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Naranjo O, Torices S, Clifford PR, Rodriguez T, Osborne OM, Tiburcio D, Fattakhov N, Park M, Stevenson M, Toborek M. AKT signaling modulates latent viral reservoir viability in HIV-1-infected blood-brain barrier pericytes. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:105526. [PMID: 38043797 PMCID: PMC10777012 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite antiretroviral therapy (ART), chronic forms of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) affect an estimated 50% of individuals living with HIV, greatly impacting their quality of life. The prevailing theory of HAND progression posits that chronic inflammation arising from the activation of latent viral reservoirs leads to progressive damage in the central nervous system (CNS). Recent evidence indicates that blood-brain barrier (BBB) pericytes are capable of active HIV-1 infection; however, their latent infection has not been defined. Given their location and function, BBB pericytes are poised to be a key viral reservoir in the development of HAND. We present the first transcriptional analysis of uninfected, active, and latent human BBB pericytes, revealing distinct transcriptional phenotypes. In addition, we demonstrate that latent infection of BBB pericytes relies on AKT signaling for reservoir survival. These findings provide insight into the state of reservoir maintenance in the CNS during HIV-1 infection and provide novel targets for reservoir clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oandy Naranjo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
| | - Silvia Torices
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Paul R Clifford
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Thaidy Rodriguez
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Olivia M Osborne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Destiny Tiburcio
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Nikolai Fattakhov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Minseon Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Mario Stevenson
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Michal Toborek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA.
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2
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Schuind AE, Rees H, Schiller J, Mugo N, Dull P, Barnabas R, Clifford GM, Liu G, Madhi SA, Morse RB, Moscicki AB, Palefsky JM, Plotkin S, Sierra MS, Slifka MK, Vorsters A, Kreimer AR, Didierlaurent AM. State-of-the-Science of human papillomavirus vaccination in women with human immunodeficiency Virus: Summary of a scientific workshop. Prev Med Rep 2023; 35:102331. [PMID: 37576844 PMCID: PMC10413150 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The burden of cervical cancer is disproportionately distributed globally, with the vast majority of cases occurring in low- and middle-income countries. Women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (WWH) are at increased risk of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and cervical cancer as compared to HIV-negative individuals. HPV vaccination remains a priority in regions with a high burden of cervical cancer and high HIV prevalence. With HPV vaccines becoming more accessible, optimal use beyond the initial World Health Organization-recommended target population of 9 to 14-year-old girls is an important question. In March 2022, a group of experts in epidemiology, immunology, and vaccinology convened to discuss the state-of-the-science of HPV vaccination in WWH. This report summarizes the proceedings: review of HIV epidemiology and its intersection with cervical cancer burden, immunology, HPV vaccination including reduced-dose schedules and experience with other vaccines in people with HIV (PWH), HPV vaccination strategies and knowledge gaps, and outstanding research questions. Studies of HPV vaccine effectiveness among WWH, including duration of protection, are limited. Until data from ongoing research is available, the current recommendation for WWH remains for a multi-dose HPV vaccination regimen. A focus of the discussion included the potential impact of HIV acquisition following HPV vaccination. With no data currently existing for HPV vaccines and limited information from non-HPV vaccines, this question requires further research. Implementation research on optimal HPV vaccine delivery approaches for WWH and other priority populations is also urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Helen Rees
- Wits Reproductive Health and HIV Institute (Wits RHI), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - John Schiller
- National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
| | - Nelly Mugo
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya and Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Peter Dull
- Vaccine Development, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, United States
| | - Ruanne Barnabas
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mass General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Gary M. Clifford
- Early Detection, Prevention, and Infections Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC/WHO), Lyon, France
| | - Gui Liu
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Shabir A. Madhi
- South African Medical Research Council Vaccines and Infectious Diseases Analytics Research Unit, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | - Anna-Barbara Moscicki
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Joel M. Palefsky
- University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, United States
| | - Stanley Plotkin
- Department of Pediatrics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Mónica S. Sierra
- National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
| | - Mark K. Slifka
- Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, United States
| | - Alex Vorsters
- Vaccine & Infectious Disease Institute, Centre for the Evaluation of Vaccination, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Aimée R. Kreimer
- National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
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Liu H, Chen C, Liao S, Sohaii DK, Cruz CR, Burdo TH, Cradick TJ, Mehta A, Barrero C, Florez M, Gordon J, Grauzam S, Dressman J, Amini S, Bollard CM, Kaminski R, Khalili K. Strategic self-limiting production of infectious HIV particles by CRISPR in permissive cells. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2023; 32:1010-1025. [PMID: 37346975 PMCID: PMC10280355 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2023.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Post-translational glycosylation of the HIV-1 envelope protein involving precursor glycan trimming by mannosyl oligosaccharide glucosidase (MOGS) is critically important for morphogenesis of virions and viral entry. Strategic editing of the MOGS gene in T lymphocytes and myeloid origin cells harboring latent proviral DNA results in the production of non-infectious particles upon treatment of cells with latency reversal agents. Controlled activation of CRISPR-MOGS by rebound HIV-1 mitigates production of infectious particles that exhibit poor ability of the virus to penetrate uninfected cells. Moreover, exclusive activation of CRISPR in cells infected with HIV-1 alleviates concern for broad off-target impact of MOGS gene ablation in uninfected cells. Combination CRISPR treatment of peripheral blood lymphocytes prepared from blood of people with HIV-1 (PWH) tailored for editing the MOGS gene (CRISPR-MOGS) and proviral HIV-1 DNA (CRISPR-HIV) revealed a cooperative impact of CRISPR treatment in inhibiting the production of infectious HIV-1 particles. Our design for genetic inactivation of MOGS by CRISPR exhibits no detectable off-target effects on host cells or any deleterious impact on cell survival and proliferation. Our findings offer the development of a new combined gene editing-based cure strategy for the diminution of HIV-1 spread after cessation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and its elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Liu
- Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, 7th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Chen Chen
- Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, 7th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Shuren Liao
- Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, 7th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Danielle K. Sohaii
- Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Children’s National Health System, The George Washington University, 7144 13th Place NW, Washington, DC 20012, USA
| | - Conrad R.Y. Cruz
- Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Children’s National Health System, The George Washington University, 7144 13th Place NW, Washington, DC 20012, USA
| | - Tricia H. Burdo
- Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, 7th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Thomas J. Cradick
- Excision Biotherapeutics, Inc., 499 Jackson Street, San Francisco, CA 94111, USA
| | - Anand Mehta
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology, Medical University of South Carolina, Basic Science Building, Room 310, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Carlos Barrero
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Temple University, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Magda Florez
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Temple University, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Jennifer Gordon
- Excision Biotherapeutics, Inc., 499 Jackson Street, San Francisco, CA 94111, USA
| | - Stephane Grauzam
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology, Medical University of South Carolina, Basic Science Building, Room 310, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - James Dressman
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology, Medical University of South Carolina, Basic Science Building, Room 310, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Shohreh Amini
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, 1900 North 12th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | - Catherine M. Bollard
- Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Children’s National Health System, The George Washington University, 7144 13th Place NW, Washington, DC 20012, USA
| | - Rafal Kaminski
- Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, 7th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Kamel Khalili
- Center for Neurovirology and Gene Editing, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Inflammation, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, 3500 N. Broad Street, 7th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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4
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The Role of Toll-like Receptor 2 (TLR2) in the Development and Progression of Hashimoto’s Disease (HD): A Case Study on Female Patients in Poland. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065344. [PMID: 36982416 PMCID: PMC10049147 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, commonly known as HD, is one of the most common thyroid disorders. Due to the diverse factors affecting the etiopathogenesis of this disease (hormonal disorders and genetic and environmental factors), as well as the direct involvement of the immune system, scientists are increasingly willing to undertake research aimed at explaining the impact of the loss of immune tolerance and reactivity of autoantigens on the development of the disease. One of the directions of research in recent years is the role of the innate immune response, particularly Toll-like receptors (TLRs), in the pathogenesis of HD. The purpose of this study was to determine the importance of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) expression on selected populations of immune cells, namely, monocytes (MONs) and dendritic cells (DCs), in the course of HD. Particular attention was paid to the analysis of TLR2’s correlation with clinical parameters and the possibility its use as a potential biomarker molecule in the diagnostic process. Based on the obtained results, we found a statistically significant increase in the percentage of all analyzed populations of immune cells, i.e., mDC BDCA-1+CD19−, pDC BDCA-1+CD123, classical MONs CD14+CD16−, and non-classical MONs CD14+CD16+ showing on their surface TLR2 expression in patients diagnosed with HD compared to the healthy volunteers. Moreover, in the study group, we noted a more than 6-fold increase in the concentration of the soluble form of TLR2 in plasma compared to healthy patients. In addition, the correlation analysis showed significant positive correlations between the level of TLR2 expression on selected subpopulations of immune cells and biochemical indicators of thyroid function. Based on the obtained results, we can assume that TLR2 may be involved in the immunopathogenesis of HD.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW In the gastro-intestinal tract, the complex network of multiple innate cell populations play critical roles not only as a first line of defense against invading pathogens and in driving adaptive immune responses but also in maintaining intestinal homeostasis. Here, we describe the roles of various innate immune cell populations in gut immunity and detail studies investigating the impact of acute and chronic HIV infection on these cell populations. RECENT FINDINGS Alterations in frequencies, phenotype and/or function of innate lymphoid cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and innate-like T cells have been reported in people with HIV (PWH), with many of these features persisting despite anti-retroviral therapy and virological suppression. Dysregulated gut innate immunity in PWH is a feature of gut pathogenesis. A greater understanding of the mechanisms driving impairment in the multiple different gut innate immune cell populations and the downstream consequences of an altered innate immune response on host defense and gut homeostasis in PWH is needed to develop more effective HIV treatments and cure strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Dillon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Mail Stop B168, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Cara C Wilson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12700 E. 19th Avenue, Mail Stop B168, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
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6
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Turner CT, Brown J, Shaw E, Uddin I, Tsaliki E, Roe JK, Pollara G, Sun Y, Heather JM, Lipman M, Chain B, Noursadeghi M. Persistent T Cell Repertoire Perturbation and T Cell Activation in HIV After Long Term Treatment. Front Immunol 2021; 12:634489. [PMID: 33732256 PMCID: PMC7959740 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.634489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective In people living with HIV (PLHIV), we sought to test the hypothesis that long term anti-retroviral therapy restores the normal T cell repertoire, and investigate the functional relationship of residual repertoire abnormalities to persistent immune system dysregulation. Methods We conducted a case-control study in PLHIV and HIV-negative volunteers, of circulating T cell receptor repertoires and whole blood transcriptomes by RNA sequencing, complemented by metadata from routinely collected health care records. Results T cell receptor sequencing revealed persistent abnormalities in the clonal T cell repertoire of PLHIV, characterized by reduced repertoire diversity and oligoclonal T cell expansion correlated with elevated CD8 T cell counts. We found no evidence that these expansions were driven by cytomegalovirus or another common antigen. Increased frequency of long CDR3 sequences and reduced frequency of public sequences among the expanded clones implicated abnormal thymic selection as a contributing factor. These abnormalities in the repertoire correlated with systems level evidence of persistent T cell activation in genome-wide blood transcriptomes. Conclusions The diversity of T cell receptor repertoires in PLHIV on long term anti-retroviral therapy remains significantly depleted, and skewed by idiosyncratic clones, partly attributable to altered thymic output and associated with T cell mediated chronic immune activation. Further investigation of thymic function and the antigenic drivers of T cell clonal selection in PLHIV are critical to efforts to fully re-establish normal immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin T. Turner
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - James Brown
- Departments of HIV and Respiratory Medicine, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- UCL Respiratory, Division of Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Shaw
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Imran Uddin
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Evdokia Tsaliki
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer K. Roe
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gabriele Pollara
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yuxin Sun
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - James M. Heather
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Lipman
- Departments of HIV and Respiratory Medicine, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- UCL Respiratory, Division of Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Benny Chain
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mahdad Noursadeghi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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7
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Munford RS, Weiss JP, Lu M. Biochemical transformation of bacterial lipopolysaccharides by acyloxyacyl hydrolase reduces host injury and promotes recovery. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:17842-17851. [PMID: 33454018 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.rev120.015254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals can sense the presence of microbes in their tissues and mobilize their own defenses by recognizing and responding to conserved microbial structures (often called microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs)). Successful host defenses may kill the invaders, yet the host animal may fail to restore homeostasis if the stimulatory microbial structures are not silenced. Although mice have many mechanisms for limiting their responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major Gram-negative bacterial MAMP, a highly conserved host lipase is required to extinguish LPS sensing in tissues and restore homeostasis. We review recent progress in understanding how this enzyme, acyloxyacyl hydrolase (AOAH), transforms LPS from stimulus to inhibitor, reduces tissue injury and death from infection, prevents prolonged post-infection immunosuppression, and keeps stimulatory LPS from entering the bloodstream. We also discuss how AOAH may increase sensitivity to pulmonary allergens. Better appreciation of how host enzymes modify LPS and other MAMPs may help prevent tissue injury and hasten recovery from infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Munford
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
| | - Jerrold P Weiss
- Inflammation Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Mingfang Lu
- Department of Immunology and Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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Soto JA, Gálvez NMS, Andrade CA, Pacheco GA, Bohmwald K, Berrios RV, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. The Role of Dendritic Cells During Infections Caused by Highly Prevalent Viruses. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1513. [PMID: 32765522 PMCID: PMC7378533 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a type of innate immune cells with major relevance in the establishment of an adaptive response, as they are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes. Since their discovery, several reports of their role during infectious diseases have been performed, highlighting their functions and their mechanisms of action. DCs can be categorized into different subsets, and each of these subsets expresses a wide arrange of receptors and molecules that aid them in the clearance of invading pathogens. Interferon (IFN) is a cytokine -a molecule of protein origin- strongly associated with antiviral immune responses. This cytokine is secreted by different cell types and is fundamental in the modulation of both innate and adaptive immune responses against viral infections. Particularly, DCs are one of the most important immune cells that produce IFN, with type I IFNs (α and β) highlighting as the most important, as they are associated with viral clearance. Type I IFN secretion can be induced via different pathways, activated by various components of the virus, such as surface proteins or genetic material. These molecules can trigger the activation of the IFN pathway trough surface receptors, including IFNAR, TLR4, or some intracellular receptors, such as TLR7, TLR9, and TLR3. Here, we discuss various types of dendritic cells found in humans and mice; their contribution to the activation of the antiviral response triggered by the secretion of IFN, through different routes of the induction for this important antiviral cytokine; and as to how DCs are involved in human infections that are considered highly frequent nowadays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge A Soto
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nicolas M S Gálvez
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Catalina A Andrade
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gaspar A Pacheco
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Karen Bohmwald
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Roslye V Berrios
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Susan M Bueno
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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