level. One of the common but fundamental problems that render identification of prognostic genes and prediction of cancer outcomes difficult is the heterogeneity of patient samples.

Results

To reduce the effect of sample heterogeneity, we clustered data samples using K-means algorithm and applied modified PageRank to functional interaction (FI) networks weighted using gene expression values of samples in each cluster. Hub genes among resulting prioritized genes were selected as biomarkers to predict the prognosis of samples. This process outperformed traditional feature selection methods as well as several network-based prognostic gene selection methods when applied to Random Forest. We were able to find many cluster-specific prognostic genes for each dataset. Functional study showed that distinct biological processes were enriched in each cluster, which seems to reflect different aspect of tumor progression or oncogenesis among distinct patient groups. Taken together, these results provide support for the hypothesis that our approach can effectively identify heterogeneous prognostic genes, and these are complementary to each other, improving prediction accuracy.

Availability and implementation

https://github.com/mathcom/CPR.

Contact

jgahn@inu.ac.kr.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.