Cytokine Targeting by miRNAs in Autoimmune Diseases

Early diagnosis of autoimmune diseases through electrochemical biosensing using a modified plastic chip electrode

Detecting chronic autoimmune disorders (ADs) early reduces the risk of morbidity, disability, and mortality and offers the possibility of significant therapeutic action in a timely manner. Developing low-cost, reliable, and sensitive sensors for ADs can ensure the efficient utilization of healthcare resources at earlier stages. Here, we report on the development of an electrochemical biosensor for sensing CXCL10, a chemokine protein that serves as a biomarker for autoimmune diseases. A self-assembly strategy is used for the immobilization of biorecognition elements on a plastic chip electrode (PCE). A homemade PCE offers a versatile and cost-effective scaffold for sensing applications. Gold nanoparticles were electrochemically deposited on the electrode via the reduction of gold ions on the PCE galvanostatically. The CXCL10 antibody and recognition elements were immobilized on the gold-deposited PCE. The attachment of recognition molecules was confirmed by energy-dispersive scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and electrochemical techniques. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used for the detection of CXCL10 within a concentration range spanning from pico- to micro-molar levels. The sensor exhibited remarkable linearity in both buffer and plasma solutions, with a limit of detection (LOD) of up to 0.72 pg mL-1.

A Review of MicroRNAs and lncRNAs in Atherosclerosis as Well as Some Major Inflammatory Conditions Affecting Atherosclerosis

It is generally accepted that atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease. The link between atherosclerosis and other inflammatory diseases such as psoriasis, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) via metabolic, inflammatory, and immunoregulatory pathways is well established. The aim of our review was to summarize the associations between selected microRNAs (miRs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and atherosclerosis, psoriasis, T2DM, and RA. We reviewed the role of miR-146a, miR-210, miR-143, miR-223, miR-126, miR-21, miR-155, miR-145, miR-200, miR-133, miR-135, miR-221, miR-424, let-7, lncRNA-H19, lncRNA-MEG3, lncRNA-UCA1, and lncRNA-XIST in atherosclerosis and psoriasis, T2DM, and RA. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a method of intracellular signal transduction. Their function depends on surface expression, cargo, and the cell from which they originate. The majority of the studies that investigated lncRNAs and some miRs had relatively small sample sizes, which limits the generalizability of their findings and indicates the need for more research. Based on the studies reviewed, miR-146a, miR-155, miR-145, miR-200, miR-133, and lncRNA-H19 are the most promising potential biomarkers and, possibly, therapeutic targets for atherosclerosis as well as T2DM, RA, and psoriasis.

Extracellular microRNAs induce dendritic cell-dependent joint inflammation and potentiate osteoclast differentiation via TLR7/8 engagement

OBJECTIVES

Monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) are key players in the induction of inflammation, autoreactive T cell activation and loss of tolerance in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), but the precise mechanisms underlying their activation remain elusive. Here, we hypothesized that extracellular microRNAs released in RA synovial fluids may represent a novel, physiological stimulus triggering unwanted immune response via TLR8-expressing DC stimulation.

METHODS

Human monocyte-derived DCs were stimulated with a mixture of GU-rich miRNAs upregulated in RA tissues and released in synovial fluids (Ex-miRNAs). Activation of DCs was assessed in terms of NF-κB activation by Western blot, cytokine production by ELISA, T cell proliferation and polarization by allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction. DC differentiation into osteoclasts was evaluated in terms of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase production and formation of resorption pits in dentine slices. Induction of joint inflammation in vivo was evaluated using a murine model of DC-induced arthritis. TLR7/8 involvement was assessed by specific inhibitors.

RESULTS

Ex-miRNAs activate DCs to secrete TNFα, induce joint inflammation, start an early autoimmune response and potentiate the differentiation of DCs into aggressive osteoclasts.

CONCLUSIONS

This work represents a proof of concept that the pool of extracellular miRNAs overexpressed in RA joints can act as a physiological activator of inflammation via the stimulation of TLR8 expressed by human DCs, which in turn exert arthritogenic functions. In this scenario, pharmacological inhibition of TLR8 might offer a new therapeutic option to reduce inflammation and osteoclast-mediated bone destruction in RA.

Exogenous modification of EL-4 T cell extracellular vesicles with miR-155 induce macrophage into M1-type polarization

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) show promising potential to be used as therapeutics, disease biomarkers, and drug delivery vehicles. We aimed to modify EVs with miR-155 to modulate macrophage immune response that can be potentially used against infectious diseases. Primarily, we characterized T cells (EL-4) EVs by several standardized techniques and confirmed that the EVs could be used for experimental approaches. The bioactivities of the isolated EVs were confirmed by the uptake assessment, and the results showed that target cells can successfully uptake EVs. To standardize the loading protocol by electroporation for effective biological functionality, we chose fluorescently labelled miR-155 mimics because of its important roles in the immune regulations to upload them into EVs. The loading procedure showed that the dosage of 1 µg of miRNA mimics can be efficiently loaded to the EVs at 100 V, further confirmed by flow cytometry. The functional assay by incubating these modified EVs (mEVs) with in vitro cultured cells led to an increased abundance of miR-155 and decreased the expressions of its target genes such as TSHZ3, Jarid2, ZFP652, and WWC1. Further evaluation indicated that these mEVs induced M1-type macrophage polarization with increased TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and iNOS expression. The bioavailability analysis revealed that mEVs could be detected in tissues of the livers. Overall, our study demonstrated that EVs can be engineered with miR-155 of interest to modulate the immune response that may have implications against infectious diseases.

Structured Cerium-Manganese Catalysts Supported on Nickel Foam for Toluene Oxidation by Electric Internal Heating

Structured catalysts are widely used in catalytic oxidation of gaseous pollutants, hot catalysis is usually needed to assist the reaction in the catalytic process. Herein, a Ce-modified manganese oxide octahedral molecular sieves (Ce-OMS-2) structured catalyst supported on foam nickel was prepared through impregnation process. A systematically quantitative testing on the toluene catalytic oxidation effectiveness of this structured catalyst was conducted through catalyst evaluation device, combining a series of characterization methods, such as XRD and SEM, the structure-activity relationship was established. Assisted with electric internal heating and ozone oxidation environments, this structured catalyst exhibits excellent catalytic oxidation performance for oxidative decomposition of toluene even under high humidity conditions. The results showed that the ozone-coupled structured nickel foam catalyst increased the decomposition efficiency of toluene from 25 % (without catalyst and heating) to 55 % (with catalyst and without heating) and the electric internal heating can significantly improve the reactivity and moisture resistance of the structured nickel-foam catalyst, at 90 % RH and 40000 h-1, 50000 ppb O3 and 40 mg/m3 toluene was maintained 100 % catalytic efficiency. The high-efficiency non-precious metal-based electrothermal catalyst prepared herein is expected to have certain enlightenment for the purification of VOCs.

Regulatory role of miR-125a expression with respect to its target genes LIFR, ERBB2 and STAT3 in the pathogenesis of recurrent pregnancy losses

OBJECTIVES

Studies have investigated miR-125a for its predictable role in recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) cases to regulate many biological events required for the maintenance of pregnancy by regulating its confirmed target genes LIFR, ERBB2 and STAT3.

METHODS

The present study included 40 cases of women with at least two RPLs in ≤20 weeks of gestation against 40 healthy multiparous women without a previous history of abortion. Expression analysis of ERBB2, LIFR, STAT3 and miR-125a was conducted by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR).

RESULTS

The expression of miR-125a was significantly lower in the plasma of RPL cases (P = 0.0001) and showed a significantly increased mean expression level in product of conception (2.56-fold, P < 0.0001). Among the target gene of miR-125a, ERBB2 and STAT3 gene expression level was significantly increased (2.58-fold, P = 0.04; 1.87-fold, P = 0.025), respectively in RPL cases while the LIFR gene revealed comparable expression (P = 0.64). Furthermore, expression analysis of ERBB2 gene with respect to its regulatory miR-125a cases depicted a significant association (P = 0.0005). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis revealed cases with low miR-125a expression had significantly shorter time to miscarriages, (log-rank P = 0.02). Also, decreased expression of miR-125a significantly conferred >2-fold increased risk for RPL (HR = 2.34: P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The overall conclusion of the study was that altered miR-125a expression may cause deregulation in target genes LIFR, ERBB2 and STAT3 resulting in adverse consequence in the outcome of pregnancy.

Evidence-based procedures to improve the reliability of circulating miRNA biomarker assays

Circulating cell-free microRNAs (cfmiRNA) are an emerging class of biomarkers that have shown great promise in the clinical diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of several pathological conditions, including cancer. However, validation and clinical implementation of cfmiRNA biomarkers has been hindered by the variability introduced during different or suboptimal specimen collection and handling practices. To address the need for standardization and evidence-based guidance, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) developed a new Biospecimen Evidenced-Based Practices (BEBP) document, entitled "Cell-free miRNA (cfmiRNA): Blood Collection and Processing". The BEBP, the fourth in the document series, contains step-by-step procedural guidelines on blood collection, processing, storage, extraction, and quality assessment that are tailored specifically for cfmiRNA analysis of plasma and serum. The workflow outlined in the BEBP is based on the available literature and recommendations of an expert panel. The BEBP contains the level of detail required for development of evidence-based standard operating procedures (SOPs) as well as the flexibility needed to accomodate (i) discovery- and inquiry-based studies and (ii) the different constraints faced by research labs, industry, clinical and academic institutions to foster widespread implementation. Guidance from the expert panel also included recommendations on study design, validating changes in workflow, and suggested quality thresholds to delineate meaningful changes in cfmiRNA levels. The NCI cfmiRNA: Blood Collection and Processing BEBP is available here as supplementary information as well as through the NCI Biorepositories and Biospecimen Research Branch (BBRB) (https://biospecimens.cancer.gov/resources/bebp.asp).

MicroRNAs are dysregulated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in multiple sclerosis and correlate with T cell mediators

T cell mediators and microRNAs are involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), but their interaction largely remains undetermined. We investigated by RT-qPCR the dysregulation of microRNAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients versus healthy controls, according to radiological disease activity or treatment. Several microRNAs correlated positively/negatively with IL21/FOXP3 mRNA expression, but not with serum neurofilament light chain levels. Cytokine expression is conceivably balanced by several regulators, whereas microRNAs possibly target upstream transcription factors rather than directly cytokine mRNAs. Functional studies are needed to investigate their interaction, notably for the predicted targeting of FOXP3 by miR-34c-5p.

Posttranscriptional Events Orchestrate Immune Homeostasis of CD8+ T Cells

Maintaining immune homeostasis is instrumental for host health. Immune cells, such as T cells, are instrumental for the eradication of pathogenic bacteria, fungi and viruses. Furthermore, T cells also play a major role in the fight against cancer. Through the formation of immunological memory, a pool of antigen-experienced T cells remains in the body to rapidly protect the host upon reinfection or retransformation. In order to perform their protective function, T cells produce cytolytic molecules, such as granzymes and perforin, and cytokines such as interferon γ and tumor necrosis factor α. Recently, it has become evident that posttranscriptional regulatory events dictate the kinetics and magnitude of cytokine production by murine and human CD8+ T cells. Here, the recent literature regarding the role posttranscriptional regulation plays in maintaining immune homeostasis of antigen-experienced CD8+ T cells is reviewed.

In vitro Assessment of Free Radical Scavenging Effect and Thermal Protein Denaturation Inhibition of Bee Venom for an Anti-Inflammatory Use

Inflammation and the injuries produced by free radicals are interconnected and influence each other. The underlying mechanisms of inflammation are partially attributed to the release of free radicals by immune cells, prooxidants that can also cause protein alteration. This study was performed in order to assess the potential anti-inflammatory effect of two bee venom samples harvested from Apis mellifera. Free radical scavenging capacity was investigated using DPPH and ABTS.+ tests and protective effect on proteins through the inhibitory activity on thermal denaturation of albumin.

MicroRNA as a potential biomarker for systemic lupus erythematosus: pathogenesis and targeted therapy

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease associated with hyperactive innate and adaptive immune systems that cause dermatological, cardiovascular, renal, and neuropsychiatric problems in patients. SLE's multifactorial nature and complex pathogenesis present significant challenges in its clinical classification. In addition, unpredictable treatment responses in patients emphasize the need for highly specific and sensitive SLE biomarkers that can assist in understanding the exact pathogenesis and, thereby, lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets. Recent studies on microRNA (miRNA), a non-coding region involved in the regulation of gene expression, indicate its importance in the development of the immune system and thus in the pathogenesis of various autoimmune disorders such as SLE. miRNAs are fascinating biomarker prospects for SLE categorization and disease monitoring owing to their small size and high stability. In this paper, we have discussed the involvement of a wide range of miRNAs in the regulation of SLE inflammation and how their modulation can be a potential therapeutic approach.

The role of microRNAs in the pathophysiology of human central nervous system: A focus on neurodegenerative diseases

microRNAs (miRNAs) are suggested to play substantial roles in regulating the development and various physiologic functions of the central nervous system (CNS). These include neurogenesis, cell fate and differentiation, morphogenesis, formation of dendrites, and targeting non-neural mRNAs. Notably, deregulation of an increasing number of miRNAs is associated with several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and CNS tumors. They are particularly known to affect the amyloid β (Aβ) cleavage and accumulation, tau protein homeostasis, and expression of alpha-synuclein (α-syn), Parkin, PINK1, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) that play pivotal roles in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. These include miR-16, miR-17-5p, miR-20a, miR-106a, miR-106b, miR-15a, miR-15b, miR-103, miR-107, miR-298, miR-328, miR-195, miR-485, and miR-29. In CNS tumors, several miRNAs, including miR-31, miR-16, and miR-21 have been identified to modulate tumorigenesis through impacting tumor invasion and apoptosis. In this review article, we have a look at the recent advances on our knowledge about the role of miRNAs in human brain development and functions, neurodegenerative diseases, and their clinical potentials.

Micro-223 Promotes Diabetic Osteoarthritis Progression by Regulating Cartilage Degeneration and Subchondral Bone Remodeling

OBJECTIVE

Our study was performed to investigate whether micro-223 promotes diabetic Osteoarthritis (OA) progression by regulating cartilage degeneration and subchondral bone remodeling.

METHODS

The expression of miR-223 in human normal cartilage, OA cartilage, and subchondral bone tissue with or without DM was detected by real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). miR-223 mimic or inhibitor was transfected into chondrocytes. Cell viability and apoptosis were assessed by 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo(-2)-3,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase(TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, respectively.

RESULTS

miR-223 was significantly higher in human diabetic OA cartilage and subchondral bone compared with normal OA and healthy control. Overexpression of miR-223 accelerated cartilage degeneration and subchondral bone sclerosis in diabetic OA mice, whereas miR-223 inhibition had the opposite effect. In vitro upregulation of miR-223 decreased proliferation and enhanced apoptosis of chondrocytes. Meanwhile, downregulation of miR-223 promoted glycosaminoglycan (GAG) production in chondrocytes.

CONCLUSION

miR-223 promotes diabetic OA progression by regulating cartilage degeneration and subchondral bone remodeling both in vitro and in vivo.

Dysregulated miRNAs in recurrent miscarriage: A systematic review

Recurrent miscarriage (RM) is a complex reproductive medicine disease that affects many families. The cause of RM is unclear at this time; however, lifestyle and genetic variables may influence the process. The slight alteration in miRNA expression has enormous consequences for a variety of difficulties, one of which may be RM. The target of this systematic study was to provide a framework of the dysregulated miRNAs in RM. The Prisma guidelines were applied to perform current systematic review pertaining to articles in the seven databases. Thirty-nine papers out of 245 received fulfilled all inclusion requirements. From all the mentioned miRNAs, 40 were up-regulated (65.57 %), whereas 21 were down-regulated (34.43 %). These dysregulated miRNAs contributed to the pathophysiology of RM by influencing key pathways and processes such as apoptosis, angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and the immune system. Understanding the dysregulation of miRNAs, as well as the pathways and processes that engage these miRNAs and impact disease pathogenesis, may aid in clarifying the unknown underlying mechanisms of RM and the development of novel molecular therapeutic targets and medical domains.

A Scan of Pleiotropic Immune Mediated Disease Genes Identifies Novel Determinants of Baseline FVIII Inhibitor Status in Hemophilia-A

Hemophilia-A (HA) is caused by heterogeneous loss-of-function factor (F)VIII gene (F8)-mutations and deficiencies in plasma-FVIII-activity that impair intrinsic-pathway-mediated coagulation-amplification. The standard-of-care for severe-HA-patients is regular infusions of therapeutic-FVIII-proteins (tFVIIIs) but ~30% develop neutralizing-tFVIII-antibodies called "FVIII-inhibitors (FEIs)" and become refractory. We used the PATH study and ImmunoChip to scan immune-mediated-disease (IMD)-genes for novel and/or replicated genomic-sequence-variations associated with baseline-FEI-status while accounting for non-independence of data due to genetic-relatedness and F8-mutational-heterogeneity. The baseline-FEI-status of 450 North American PATH subjects-206 with black-African-ancestry and 244 with white-European-ancestry-was the dependent variable. The F8-mutation-data and a genetic-relatedness matrix were incorporated into a binary linear-mixed model of genetic association with baseline-FEI-status. We adopted a gene-centric-association-strategy to scan, as candidates, pleiotropic-IMD-genes implicated in the development of either ³2 autoimmune-/autoinflammatory-disorders (AADs) or ³1 AAD and FEIs. Baseline-FEI-status was significantly associated with SNPs assigned to NOS2A (rs117382854; p=3.2E-6) and B3GNT2 (rs10176009; p=5.1E-6), which have functions in anti-microbial-/-tumoral-immunity. Among IMD-genes implicated in FEI-risk previously, we identified strong associations with CTLA4 assigned SNPs (p=2.2E-5). The F8-mutation-effect underlies ~15% of the total heritability for baseline-FEI-status. Additive genetic heritability and SNPs in IMD-genes account for >50% of the patient-specific variability in baseline-FEI-status. Race is a significant determinant independent of F8-mutation-effects and non-F8-genetics.

Tackling TNF-α in autoinflammatory disorders and autoimmune diseases: From conventional to cutting edge in biologics and RNA- based nanomedicines

Autoinflammatory disorders and autoimmune diseases result from abnormal deviations of innate and adaptive immunity that heterogeneously affect organs and clinical phenotypes. Despite having etiologic and phenotypic differences, these two conditions share the onset of an aberrant inflammatory process. Targeting the main drivers controlling inflammation is useful to treat both autoimmune and autoinflammatory syndromes. TNF-α is a major player in the inflammatory immune response, and anti-TNF-α antibodies have been a revolutionary treatment in many autoimmune disorders. However, production difficulties and high development costs hinder their implementation, and accessibility to their use is still limited. Innovative strategies aimed at overcoming the limitations associated with anti-TNF-α antibodies are being explored, including RNA-based therapies. Here we summarize the central role of TNF-α in immune disorders and how anti-TNF-based immunotherapies changed the therapeutic landscape, albeit with important limitations related to side effects, tolerance, and resistance to therapies. We then outline how nanotechnology has provided the final momentum for the use of nucleic acids in the treatment of autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases, with a focus on inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). The example of IBDs allows the evaluation and discussion of the nucleic acids-based treatments that have been developed, to identify the role that innovative approaches possess in view of the treatment of autoinflammatory disorders and autoimmune diseases.

Identification of potent anti-immunogenic agents through virtual screening, 3D-QSAR studies, and in vitro experiments

A wealth of literature has highlighted the discovery of various immune modulators, frequently used in clinical practice, yet associated with numerous drawbacks. In light of this pharmacological deficiency, medical scientists are motivated to develop new immune modulators with minimized adverse effects yet retaining the improved therapeutic potential. T-cell differentiation and growth are central to human defense and are regulated by interleukin-2 (IL-2), an immune-modulatory cytokine. However, scientific investigation is hindered due to its flat binding site and widespread hotspot residues. In this regard, a prompt and logical investigation guided by integrated computational techniques was undertaken to unravel new and potential leads against IL-2. In particular, the combination of score-based and pharmacophore-based virtual screening approaches were employed, reducing the data from millions of small molecules to a manageable number. Subsequent docking and 3D-QSAR prediction via CoMFA further helped remove false positives from the data. The reliability of the model was assessed via standard metrics, which explain the model's fitness and the robustness of the model in predicting the activity of new compounds. The extensive virtual screening herein led to the identification of a total of 24 leads with potential anti-IL-2 activity. Furthermore, the theoretical findings were corroborated with in vitro testing, further endorsing the anti-inflammatory potential of the identified leads.

Probiotic-Fermented Camel Milk Attenuates Neurodegenerative Symptoms via SOX5/miR-218 Axis Orchestration in Mouse Models

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune-mediated myelin damage disorder in the central nervous system that is widespread among neurological patients. It has been demonstrated that several genetic and epigenetic factors control autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a murine model of MS, through CD4+ T-cell population quantity. Alterations in the gut microbiota influence neuroprotectiveness via unexplored mechanisms. In this study, the ameliorative effect of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens fermented in camel milk (BEY) on an autoimmune-mediated neurodegenerative model using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein/complete fraud adjuvant/pertussis toxin (MCP)-immunized C57BL6j mice is investigated. Anti-inflammatory activity was confirmed in the in vitro cell model, and inflammatory cytokines interleukins IL17 (from EAE 311 to BEY 227 pg/mL), IL6 (from EAE 103 to BEY 65 pg/mL), IFNγ (from EAE 423 to BEY 243 pg/mL) and TGFβ (from EAE 74 to BEY 133 pg/mL) were significantly reduced in BEY-treated mice. The epigenetic factor miR-218-5P was identified and confirmed its mRNA target SOX-5 using in silico tools and expression techniques, suggesting SOX5/miR-218-5p could serve as an exclusive diagnostic marker for MS. Furthermore, BEY improved the short-chain fatty acids, in particular butyrate (from 0.57 to 0.85 µM) and caproic (from 0.64 to 1.33 µM) acids, in the MCP mouse group. BEY treatment significantly regulated the expression of inflammatory transcripts in EAE mice and upregulated neuroprotective markers such as neurexin (from 0.65- to 1.22-fold) (p < 0.05), vascular endothelial adhesion molecules (from 0.41- to 0.76-fold) and myelin-binding protein (from 0.46- to 0.89-fold) (p < 0.03). These findings suggest that BEY could be a promising clinical approach for the curative treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and could promote the use of probiotic food as medicine.

MIR149 rs2292832 and MIR499 rs3746444 Genetic Variants Associated with the Risk of Rheumatoid Arthritis

INTRODUCTION

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that play a key role in post-transcriptional modulation of individual genes' expression. Several miRNA variants from different populations are known to be associated with an increased risk of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

AIM

This study was undertaken with the aim to investigate the association of single nucleotide variants; namely, rs2292832, rs3746444, rs11614913, rs1044165, and rs767649 of MIR149, MIR499, MIR196, MIR223, and MIR155, respectively, with RA in the Pakistani population.

METHODS

A case-control study was performed by recruiting and genotyping a total of 600 individuals (300 cases and 300 controls) for these five variants using a TaqMan single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping assay. The resultant genotypic data was statistically analyzed through a chi-squared test for its association with RA under different inheritance models.

RESULTS

We found a significant association of rs2292832 with RA at genotypic (co-dominant (p < 0.0001), dominant (CC vs. TT + CT: OR 2.063 (1.437-2.962); p = 0.0001), recessive (TT vs. CT + CC: OR 0.376 (0.259-0.548); p < 0.0001)), and allelic (allele C) levels ((OR 0.506 (0.402-0637); p < 0.0001)). Similarly, the rs3746444 showed a significant association with RA under co-dominant (p = 0.0001), dominant (GG vs. AA + AG: OR 5.246 (3.414-8.061); p < 0.0001), recessive (AA vs. GG + AG: OR 0.653 (0.466-0.916); p = 0.014), and additive models (G vs. A; OR 0.779 (0.620-0.978); p = 0.03). However, we did not observe any significant association of rs11614913, rs1044165, or rs767649 with RA in our subjects.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this was the first study that investigated and found an association between functional polymorphisms in miRNAs and RA in the Pakistani population.

Non-coding RNAs in immunoregulation and autoimmunity: Technological advances and critical limitations

Immune cell function is critically dependent on precise control over transcriptional output from the genome. In this respect, integration of environmental signals that regulate gene expression, specifically by transcription factors, enhancer DNA elements, genome topography and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), are key components. The first three have been extensively investigated. Even though non-coding RNAs represent the vast majority of cellular RNA species, this class of RNA remains historically understudied. This is partly because of a lag in technological and bioinformatic innovations specifically capable of identifying and accurately measuring their expression. Nevertheless, recent progress in this domain has enabled a profusion of publications identifying novel sub-types of ncRNAs and studies directly addressing the function of ncRNAs in human health and disease. Many ncRNAs, including circular and enhancer RNAs, have now been demonstrated to play key functions in the regulation of immune cells and to show associations with immune-mediated diseases. Some ncRNAs may function as biomarkers of disease, aiding in diagnostics and in estimating response to treatment, while others may play a direct role in the pathogenesis of disease. Importantly, some are relatively stable and are amenable to therapeutic targeting, for example through gene therapy. Here, we provide an overview of ncRNAs and review technological advances that enable their study and hold substantial promise for the future. We provide context-specific examples by examining the associations of ncRNAs with four prototypical human autoimmune diseases, specifically rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis. We anticipate that the utility and mechanistic roles of these ncRNAs in autoimmunity will be further elucidated in the near future.

Construction and function analysis of the LncRNA-miRNA-mRNA competing endogenous RNA network in autoimmune hepatitis

AIMS

To construct the lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network based on our microarray chip data for providing new insights into the pathogenesis of autoimmune hepatitis.

METHODS

The ceRNA pairs were obtained by calculating the co-expression relationships among the differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs), differentially expressed microRNAs (DEMis), and differentially expressed mRNAs (DEMs) with Pearson correlation analysis and hypergeometric distribution. The data of the differentially expressed genes were obtained from our previous studies in the concanavalin A-induced AIH mouse model. The biological functions of the ceRNA network were revealed by carrying out the GO and KEGG enrichment analysis. The expression of some differentially expressed genes constructed in the ceRNA pair was validated, and the correlation to liver injury was analyzed.

RESULTS

The mRNAs constructed in the ceRNA network were most significantly annotated in the GO terms of "inflammatory response" and enriched in "Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction" and "MAPK signaling pathway". The differences in the expression of Gm38975, mmu-miR-125a-3p, and Map3k13 between the model group and control group were significant, and the expression of these genes at a transcriptional level was positively or negatively correlated to the activity of ALT and AST as well as the amount of MDA and NO.

CONCLUSION

Our work is the first in its kind to predict and illustrate the comprehensive lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA ceRNA network associated with the etiopathogenesis of AIH. This study indicates to lay the foundation for revealing the potential roles of ceRNAs in the occurrence of AIH and provide novel treatment targets for this disease.

Spotlight on a Short-Time Treatment with the IL-4/IL-13 Receptor Blocker in Patients with CRSwNP: microRNAs Modulations and Preliminary Clinical Evidence

Already used for the treatment of some allergic and inflammatory diseases, such as asthma or atopic dermatitis, dupilumab has also been approved as add-on therapy for patients with CRSwNP, and it could represent the keystone to reducing the remission time as well as to improve healing and quality of life. On the other hand, the role of miRNAs as potential biomarkers of immune modulation is emerging. We analyzed the effects of a short-time treatment with dupilumab in patients with CRSwNP, analyzing the immune response modification as well as miRNAs modulations. First, in this early observation stage, all patients experienced remarkable improvement and were clinically stable. Indeed, we observed a significant decrease in CD4+ T cells and a significant reduction in total IgE (p < 0.05) and serum IL-8 levels (p < 0.01), indicating a reduction in the general inflammatory condition. In addition, we analyzed a panel of about 200 circulating miRNAs. After treatment, we noted a significant downregulation of hsa-mir-25-3p (p-value = 0.02415) and hsa-mir-185-5p (p-value = 0.04547), two miRNAs involved in the proliferation, inflammation, and dug-resistance, in accordance with the clinical status of patients. All these preliminary data aimed to identify new biomarkers of prognosis, identifiable with non-invasive procedures for patients. Further, these patients are still under observation, and others with different levels of responsiveness to treatment need to be enrolled to increase the statistical data.

Epigenetic regulation of B cells and its role in autoimmune pathogenesis

B cells play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Although previous studies have shown many genetic polymorphisms associated with B-cell activation in patients with various autoimmune disorders, progress in epigenetic research has revealed new mechanisms leading to B-cell hyperactivation. Epigenetic mechanisms, including those involving histone modifications, DNA methylation, and noncoding RNAs, regulate B-cell responses, and their dysregulation can contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Patients with autoimmune diseases show epigenetic alterations that lead to the initiation and perpetuation of autoimmune inflammation. Moreover, many clinical and animal model studies have shown the promising potential of epigenetic therapies for patients. In this review, we present an up-to-date overview of epigenetic mechanisms with a focus on their roles in regulating functional B-cell subsets. Furthermore, we discuss epigenetic dysregulation in B cells and highlight its contribution to the development of autoimmune diseases. Based on clinical and preclinical evidence, we discuss novel epigenetic biomarkers and therapies for patients with autoimmune disorders.

Using MicroRNA Arrays as a Tool to Evaluate COVID-19 Vaccine Efficacy

In order to solve COVID-19 pandemic, the entire world has invested considerable manpower to develop various new vaccines to temporarily alleviate the disaster caused by the epidemic. In addition to the development of vaccines, we need to also develop effective assessment methods to confirm vaccines’ efficacy and maximize the benefits that vaccines can bring. In addition to common evaluation methods, vaccine-specific and temporal expression of microRNAs have been shown to be related to vaccine efficacy or vaccine-associated diseases. In this article, we have introduced a microRNA-array-based approach, which could be potentially used for evaluating COVID-19 vaccine efficacy, specifically for pregnant women. As the mRNA in mRNA vaccines is decomposed by host cells within a few days, it is considered more suitable for pregnant women to utilize the method of vaccination during pregnancy. Moreover, pregnant women belong to a high-risk group for COVID-19, and there is currently no appropriate vaccine to newborns. Therefore, it’s important to find improved tools for evaluation of vaccine efficacy in response to the current situation caused by COVID-19.

IL-33/ST2 axis in autoimmune disease

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a member of the IL-1 family and plays an ambivalent role in autoimmune diseases. IL-33 signals via the ST2 receptor and drives cytokine production in mast cells, basophils, eosinophils, NK cells, and T lymphocyte cells. The vital role of IL-33 as an active component gives rise to aberrant local and systemic damage which has been demonstrated in numerous inflammatory disorders and immune-mediated pathological conditions including multiple sclerosis (MS), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), psoriasis, Sjogren's syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), etc. IL-33/ST2 axis can up-regulate pro-inflammatory cytokine release in autoimmune disease, however, in some metabolic diseases like diabetes mellitus type 1 IL-33 can be considered an anti-inflammatory cytokine. The purpose of this review is to discuss selected studies on IL-33/ST2 axis in autoimmune diseases and its potential role as a pathogenic or protective cytokine.

Human endothelial cell-derived exosomal microRNA-99a/b drives a sustained inflammatory response during sepsis by inhibiting mTOR expression

The pathophysiology of sepsis and its accompanying hyper-inflammatory response are key events that lead to multi-organ failure and death. A growing body of literature now suggests that the vascular endothelium plays a critical role in driving early events of sepsis progression. In this study, we demonstrate how endothelial-derived exosomes contribute to a successive pro-inflammatory phenotype of monocytes. Exosomes isolated from S. aureus infected endothelial cells drive both CD11b and MHCII expression in monocytes and contribute dysregulated cytokine production. Conversely, healthy endothelial exosomes had no major effect. microRNA (miRNA) profiling of exosomes identified miR-99 upregulation which we hypothesised as driving this phenotypic change through mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Knockdown of mTOR with miR-99a and miR-99b mimetics in S. aureus infected monocytes increased IL-6 and decreased IL-10 production. Interestingly, inhibition of miRNAs with antagomirs has the opposing effect. Collectively, endothelial exosomes are driving a pro-inflammatory phenotype in monocytes through dysregulated expression of miR-99a and miR-99b.

VIP/VPAC Axis Expression in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Disorders: Associated miRNA Signatures

Few studies have considered immune-mediated inflammatory disorders (IMID) together, which is necessary to adequately understand them given they share common mechanisms. Our goal was to investigate the expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and its receptors VPAC1 and VPAC2 in selected IMID, analyze the effect of biological therapies on them, and identify miRNA signatures associated with their expression. Serum VIP levels and mRNA of VPAC and miRNA expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were analyzed from 52 patients with psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, Graves’ disease, or spondyloarthritis and from 38 healthy subjects. IMID patients showed higher levels of VIP and increased expression of VPAC2 compared to controls (p < 0.0001 and p < 0.0192, respectively). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that the levels of VIP or VPAC2 expression were adequate discriminators capable of identifying IMID. Treatment of IMID patients with anti-TNFα and anti-IL12/23 significantly affected serum VIP levels. We identified miRNA signatures associated with levels of serum VIP and VPAC2 expression, which correlated with IMID diagnosis of the patients. The results indicate that the expression of VIP/VPAC2 is able of identify IMIDs and open up a line of research based on the association between the VIP/VPAC axis and miRNA signatures in immune-mediated diseases.

Potential role of interleukin-33 in systemic lupus erythematosus by regulating toll like receptor 4

Introduction

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease characterized by immune activation and multi-immunologic phenotypes. Interleukin-33 (IL-33) has been shown to be a critical and pleiotropic immunoregulatory mediator in the pathogenesis of many autoimmune diseases. At present, there are conflicting findings in the research of IL-33 in SLE. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether and how IL-33 is involved in the occurrence and development of SLE.

Methods

43 SLE patients and 43 healthy volunteers were recruited for this study. Serum levels of IL-33, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-21 were measured by ELISA. The expression of IL-33 was investigated in kidney sections by immunohistochemistry in lupus nephritis patients ( n = 5) and controls ( n = 3). The mRNA expressions of Toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), TLR2, and tumorigenicity 2 (ST2)L were quantified in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by real-time PCR. The surface expression of TLR4 on T cells, B cells, monocytes, and neutrophils was assessed by flow cytometry ( n = 22). Mann–Whitney U-test and Spearman’s test were used for statistical analysis.

Results

Serum concentrations of IL-33 were significantly higher in SLE patients than in healthy controls ( p < 0.0001). IL-33 expressions were positively correlated with IL-4 and IL-6 levels in SLE patients, which play pivotal roles in the autoantibody production. In addition, TLR4 and TLR2 mRNA were markedly increased in PBMCs from SLE patients ( p < 0.05). TLR4 was positively associated with IL-33, while TLR2 was not.

Conclusions

These results imply that upregulated expression of serum IL-33 together with increased TLR4 in PBMCs may contribute to the pathogenesis of SLE via promotion of inflammatory cytokines production.

Non-coding RNAs in malaria infection

Malaria is one of the most severe infectious diseases affecting humans and it is caused by protozoan pathogens of the species Plasmodium (spp.). The malaria parasite Plasmodium is characterized by a complex, multistage life cycle that requires tight gene regulation which allows for host invasion and defense against host immune responses. Unfortunately, the mechanisms regulating gene expression during Plasmodium infection remain largely elusive, though several lines of evidence implicate a major involvement of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). The ncRNAs have been found to play a key role in regulating transcriptional and post-transcriptional events in a broad range of organisms including Plasmodium. In Plasmodium ncRNAs have been shown to regulate key events in the multistage life cycle and virulence ability. Here we review recent progress involving ncRNAs (microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs) and their role as regulators of gene expression during Plasmodium infection in human hosts with focus on the possibility of using these molecules as biomarkers for monitoring disease status. We also discuss the surprising function of ncRNAs in mediating the complex interplay between parasite and human host and future perspectives of the field. This article is categorized under: RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in Disease.

Circulating microRNAs in Medicine

Circulating microRNAs (c-microRNAs, c-miRNAs), which are present in almost all biological fluids, are promising sensitive biomarkers for various diseases (oncological and cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative pathologies, etc.), and their signatures accurately reflect the state of the body. Studies of the expression of microRNA markers show that they can enable a wide range of diseases to be diagnosed before clinical symptoms are manifested, and they can help to assess a patient’s response to therapy in order to correct and personalize treatments. This review discusses the latest trends in the uses of miRNAs for diagnosing and treating various diseases, viral and non-viral. It is concluded that exogenous microRNAs can be used as high-precision therapeutic agents for these purposes.

Association between miRNA-499 gene polymorphism and autoimmune diseases: A meta-analysis

Introduction

The association between miRNA-499 rs3746444 and a variety of autoimmune diseases has been reported. However, these results were contradictory and just focused on one or two autoimmune diseases. The present study aims to examine the possible association between rs3746444 polymorphism and the risk of autoimmune diseases.

Methods

The studies that evaluated the association between miRNA-499 gene polymorphism and autoimmune diseases were retrieved. Five different genetic models were used to evaluate the association. The random-effects model was used to pool the effect sizes. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to estimate the associations. Stratification analyses were performed by ethnicity and type of autoimmune diseases. False-positive report probability (FPRP) was performed for determining noteworthy associations.

Results

Seventeen articles (twenty studies) involving 4,376 cases and 4,991 controls were identified and included in our meta-analysis. The pooled ORs of all eligible case-control studies indicated a significant association between miRNA-499 gene polymorphism and autoimmune diseases: (T vs. C: OR = 0.877; 95% CI: 0.774, 0.993; P = 0.039). Stratified analysis indicated a significant association across both Caucasian (TT vs. TC+CC: OR = 0.779; 95% CI: 0.622, 0.976; P = 0.030) and Asian (T vs. C: OR = 0.895; 95% CI: 0.808, 0.992; P = 0.035) populations. There was also a significant association in Behcet’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and ulcerative colitis populations.

Conclusions

Our meta-analysis suggested that the miRNA-499 rs3746444 polymorphism was associated with an elevated risk of autoimmune diseases in the overall analysis as well as Caucasian and Asian populations.

Inhibition of microRNA-448 suppresses CD4+ T cell inflammatory activation via up-regulating suppressor of cytokine signaling 5 in systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease. MicroRNA-448 (miR-448) has a pro-inflammatory effect in various inflammation-related diseases and is up-regulated in serum of patients with SLE. However, the role of miR-448 in SLE development remains elusive. In our study, we found high expression of miR-448 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of SLE patients, and miR-448 level was positively associated with disease severity. Besides, miR-448 level was up-regulated during the growth of MRL/lpr mice. To investigate the function of miR-448 in SLE, we subjected 8-week MRL/lpr mice to injection of lentivirus (LV)-mediated anti-miR-448. Inhibition of miR-448 reduced serum IgG and anti-dsDNA IgG contents, 24 h urine protein and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels, increased complement C3 concentration, and ameliorated splenomegaly and lymphadenectasis in MRL/lpr mice. MiR-448 inhibition alleviated renal inflammatory infiltration and glycogen deposition. Moreover, miR-448 inhibition promoted Treg cell activation and inhibited Th17 cell proportion in naïve CD4+ T cells from spleens, along with elevated interleukin (IL)-10 and reduced IL-17A levels. In vitro, miR-448 inhibition diminished CD4+ T cell polarization toward Th17 cells under Th17-polarizing conditions. Further, luciferase reporter assay revealed that miR-448 binds to the 3'UTR of suppressor of cytokine signaling 5 (SOCS5). SOCS5 expression was down-regulated in the spleens of MRL/lpr mice and induced Th17 cells. SOCS5 deficiency partially reversed the role of miR-448 in Th17 differentiation and IL-17A expression in SLE. Taken together, inhibition of miR-448 impedes Th17 cell activation and tissue damages via targeting SOCS5 in SLE.

Long non-coding RNA KCNQ1OT1 overexpression promotes osteogenic differentiation of staphylococcus aureus-infected human bone mesenchymal stem cells by sponging microRNA miR-29b-3p

Osteomyelitis (OM) is an orthopedic disease caused by bone infections in the bone cortex, bone marrow, periosteum, and surrounding soft tissues. Recent studies have implicated non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the development of OM. However, little is known about the role of ncRNAs in the osteogenic differentiation during bone infection. In the present study, we investigated the role of KCNQ1OT1/miR-29b-3p axis in osteogenic differentiation in staphylococcus aureus (SpA)-infected human bone mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs). We first examined the expression of lncRNA KCNQ1OT1 and miR-29b-3p in the serum samples of OM patients and healthy controls. We also infected hBMSCs with different concentrations of SpA and studied the osteogenic differentiation after infection. Our results revealed that KCNQ1OT1 was downregulated while miR-29b-3p was upregulated in the serum samples of OM patients, as well as in SpA-infected hBMSCs. Overexpression of KCNQ1OT1 ameliorated the damage in hBMSCs caused by SpA infection. KCNQ1OT1 could support hBMSCs osteogenic differentiation by enhancing ALP activity, alizarin red S accumulation, expressions of osteogenic markers, and attenuating inflammatory responses after SpA infection. We further showed that miR-29b-3p was a downstream target of KCNQ1OT1, mediating the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs during SpA infection. Our data suggest that KCNQ1OT1 could ameliorate the SpA-induced suppression of osteogenic differentiation in hBMSCs by sponging miR-29b-3p. Modulating KCNQ1OT1 expression may serve as a strategy to ameliorate osteomyelitis.

Four MicroRNAs, miR-13b-3p, miR-278-5p, miR-10483-5p, and miR-10485-5p, Mediate Insecticide Tolerance in Spodoptera frugiperda

Spodoptera frugiperda is the world’s major agricultural pest and has the distinctive features of high fecundity, strong migratory capacity, and high resistance to most insecticides. At present, the control of S. frugiperda in China relies mainly on the spraying of chemical insecticides. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs and play crucial regulatory roles in various physiological processes, including the insecticide resistance in insects. However, little is known about the regulatory roles of miRNAs on the resistance of S. frugiperda to insecticides. In the present research, the miRNAs that were differentially expressed after cyantraniliprole, spinetoram, and emamectin benzoate treatment were analyzed by RNA-Seq. A total of 504 miRNAs were systematically identified from S. frugiperda, and 24, 22, and 31 miRNAs were differentially expressed after treatments of cyantraniliprole, spinetoram, and emamectin benzoate. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were used to predict the function of differentially expressed target genes of miRNAs. Importantly, ten miRNAs were significantly differentially expressed among the treatments of three insecticides. miR-278-5p, miR-13b-3p, miR-10485-5p, and miR-10483-5p were significantly downregulated among the treatments of three insecticides by RT-qPCR. Furthermore, the overexpression of miR-278-5p, miR-13b-3p, miR-10485-5p, and miR-10483-5p significantly increased the mortality of S. frugiperda to cyantraniliprole and emamectin benzoate. The mortality was significantly increased with spinetoram treatment after the overexpression of miR-13b-3p, miR-10485-5p, and miR-10483-5p. These results suggest that miRNAs, which are differentially expressed in response to insecticides, may play a key regulatory role in the insecticide tolerance in S. frugiperda.

MicroRNAs Play a Role in Parkinson’s Disease by Regulating Microglia Function: From Pathogenetic Involvement to Therapeutic Potential

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a clinically common neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra. Microglia (MG), as an innate immune cell in the CNS, are involved in a variety of immunity and inflammatory responses in the CNS. A number of studies have shown that the overactivation of MG is one of the critical pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PD. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are considered to be an important class of gene expression regulators and are involved in a variety of physiological and pathological mechanisms, including immunity and inflammation. In addition, miRNAs can affect the progress of PD by regulating the expression of various MG genes and the polarization state of the MG. Here, we summarize recent articles and describe the important role of MG pathological polarization in the progression of PD, the diverse mechanisms responsible for how miRNAs regulate MG, and the potential therapeutic prospects of miRNAs for PD. We also propose that the regulation of miRNAs may be a novel protective approach against the pathogenesis of PD.

Non-Invasive microRNA Profiling in Saliva can Serve as a Biomarker of Alcohol Exposure and Its Effects in Humans

Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is one of the most prevalent mental disorders worldwide. Considering the widespread occurrence of AUD, a reliable, cheap, non-invasive biomarker of alcohol consumption is desired by healthcare providers, clinicians, researchers, public health and criminal justice officials. microRNAs could serve as such biomarkers. They are easily detectable in saliva, which can be sampled from individuals in a non-invasive manner. Moreover, microRNAs expression is dynamically regulated by environmental factors, including alcohol. Since excessive alcohol consumption is a hallmark of alcohol abuse, we have profiled microRNA expression in the saliva of chronic, heavy alcohol abusers using microRNA microarrays. We observed significant changes in salivary microRNA expression caused by excessive alcohol consumption. These changes fell into three categories: downregulated microRNAs, upregulated microRNAs, and microRNAs upregulated de novo. Analysis of these combinatorial changes in microRNA expression suggests dysregulation of specific biological pathways leading to impairment of the immune system and development of several types of epithelial cancer. Moreover, some of the altered microRNAs are also modulators of inflammation, suggesting their contribution to pro-inflammatory mechanisms of alcohol actions. Establishment of the cellular source of microRNAs in saliva corroborated these results. We determined that most of the microRNAs in saliva come from two types of cells: leukocytes involved in immune responses and inflammation, and buccal cells, involved in development of epithelial, oral cancers. In summary, we propose that microRNA profiling in saliva can be a useful, non-invasive biomarker allowing the monitoring of alcohol abuse, as well as alcohol-related inflammation and early detection of cancer.

miR-31, miR-155, and miR-221 expression profiles and their association with graft skin tolerance in a syngeneic vs. allogeneic murine skin transplantation model

Grafting is the gold standard for the treatment of severe skin burns. Frequently, allogeneic tissue is the only transient option for wound coverage, but their use risks damage to surrounding tissues. MicroRNAs have been associated with acute rejection of different tissues/organs. In this study, we analyzed the expression of miR-31, miR-155, and miR-221 and associate it with graft tolerance or rejection using a murine full-thickness skin transplantation model. Recipient animals for the syngeneic and allogeneic groups were BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice, respectively; donor tissues were obtained from BALB/c mice. After 7 days post-transplantation (DPT), the recipient skin and grafts in the syngeneic group maintained most of their structural characteristics and transforming growth factor (TGF)β1 and TGFβ3 expression. Allografts were rejected early (Banff grades II and IV at 3 and 7 DPT, respectively), showing damage to the skin architecture and alteration of TGFβ3 distribution. miRNAs skin expression changed in both mouse strains; miR-31 expression increased in the recipient skin of syngeneic grafts relative to that of allogeneic grafts at 3 and 7 DPT (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively); miR-221 expression increased in the same grafts at 7 DPT (p < 0.05). The only significant difference between donor tissues was observed for miR-155 expression at 7 DPT which was associated with necrotic tissue. Only miR-31 and miR-221 levels were increased in the blood of BALB/c mice that received syngeneic grafts after 7 DPT. Our data suggest that local and systemic miR-31 and miR-221 overexpression are associated with graft tolerance.

PM10 Alters Trophoblast Cell Function and Modulates miR-125b-5p Expression

Air pollution is one of the largest global environmental health hazards that threaten premature mortality or morbidity. Particulate matter 10 (PM10) has been demonstrated to contribute to several human diseases via dysregulated miRNA expression. Trophoblast cells play a key role in implantation and placentation for a successful pregnancy. Nonetheless, the PM10 associated trophoblast cell functions during pregnancy and miRNA expression are still unknown. Our study showed that PM10 affected HTR-8/SVneo cell viability and also decreased cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. A high concentration of PM10 caused an increase in HTR-8/SVneo cell apoptosis. Treatment with PM10 induced inflammation through the upregulated IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α expression in trophoblast cells. In PM10-treated HTR-8/SVneo cells, miR-125b-5p expression was considerably increased and TXNRD1 was found to be negatively related to miR-125b-5p. Collectively, our findings revealed that PM10 could alter miR-125b-5p expression by targeting TXNRD1 and suppressing trophoblast cell functions. Additional investigations relating to the function of miR-125b-5p and its target on particulate pollution exposure in trophoblast are warranted for future biomarker or effective therapeutic approaches.

miRNA-Signature of Irradiated Ptch1+/- Mouse Lens is Dependent on Genetic Background

One harmful long-term effect of ionizing radiation is cataract development. Recent studies have been focused on elucidating the mechanistic pathways involved in this pathogenesis. Since accumulating evidence has established a role of microRNAs in ocular diseases, including cataract, the goal of this work was to determine the microRNA signature of the mouse lens, at short time periods postirradiation, to understand the mechanisms related to radio-induced cataractogenesis. To evaluate the differences in the microRNA profiles, 10-week-old Patched1 heterozygous (Ptch1+/-) mice, bred onto two different genetic backgrounds (CD1 and C57Bl/6J), received whole-body 2 Gy γ-ray irradiation, and 24 h later lenses were collected. Next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics analysis revealed that genetic background markedly influenced the list of the deregulated microRNAs and the mainly predicted perturbed biological functions of 2 Gy irradiated Ptch1+/- mouse lenses. We identified a subset of microRNAs with a contra-regulated expression between strains, with a key role in regulating Toll-like receptor (TLR)-signaling pathways. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of miRNome data showed a completely different DNA damage response in mouse lenses 24 h postirradiation, mainly mediated by a marked upregulation of p53 signaling in Ptch1+/-/C57Bl/6J lenses that was not detected on a CD1 background. We propose a strict interplay between p53 and TLR signaling in Ptch1+/-/C57Bl/6J lenses shortly after irradiation that could explain both the resistance of this strain to developing lens opacities and the susceptibility of CD1 background to radiation-induced cataractogenesis through activation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis ESAT6 modulates host innate immunity by downregulating miR-222-3p target PTEN

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, and it is instant to discover novel anti-TB drugs due to the rapidly growing drug-resistance TB. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) secreted effector ESAT6 plays a critical role in modulation miRNAs to regulate host defense mechanisms during Mtb infection, it can be a possible target for new tuberculosis drugs. The non-tuberculous mycobacteria Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis) and Mtb have high gene homology but no pathogenicity. We used ESAT6 to interfere with macrophages or mice infected by M. smegmatis and determined that it enhanced the survival rate of bacteria and regulated miR-222-3p target PTEN. Expression of miR-222-3p reduced and PTEN enhanced with the progression of macrophages infected by M. smegmatis with ESAT6 co-incubation. MiR-222-3p overexpression diminished M. smegmatis survival and upregulated proinflammatory cytokines. VO-Ohpic trihydrate (PTEN inhibitor) reduced M. smegmatis survival and upregulated proinflammatory cytokines in vivo and in vitro, and VO-Ohpic trihydrate reversed the tissue damage of mouse organs caused by ESAT6. These results uncover an ESAT6 dependent role for miR-222-3p and its target PTEN in regulating host immune responses to bacterial infection and may provide a potential site for the development of anti-tuberculosis drugs that specifically antagonize the virulence of ESAT6.

Cervical Cancer, Papillomavirus, and miRNA Dysfunction

Cervical cancer is the leading cause of death by cancer in women from developing countries. Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18 is a major risk factor for cervical carcinogenesis. Nevertheless, only a few women with morphologic expression of HPV infection progress into invasive disease suggesting the involvement of other factors in cervical carcinogenesis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are conserved small non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate gene expression including genes involved in fundamental biological processes and human cancer. Dysregulation of miRNAs has been widely reported in cervical cancer. This work focuses on reviewing the miRNAs affected during the HPV infection process, as well relevant miRNAs that contribute to the development and maintenance of malignant cervical tumor cells. Finally, we recapitulate on miRNAs that may be used to distinguish between healthy individuals from patients with precancerous lesions or cervical tumors.

miRNAs, from Evolutionary Junk to Possible Prognostic Markers and Therapeutic Targets in COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a public health issue around the world in the last few years. Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment to fight the disease. Thus, it is essential to highlight possible prognostic predictors that could identify patients with a high risk of developing complications. Within this framework, miRNA biomolecules play a vital role in the genetic regulation of various genes, principally, those related to the pathophysiology of the disease. Here, we review the interaction of host and viral microRNAs with molecular and cellular elements that could potentiate the main pulmonary, cardiac, renal, circulatory, and neuronal complications in COVID-19 patients. miR-26a, miR-29b, miR-21, miR-372, and miR-2392, among others, have been associated with exacerbation of the inflammatory process, increasing the risk of a cytokine storm. In addition, increased expression of miR-15b, -199a, and -491 are related to the prognosis of the disease, and miR-192 and miR-323a were identified as clinical predictors of mortality in patients admitted to the intensive care unit. Finally, we address miR-29, miR-122, miR-155, and miR-200, among others, as possible therapeutic targets. However, more studies are required to confirm these findings.

Particulate Matter-Induced Acute Coronary Syndrome: MicroRNAs as Microregulators for Inflammatory Factors

The most prevalent cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide is acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and its consequences. Exposure to particulate matter (PM) from air pollution has been shown to impair both. Various plausible pathogenic mechanisms have been identified, including microRNAs (miRNAs), an epigenetic regulator for gene expression. Endogenous miRNAs, average 22-nucleotide RNAs (ribonucleic acid), regulate gene expression through mRNA cleavage or translation repression and can influence proinflammatory gene expression posttranscriptionally. However, little is known about miRNA responses to fine PM (PM_2.5, PM₁₀, ultrafine particles, black carbon, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) from air pollution and their potential contribution to cardiovascular consequences, including systemic inflammation regulation. For the past decades, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as novel, prospective diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in various illnesses, including ACS. We wanted to outline some of the most important studies in the field and address the possible utility of miRNAs in regulating particulate matter-induced ACS (PMIA) on inflammatory factors in this review.

Cytokine storm in the pathophysiology of COVID-19: Possible functional disturbances of miRNAs

SARS-CoV-2, as the causative agent of COVID-19, is an enveloped positives-sense single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Beta-CoVs sub-family. A sophisticated hyper-inflammatory reaction named cytokine storm is occurred in patients with severe/critical COVID-19, following an imbalance in immune-inflammatory processes and inhibition of antiviral responses by SARS-CoV-2, which leads to pulmonary failure, ARDS, and death. The miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs with an average length of 22 nucleotides which play various roles as one of the main modulators of genes expression and maintenance of immune system homeostasis. Recent evidence has shown that Homo sapiens (hsa)-miRNAs have the potential to work in three pivotal areas including targeting the virus genome, regulating the inflammatory signaling pathways, and reinforcing the production/signaling of IFNs-I. However, it seems that several SARS-CoV-2-induced interfering agents such as viral (v)-miRNAs, cytokine content, competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), etc. preclude efficient function of hsa-miRNAs in severe/critical COVID-19. This subsequently leads to increased virus replication, intense inflammatory processes, and secondary complications development. In this review article, we provide an overview of hsa-miRNAs roles in viral genome targeting, inflammatory pathways modulation, and IFNs responses amplification in severe/critical COVID-19 accompanied by probable interventional factors and their function. Identification and monitoring of these interventional elements can help us in designing the miRNAs-based therapy for the reduction of complications/mortality rate in patients with severe/critical forms of the disease.

MicroRNAs in IgA nephropathy

IgA nephropathy (IgAN) is the most common primary glomerulonephritis worldwide. It is considered that the pathogenesis of IgAN involves the ‘multiple hit theory’ and the immune-inflammatory mechanism; however, these theories have certain limitations. The gold standard for diagnosing IgAN is still renal biopsy. Although renal biopsy is accurate, it is traumatic and is associated with some risks and limitations, so there is a need for non-invasive diagnostic methods. According to recent studies, microRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in the occurrence and development of IgAN; thus, they provide the possibility of the noninvasive diagnosis of IgAN and also have some value in predicting prognosis. This review summarizes the current research status of miRNAs in the occurrence, development, diagnosis, and prognosis of IgAN. We also highlight some interesting and challenging points that require further study.

Bioassay-Guided Isolation of an Abetiane-Type Diterpenoid from Prunella vulgaris That Protects against Concanavalin A-Induced Autoimmune Hepatitis

Prunella vulgaris is a widely used edible Chinese medicinal plant. In the present study, two new abietane-type diterpenoids, abietoquinones A (1) and B (2), were isolated from this plant by an immunosuppressive bioassay-guided isolation procedure. Their structures were elucidated unambiguously by NMR spectroscopic analysis, single-crystal X-ray crystallography, and electronic circular dichroism calculations. Compounds 1 and 2 bear a cyclohex-2-ene-1,4-dione moiety, which is uncommon among abietane diterpenes. Also, abietoquinone A (1) suppressed murine splenocyte proliferation and decreased the production of proinflammatory cytokines induced by concanavalin A (Con A) in vitro. In Con A-challenged mice, preinjection with 1 significantly ameliorated liver injury. Additionally, abietoquinone A (1) exhibited inhibitory activities against the proliferation of murine splenocytes and human T cells induced by anti-CD3/anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs).

Differential long non-coding RNA expression profile and function analysis in primary Sjogren's syndrome

BACKGROUND

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by abnormal immune cell activation. This study aimed to investigate differentially expressed long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in patients with pSS to identify lncRNAs that affect pSS pathogenesis.

METHODS

Total RNA was extrated from PBMCs of 30 patients with pSS and 15 healthy persons. Transcriptome sequencing was used to screen differentially expressed lncRNAs and mRNAs in 8 RNA samples from the discovery cohort. The differentially expressed mRNAs underwent functional enrichment analysis. A protein interaction relationship (PPI) and competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network was constructed. Real-time PCR was used to validate screened lncRNAs in all 45 RNA samples..

RESULTS

1180 lncRNAs and 640 mRNAs were differentially expressed in pSS patients (fold change > 2 in healthy persons). The PPI network was constructed with 640 mRNAs and a ceRNA network with four key lncRNAs (GABPB1-AS1, PSMA3-AS1, LINC00847 and SNHG1). Real-time PCR revealed that GABPB1-AS1 and PSMA3-AS1 were significantly up-regulated 3.0- and 1.4-fold in the pSS group, respectively. The GABPB1-AS1 expression level was positively correlated with the percentage of B cells and IgG levels.

CONCLUSIONS

GABPB1-AS1 was significently up-regulated in pSS patients, and its expression level is positively correlated with the percentage of B cells and IgG levels. GABPB1-AS1 may be involved in the pathogenesis of pSS and may be a promising biological marker.