Follow-Ups on Persistent Symptoms and Pulmonary Function Among Post-Acute COVID-19 Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Lung outcomes and related risk factors in patients after SARS-CoV-2 infection: a hospitalised single-centre cohort from Johannesburg, South Africa

Background

Sequelae post-SARS-CoV-2 infection, including lung and functional impairment, pose a significant challenge post-recovery. We explored the burden and risk factors for post-COVID-19 sequelae in an African population with prevalent comorbidities including tuberculosis (TB) and HIV.

Methods

We conducted an observational cohort study on hospitalised adults with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection from 20 March to 06 October 2021 at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, South Africa. We collected data on comorbidities, and COVID-19 severity using the World Health Organization (WHO) clinical progression scale. Prospectively, we followed up all participants within 40-days post-discharge to assess body mass index (BMI), COVID-19 symptoms and quality of life using St George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ), 6-min walking-test (6MWT), and spirometry. A subsequent in-depth visit assessed plethysmography, diffusing capacity for the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO), and high-resolution chest-CT.

Findings

We followed up 111 participants, where 65.8% were female, median age 50.5 years, and predominantly black-African (92.8%). Relevant comorbidities included TB disease (18.9%) and HIV infection (36%). SGRQ total scores were elevated in 78.9%, median 6MWT distance was reduced at 300 m (IQR 210-400), and nearly half (49.5%) exhibited spirometry findings below the lower limit of normal (LLN). In-depth pulmonary assessment for 61 participants revealed abnormalities in total lung capacity (31.6% <80% predicted), DLCO (53.4% <80% predicted), and chest-CT (86.7% abnormal). Significant risk factors for individual abnormal outcomes, adjusted for age and sex, were TB disease, HIV with CD4 <200 cells/mm3, BMI <18.5 kg/m2 and >35 kg/m2, and initial COVID-19 severity.

Interpretation

This study demonstrates substantial lung and functional morbidity within the first weeks post-COVID-19, particularly in individuals with pre-existing comorbidities including TB, HIV, and low or high BMI. Chest-CT and DLCO show best early potential at reflecting COVID-19-related pathologies.

Funding

The Bavarian State Ministry of Science and Arts.

The Aftermath of COVID-19: Exploring the Long-Term Effects on Organ Systems

BACKGROUND

Post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) is a complicated disease that affects millions of people all over the world. Previous studies have shown that PASC impacts 10% of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients of which 50-70% are hospitalised. It has also been shown that 10-12% of those vaccinated against COVID-19 were affected by PASC and its complications. The severity and the later development of PASC symptoms are positively associated with the early intensity of the infection.

RESULTS

The generated health complications caused by PASC involve a vast variety of organ systems. Patients affected by PASC have been diagnosed with neuropsychiatric and neurological symptoms. The cardiovascular system also has been involved and several diseases such as myocarditis, pericarditis, and coronary artery diseases were reported. Chronic hematological problems such as thrombotic endothelialitis and hypercoagulability were described as conditions that could increase the risk of clotting disorders and coagulopathy in PASC patients. Chest pain, breathlessness, and cough in PASC patients were associated with the respiratory system in long-COVID causing respiratory distress syndrome. The observed immune complications were notable, involving several diseases. The renal system also was impacted, which resulted in raising the risk of diseases such as thrombotic issues, fibrosis, and sepsis. Endocrine gland malfunction can lead to diabetes, thyroiditis, and male infertility. Symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, loss of appetite, and taste were also among reported observations due to several gastrointestinal disorders. Skin abnormalities might be an indication of infection and long-term implications such as persistent cutaneous complaints linked to PASC.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-COVID is a multidimensional syndrome with considerable public health implications, affecting several physiological systems and demanding thorough medical therapy, and more study to address its underlying causes and long-term effects is needed.

Pulmonary function 3-6 months after acute COVID-19: A systematic review and multicentre cohort study

Aims

To describe pulmonary function 3-6 months following acute COVID-19, to evaluate potential predictors of decreased pulmonary function and to review literature for the effect of COVID-19 on pulmonary function.

Materials and methods

A systematic review and cohort study were conducted. Within the P4O2 COVID-19 cohort, 95 patients aged 40-65 years were recruited from outpatient post-COVID-19 clinics in five Dutch hospitals between May 2021-September 2022. At 3-6 months post COVID-19, medical records data and biological samples were collected and questionnaires were administered. In addition, pulmonary function tests (PFTs), including spirometry and transfer factor, were performed. To identify factors associated with PFTs, linear regression analyses were conducted, adjusted for covariates.

Results

In PFTs (n = 90), mean ± SD % of predicted was 89.7 ± 18.2 for forced vital capacity (FVC) and 79.8 ± 20.0 for transfer factor for carbon monoxide (DLCO). FVC was

Conclusion

A low DLCO 3-6 months following acute COVID-19 was observed more often than a low FVC, both in the P4O2 COVID-19 study and the literature review.

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Key Words

• Long COVID
• Post COVID-19
• Pulmonary function
• Transfer factor for carbon monoxide

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Affiliation(s)

Merel E.B. Cornelissen Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105, AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Asabi Leliveld Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105, AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Nadia Baalbaki Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105, AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Debbie Gach Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
Ivo van der Lee Department of Pulmonology, Spaarne Hospital, the Netherlands
Esther J. Nossent Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105, AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Lizan D. Bloemsma Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105, AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Anke H. Maitland-van der Zee Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105, AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, the Netherlands Amsterdam Public Health, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

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Co-Morbidity Clusters in Post-COVID-19 Syndrome

Background: Post-COVID-19 syndrome, characterized by persistent symptoms emerging more than 12 weeks after acute infection, displays diverse manifestations. This study aimed to analyze co-existing organ dysfunctions in post-COVID-19 patients and explore their potential association with the acute COVID-19 episode and functional impairment. Methods: Data from 238 patients attending post-COVID-19 outpatient care between 1 March 2021 and 1 March 2022, after previous hospitalization for acute COVID-19, were retrospectively analyzed with 80 having comprehensive mapping of organ involvement. Results: The average time between acute episode and post-COVID-19 care was 149 days. Spirometry indicated significant abnormalities in lung function. Predominant symptoms included respiratory (75%), fatigue (73%), neurological (62.5%), and ear-nose-throat issues (51.25%). Multiorgan dysfunctions were observed in 87.5% of patients, contributing to an 18.33% reduction in health quality compared to pre-acute COVID-19 levels. Subgroup analysis identified four distinct post-COVID-19 syndrome subgroups, highlighting the coexistence of respiratory and neurological disorders as potential indicators and drivers of further organ involvement. Our results reveal that most patients with post-COVID-19 syndrome suffer from multiorgan disorders. Conclusions: The presence of coexisting respiratory and neurological symptoms suggests the involvement of other organ systems as well. The complexity of multiorgan involvement requires further studies to provide insights into the different symptom clusters and identify potential targets for personalized preventive and therapeutic interventions to improve patient outcome.

Post-COVID changes in lung function 6 months after veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a prospective observational clinical trial

Background

Severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may require veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (V-V ECMO). While V-V ECMO is offered in severe lung injury to COVID-19, long-term respiratory follow-up in these patients is missing. Therefore, we aimed at providing comprehensive data on the long-term respiratory effects of COVID-19 requiring V-V ECMO support during the acute phase of infection.

Methods

In prospective observational cohort study design, patients with severe COVID-19 receiving invasive mechanical ventilation and V-V ECMO (COVID group, n = 9) and healthy matched controls (n = 9) were evaluated 6 months after hospital discharge. Respiratory system resistance at 5 and 19 Hz (R5, R19), and the area under the reactance curve (AX5) was evaluated using oscillometry characterizing total and central airway resistances, and tissue elasticity, respectively. R5 and R19 difference (R5-R19) reflecting small airway function was also calculated. Forced expired volume in seconds (FEV1), forced expiratory vital capacity (FVC), functional residual capacity (FRC), carbon monoxide diffusion capacity (DLCO) and transfer coefficient (KCO) were measured.

Results

The COVID group had a higher AX5 and R5-R19 than the healthy matched control group. However, there was no significant difference in terms of R5 or R19. The COVID group had a lower FEV1 and FVC on spirometry than the healthy matched control group. Further, the COVID group had a lower FRC on plethysmography than the healthy matched control group. Meanwhile, the COVID group had a lower DLCO than healthy matched control group. Nevertheless, its KCO was within the normal range.

Conclusion

Severe acute COVID-19 requiring V-V ECMO persistently impairs small airway function and reduces respiratory tissue elasticity, primarily attributed to lung restriction. These findings also suggest that even severe pulmonary pathologies of acute COVID-19 can manifest in a moderate but still persistent lung function impairment 6 months after hospital discharge.

Trial registration

NCT05812196.

Maximal oxidative capacity during exercise is associated with muscle power output in patients with long coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) syndrome. A moderation analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Long COVID syndrome (LCS) involves persistent symptoms experienced by many patients after recovering from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We aimed to assess skeletal muscle energy metabolism, which is closely related to substrate oxidation rates during exercise, in patients with LCS compared with healthy controls. We also examined whether muscle power output mediates the relationship between COVID-19 and skeletal muscle energy metabolism.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we enrolled 71 patients with LCS and 63 healthy controls. We assessed clinical characteristics such as body composition, physical activity, and muscle strength. We used cardiopulmonary exercise testing to evaluate substrate oxidation rates during graded exercise. We performed statistical analyses to compare group characteristics and peak fat oxidation differences based on power output.

RESULTS

The two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) results, adjusted for covariates, showed that the patients with LCS had lower absolute maximal fatty acid oxidation (MFO), relative MFO/fat free mass (FFM), absolute carbohydrates oxidation (CHox), relative CHox/FFM, and oxygen uptake (V˙˙O2) at maximum fat oxidation (g min-1) than the healthy controls (P < 0.05). Moderation analysis indicated that muscle power output significantly influenced the relationship between LCS and reduced peak fat oxidation (interaction β = -0.105 [95% confidence interval -0.174; -0.036]; P = 0.026). Therefore, when muscle power output was below 388 W, the effect of the LCS on MFO was significant (62% in our study sample P = 0.010). These findings suggest compromised mitochondrial bioenergetics and muscle function, represented by lower peak fat oxidation rates, in the patients with LCS compared with the healthy controls.

CONCLUSION

The patients with LCS had lower peak fat oxidation during exercise compared with the healthy controls, potentially indicating impairment in skeletal muscle function. The relationship between peak fat oxidation and LCS appears to be mediated predominantly by muscle power output. Additional research should continue investigating LCS pathogenesis and the functional role of mitochondria.

Cardiorespiratory dysautonomia in post-COVID-19 condition: Manifestations, mechanisms and management

A significant proportion of COVID-19 patients experience debilitating symptoms for months after the acute infection. According to recent estimates, approximately 1 out of 10 COVID-19 convalescents reports persistent health issues more than 3 months after initial recovery. This 'post-COVID-19 condition' may include a large variety of symptoms from almost all domains and organs, and for some patients it may mean prolonged sick-leave, homestay and strongly limited activities of daily life. In this narrative review, we focus on the symptoms and signs of post-COVID-19 condition in adults - particularly those associated with cardiovascular and respiratory systems, such as postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome or airway disorders - and explore the evidence for chronic autonomic dysfunction as a potential underlying mechanism. The most plausible hypotheses regarding cellular and molecular mechanisms behind the wide spectrum of observed symptoms - such as lingering viruses, persistent inflammation, impairment in oxygen sensing systems and circulating antibodies directed to blood pressure regulatory components - are discussed. In addition, an overview of currently available pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options is presented.

Persistent respiratory symptoms and lung function abnormalities in recovered patients of COVID-19

Background and Objectives

COVID-19 is a disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 which belongs to a family of coronaviruses. After the acute phase of illness, the majority of the patients recover quickly but, in some cases, symptoms can persist for a variable duration, bringing into light another entity known as post-COVID syndrome. The objective was to estimate the burden of various persistent respiratory symptoms and lung function abnormalities among recovered patients of COVID-19 and also to correlate them with initial disease severity, demographic factors and comorbidities.

Methods

Eighty-five post-COVID patients were recruited as per inclusion/exclusion criteria. Detailed history taking, physical examination and spirometry were done in all patients and data were correlated with baseline disease severity.

Results

Fatigue and breathlessness were the most common symptoms followed by cough, chest pain and fever. Persistent symptoms and their severity were significantly higher in severe/moderate cases. Spirometry was abnormal in 45.88% of subjects and the most common pattern was restrictive type. It was seen that the likelihood of persistent symptoms and abnormal lung function increased significantly with the severity of COVID-19, age, comorbidities, hospital stay duration and steroid/oxygen therapy.

Conclusion

The current study estimated the burden and array of various pulmonary sequelae encountered by post-COVID patients and elicited various risk factors associated with their occurrence after recovery from active infection. Awareness of these symptoms/sequelae and their risk factors is necessary for their follow-up and timely management, as the threat of this relatively new virus has still not abated.

Hospital admission is associated with disability and late musculoskeletal pain in individuals with long COVID

Background

The acute clinical repercussions of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been widely studied. However, the possible late repercussions of long COVID have not yet been well defined in the literature.

Objectives

To identify the presence of pain and musculoskeletal disability in patients with Long COVID and also to identify predictive factors for pain intensity in this population.

Methods

In this cross-sectional and retrospective observational study individuals with Long COVID symptoms were included. It was collected musculoskeletal disability measures, data from patient-related outcome measures and variables from a COVID-19 outpatient service database. Associations and sub-group analyses were performed considering the variables pain, disability and hospitalization. Linear regression was performed to identify predictive factors for pain intensity in Long COVID patients.

Results

We evaluated 195 patients and most of them (57%) presented musculoskeletal pain in one area of the body. Pain sub-group presented worse disability indices and worse clinical course during hospitalization. Hospitalized patients presented worse disability indices comparing to non-hospitalized. Significant correlations were found between pain and days of non-invasive oxygen support (r = 0.21; p = 0.003); days in intensive care unit (r = 0.22; p = 0.002) and days in invasive mechanical ventilation (r = 0.35; p = 0.001). Hospitalized individuals showed a higher chance of presenting late musculoskeletal pain (OR = 1.42: 95%CI 1.09-2.04). Days in intensive care unit (β = 0,234: P = 0,001) and days in invasive mechanical ventilation (β = 0.764: P = 0.001) were predictors of pain intensity [F(2,192) = 18.559; R2 = 0.231; p = 0.001].

Conclusion

Individuals with Long COVID presented musculoskeletal pain and disability. Hospitalized patients showed a greater chance of having musculoskeletal pain. Days in intensive care unit and days in invasive mechanical ventilation were predictors of late musculoskeletal pain intensity.

Neuropsychiatric post-acute sequelae of COVID-19: prevalence, severity, and impact of vaccination

The potential long-term neuropsychiatric effects of COVID-19 are of global concern. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and predictors of neuropsychiatric post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 among Egyptian COVID-19 survivors and to study the impact of full vaccination before COVID-19 infection on the occurrence and severity of these manifestations. Three months after getting COVID-19 infection, 1638 COVID-19 survivors were screened by phone for possible neuropsychiatric sequelae. Subjects suspected to suffer from these sequelae were invited to a face-to-face interview for objective evaluation. They were requested to rate the severity of their symptoms using visual analogue scales (VAS). The mean age of participants was 38.28 ± 13 years. Only 18.6% were fully vaccinated before COVID-19 infection. Neuropsychiatric post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 were documented in 598 (36.5%) subjects, fatigue was the most frequent one (24.6%), followed by insomnia (16.4%), depression (15.3%), and anxiety (14.4%). Moderate and severe COVID-19 infection and non-vaccination increased the odds of developing post-COVID-19 neuropsychiatric manifestations by 2 times (OR 1.95, 95% CI = 1.415-2.683), 3.86 times (OR 3.86, 95% CI = 2.358-6.329), and 1.67 times (OR 1.67, 95% CI = 1.253-2.216), respectively. Fully vaccinated subjects before COVID-19 infection (n = 304) had significantly lesser severity of post-COVID-19 fatigue, ageusia/hypogeusia, dizziness, tinnitus, and insomnia (P value = 0.001, 0.008, < 0.001, 0.025, and 0.005, respectively) than non-vaccinated subjects. This report declared neuropsychiatric sequelae in 36.5% of Egyptian COVID-19 survivors, fatigue being the most prevalent. The effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in reducing the severity of some post-COVID-19 neuropsychiatric manifestations may improve general vaccine acceptance.

COVID-19 progression in hospitalized patients using follow-up in vivo CT and ex vivo microCT

BACKGROUND

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) which can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and evolve to pulmonary fibrosis. Computed tomography (CT) is used to study disease progression and describe radiological patterns in COVID-19 patients. This study aimed to assess disease progression regarding lung volume and density over time on follow-up in vivo chest CT and give a unique look at parenchymal and morphological airway changes in "end-stage" COVID-19 lungs using ex vivo microCT.

METHODS

Volumes and densities of the lung/lobes of three COVID-19 patients were assessed using follow-up in vivo CT and ex vivo whole lung microCT scans. Airways were quantified by airway segmentations on whole lung microCT and small-partition microCT. As controls, three discarded healthy donor lungs were used. Histology was performed in differently affected regions in the COVID-19 lungs.

RESULTS

In vivo, COVID-19 lung volumes decreased while density increased over time, mainly in lower lobes as previously shown. Ex vivo COVID-19 lung volumes decreased by 60% and all lobes were smaller compared to controls. Airways were more visible on ex vivo microCT in COVID-19, probably due to fibrosis and increased airway diameter. In addition, small-partition microCT showed more deformation of (small) airway morphology and fibrotic organization in severely affected regions with heterogeneous distributions within the same lung which was confirmed by histology.

CONCLUSIONS

COVID-19-ARDS and subsequent pulmonary fibrosis alters lung architecture and airway morphology which is described using in vivo CT, ex vivo microCT, and histology.

Spontaneous physical functional recovery after hospitalization for COVID-19: insights from a 1 month follow-up and a model to predict poor trajectory

Background

Long COVID syndrome has emerged as a new global healthcare challenge, with impaired physical performance being a prominent debilitating factor. Cardiopulmonary rehabilitation is a mainstay of management of symptomatic post-COVID patients, and optimization of candidate selection might allow for more effective use of available resources.

Methods

In order to study the natural dynamics and to identify predictors of physical functional recovery following hospitalization for COVID-19, 6 min walk test was performed pre-discharge in 176 patients (40% hypertensive, 53% female, mean age 53.2 ± 13.5 years) with re-evaluation at 1 month.

Results

Six min walk distance and the reached percent of predicted distance (6MWD%) were suboptimal at both visits-396 ± 71 m (68.7 ± 12.4%) pre-discharge and 466 ± 65 m (81.8 ± 13.6%) at 1 month. Associated changes included significant oxygen desaturation (2.9 ± 2.5 and 2.3 ± 2.2%, respectively) and insufficient increment of heart rate during the test (24.9 ± 17.5 and 28.2 ± 12.0 bpm) that resulted in low reached percent of individual maximum heart rate (61.1 ± 8.1 and 64.3 ± 8.2%). Automatic clusterization of the study cohort by the 6MWD% changes has allowed to identify the subgroup of patients with poor "low base-low increment" trajectory of spontaneous post-discharge recovery that were characterized by younger age (38.2 ± 11.0 vs. 54.9 ± 12.1, p < 0.001) but more extensive pulmonary involvement by CT (43.7 ± 8.8 vs. 29.6 ± 19.4%, p = 0.029) and higher peak ESR values (36.5 ± 9.7 vs. 25.6 ± 12.8, p < 0.001). Predictors of poor recovery in multivariate logistic regression analysis included age, peak ESR, eGFR, percentage of pulmonary involvement by CT, need for in-hospital oxygen supplementation, SpO2 and mMRC dyspnea score pre-discharge, and history of hypertension.

Conclusion

COVID-19 survivors were characterized by decreased physical performance pre-discharge as assessed by the 6 min walk test and did not completely restore their functional status after 1 month of spontaneous recovery, with signs of altered blood oxygenation and dysautonomia contributing to the observed changes. Patients with poor "low base-low increment" trajectory of post-discharge recovery were characterized by younger age but more extensive pulmonary involvement and higher peak ESR values. Poor post-discharge recovery in the study cohort was predictable by the means of machine learning-based classification model that used age, history of hypertension, need for oxygen supplementation, and ESR as inputs.

[Post-COVID-19 syndrome]

In the aftermath of acute infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a large number of symptoms persist or appear, constituting a real syndrome called "long COVID-19" or "post-COVID- 19" or "post-acute COVID-19 syndrome". Its incidence is very high, half of patients showing at least one symptom at 4-6 months after Coronarovirus infectious disease 2019 (COVID-19). They can affect many organs. The most common symptom is persistent fatigue, similar to that seen after other viral infections. Radiological pulmonary sequelae are relatively rare and not extensive. On the other hand, functional respiratory symptoms, primarily dyspnoea, are much more frequent. Dysfunctional breathing is a significant cause of dyspnoea. Cognitive disorders and psychological symptoms are also very common, with anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress symptoms being widely described. On the other hand, cardiac, endocrine, cutaneous, digestive or renal sequelae are rarer. The symptoms generally improve after several months, even if their prevalence at two years remains significant. Most of the symptoms are favored by the severity of the initial illness, and the psychic symptoms by the female sex. The pathophysiology of most symptoms is poorly understood. The influence of the treatments used in the acute phase is also important. Vaccination, on the other hand, seems to reduce their incidence. The sheer number of affected patients makes long-term COVID-19 syndrome a public health challenge.

One-Year Temporal Changes in Long COVID Prevalence and Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to explore the 1-year temporal change in prevalence, variety, and potential risk factors of long COVID symptoms and to further predict the prognostic trends of long COVID.

METHODS

We searched electronic databases for related studies published from January 2020 to February 2022 and conducted 1-group meta-analysis and locally weighted regression to explore the monthly temporal change in the prevalence of each long COVID symptom in 1-year follow-up period.

RESULTS

A total of 137 studies were included in meta-analysis, including 134 093 participants. The temporal change of any long COVID symptom showed a steep decrease initially (from 92% at acute phase to 55% at 1-month follow-up), followed by stabilization at approximately 50% during 1-year follow-up. Six months or more after the acute phase, the odds ratio of population characteristic-related factors increased, such as female (from 1.62 to 1.82), whereas the odds ratio value of acute phase-related factors (severe or critical cases and hospitalization) decreased. As for specific symptoms, approximately two-thirds of the symptoms did not significantly reduce during the 1-year follow-up, and the neuropsychiatric symptoms showed a higher long-term prevalence (approximately 25%) and longer persistence than physical symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The temporal changes in the prevalence and characteristics speculate that long COVID may persist longer than expected. In particular, we should pay more attention to neuropsychiatric symptoms and other symptoms for which there is no significant downward trend in prevalence. The influence of acute phase-related factors for long COVID gradually decreases over time, whereas the influence of population characteristic-related factors gradually increases.

Effectiveness of exercise training on the dyspnoea of individuals with long COVID: A randomised controlled multicentre trial

BACKGROUND

COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS) is a severe evolution of the Sars-Cov-2 infection and necessitates intensive care. COVID-19 may subsequently be associated with long COVID, whose symptoms can include persistent respiratory symptoms up to 1 year later. Rehabilitation is currently recommended by most guidelines for people with this condition.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of exercise training rehabilitation (ETR) on dyspnoea and health-related quality of life measures in people with continuing respiratory discomfort following CARDS.

METHODS

In this multicentre, two-arm, parallel, open, assessor-blinded, randomised controlled trial, we enroled adults previously admitted with CARDS to 3 French intensive care units who had been discharged at least 3 months earlier and who presented with an mMRC dyspnoea scale score > 1. Participants received either ETR or standard physiotherapy (SP) for 90 days. The primary outcome was dyspnoea, as measured by the Multidimensional Dyspnoea Profile (MDP), at day 0 (inclusion) and after 90 days of physiotherapy. Secondary outcomes were the mMRC and 12-item Short-Form Survey scores.

RESULTS

Between August 7, 2020, and January 26, 2022, 487 participants with CARDS were screened for inclusion, of whom 60 were randomly assigned to receive either ETR (n = 27) or SP (n = 33). Mean MDP following ETR was 42% lower than after SP (26.15 vs. 44.76); a difference of -18.61 (95% CI -27.78 to -9.44; p<10-4).

CONCLUSION

People who were still suffering from breathlessness three months after being discharged from hospital with CARDS had significantly improved dyspnoea scores when treated with ETR therapy for 90 days unlike those who only received SP. Study registered 29/09/2020 on Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04569266).

Multicentre study on the accuracy of lung ultrasound in the diagnosis and monitoring of respiratory sequelae in the medium and long term in patients with COVID-19

Introduction

Lung ultrasound (LUS) has proven to be a more sensitive tool than radiography (X-ray) to detect alveolar-interstitial involvement in COVID-19 pneumonia. However, its usefulness in the detection of possible pulmonary alterations after overcoming the acute phase of COVID-19 is unknown. In this study we proposed studying the utility of LUS in the medium- and long-term follow-up of a cohort of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia.

Materials and methods

This was a prospective, multicentre study that included patients, aged over 18 years, at 3 ± 1 and 12 ± 1 months after discharge after treatment for COVID-19 pneumonia. Demographic variables, the disease severity, and analytical, radiographic, and functional clinical details were collected. LUS was performed at each visit and 14 areas were evaluated and classified with a scoring system whose global sum was referred to as the "lung score." Two-dimensional shear wave elastography (2D-SWE) was performed in 2 anterior areas and in 2 posterior areas in a subgroup of patients. The results were compared with high-resolution computed tomography (CT) images reported by an expert radiologist.

Results

A total of 233 patients were included, of whom 76 (32.6%) required Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission; 58 (24.9%) of them were intubated and non-invasive respiratory support was also necessary in 58 cases (24.9%). Compared with the results from CT images, when performed in the medium term, LUS showed a sensitivity (S) of 89.7%, specificity (E) 50%, and an area under the curve (AUC) of 78.8%, while the diagnostic usefulness of X-ray showed an S of 78% and E of 47%. Most of the patients improved in the long-term evaluation, with LUS showing an efficacy with an S of 76% and E of 74%, while the X-ray presented an S of 71% and E of 50%. 2D-SWE data were available in 108 (61.7%) patients, in whom we found a non-significant tendency toward the presentation of a higher shear wave velocity among those who developed interstitial alterations, with a median kPa of 22.76 ± 15.49) versus 19.45 ± 11.39; p = 0.1).

Conclusion

Lung ultrasound could be implemented as a first-line procedure in the evaluation of interstitial lung sequelae after COVID-19 pneumonia.

Fatigue outcomes following COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Fatigue is a pervasive clinical symptom in coronaviruses and may continue beyond the acute phase, lasting for several months or years. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to incorporate the current evidence for postinfection fatigue among survivors of SARS-CoV-2 and investigate associated factors.

METHODS

Embase, PsyINFO, Medline, CINAHL, CDSR, Open Grey, BioRxiv and MedRxiv were systematically searched from January 2019 to December 2021. Eligible records included all study designs in English. Outcomes were fatigue or vitality in adults with a confirmed diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 measured at >30 days post infection. Non-confirmed cases were excluded. JBI risk of bias was assessed by three reviewers. Random effects model was used for the pooled proportion with 95% CIs. A mixed effects meta-regression of 35 prospective articles calculated change in fatigue overtime. Subgroup analyses explored specific group characteristics of study methodology. Heterogeneity was assessed using Cochran's Q and I2 statistic. Egger's tests for publication bias.

RESULTS

Database searches returned 14 262 records. Following deduplication and screening, 178 records were identified. 147 (n=48 466 participants) were included for the meta-analyses. Pooled prevalence was 41% (95% CI: 37% to 45%, k=147, I2=98%). Fatigue significantly reduced over time (-0.057, 95% CI: -107 to -0.008, k=35, I2=99.3%, p=0.05). A higher proportion of fatigue was found in studies using a valid scale (51%, 95% CI: 43% to 58%, k=36, I2=96.2%, p=0.004). No significant difference was found for fatigue by study design (p=0.272). Egger's test indicated publication bias for all analyses except valid scales. Quality assessments indicated 4% at low risk of bias, 78% at moderate risk and 18% at high risk. Frequently reported associations were female gender, age, physical functioning, breathlessness and psychological distress.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed that a significant proportion of survivors experienced fatigue following SARS-CoV-2 and their fatigue reduced overtime. Non-modifiable factors and psychological morbidity may contribute to ongoing fatigue and impede recovery.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020201247.

Cellular and molecular biomarkers of long COVID: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Long-COVID (LC) encompasses diverse symptoms lasting months after the initial SARS-CoV-2 infection. Symptoms can be debilitating and affect the quality of life of individuals with LC and their families. Although the symptoms of LC are well described, the aetiology of LC remains unclear, and consequently, patients may be underdiagnosed. Identification of LC specific biomarkers is therefore paramount for the diagnosis and clinical management of the syndrome. This scoping review describes the molecular and cellular biomarkers that have been identified to date with potential use for diagnosis or prediction of LC.

METHODS

This review was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Methodology for Scoping Reviews. A search was executed in the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases, as well as in the grey literature for original studies, published until October 5th, 2022, reporting biomarkers identified in participants with LC symptoms (from all ages, ethnicities, and sex), with a previous infection of SARS-CoV-2. Non-English studies, cross-sectional studies, studies without a control group, and pre-prints were excluded. Two reviewers independently evaluated the studies, extracted population data and associated biomarkers.

FINDINGS

23 cohort studies were identified, involving 2163 LC patients [median age 51.8 years, predominantly female sex (61.10%), white (75%), and non-vaccinated (99%)]. A total of 239 candidate biomarkers were identified, consisting mainly of immune cells, immunoglobulins, cytokines, and other plasma proteins. 19 of the 239 candidate biomarkers identified were evaluated by the authors, by means of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves.

INTERPRETATION

Diverse cellular and molecular biomarkers for LC have been proposed. Validation of candidate biomarkers in independent samples should be prioritized. Modest reported performance (particularly in larger studies) suggests LC may encompass many distinct aetiologies, which should be explored e.g., by stratifying by symptom clusters and/or sex.

FUNDING

Dr. Tebbutt has received funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (177747) to conduct this work. The funding source was not involved in this scoping review, or in the decision to submit this manuscript for publication.

Long COVID in autoimmune rheumatic diseases

Consequences of Corona Virus Disease-19 (COVID-19) in patients with rheumatic diseases (RDs) are clinically diverse. SARS-CoV-2 infection has been associated with various autoimmune and rheumatic manifestations over the past three years. Emerging evidence points to the possibility of Long COVID predisposition in rheumatic patients due to the changes in immune regulatory response. The aim of this article was to overview data on the pathobiology of Long COVID in patients with RDs. Related risk factors, clinical characteristics, and prognosis of Long COVID in RDs were analyzed. Relevant articles were retrieved from Medline/PubMed, Scopus, and Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). Diverse mechanisms of viral persistence, chronic low-grade inflammation, lasting production of autoantibodies, endotheliopathy, vascular complications, and permanent tissue damage have been described in association with Long COVID. Patients with RDs who survive COVID-19 often experience severe complications due to the immune disbalance resulting in multiple organ damage. Regular monitoring and treatment are warranted in view of the accumulating evidence.

SARS-CoV-2 infection and immune responses

The recent pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus continues to be an enormous global challenge faced by the healthcare sector. Availability of new vaccines and drugs targeting SARS-CoV-2 and sequelae of COVID-19 has given the world hope in ending the pandemic. However, the emergence of mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 viral genome every couple of months in different parts of world is a persistent danger to public health. Currently there is no single treatment to eradicate the risk of COVID-19. The widespread transmission of SARS-CoV-2 due to the Omicron variant necessitates continued work on the development and implementation of effective vaccines. Moreover, there is evidence that mutations in the receptor domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein led to the decrease in current vaccine efficacy by escaping antibody recognition. Therefore, it is essential to actively identify the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 evades the host immune system, study the long-lasting effects of COVID-19 and develop therapeutics targeting SARS-CoV-2 infections in humans and preclinical models. In this review, we describe the pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as the innate and adaptive host immune responses to infection. We address the ongoing need to develop effective vaccines that provide protection against different variants of SARS-CoV-2, as well as validated endpoint assays to evaluate the immunogenicity of vaccines in the pipeline, medications, anti-viral drug therapies and public health measures, that will be required to successfully end the COVID-19 pandemic.

Late Complications of COVID-19; An Umbrella Review on Current Systematic Reviews

Introduction

Several clinical manifestations have been discovered for COVID-19 since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, which can be classified into early, medium, and long-term complications. However, late complications can be present after recovery from acute COVID-19 illness. The present study aims to comprehensively review the available evidence of late complications related to COVID-19.

Method

A search was conducted, using keywords, through electronic databases, which included Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Embase up to August 29, 2022. Study selection was performed according to a strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist was followed, and studies were appraised using the National Institute of Health (NIH) quality assessment and risk of bias tool.

Results

In total, 50 studies were included, and nine distinct COVID-19 late complication categories were identified. A review of these studies revealed that neurologic and psychiatric (n=41), respiratory (n=27), musculoskeletal and rheumatologic (n=22), cardiovascular (n=9), and hepatic and gastrointestinal (n=6) complications were the most prevalent complications of long COVID-19.

Conclusion

Almost all human body systems are affected by late complications of COVID-19 with different severity and prevalence. Fatigue and some other neuropsychiatric symptoms are the most common late complications among long COVID-19 patients. Respiratory symptoms including dyspnea (during exercise), cough, and chest tightness were the next most prevalent long-term complications of COVID-19. Since these complications are persistent and late, being aware of the signs and symptoms is essential for the healthcare providers and patients.

Long COVID symptoms in Israeli children with and without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the prevalence of long COVID symptoms in children with and without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection and to evaluate factors associated with long COVID.

DESIGN

A nationwide cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Primary care.

PARTICIPANTS

3240 parents of children aged 5-18 with and without SARS-CoV-2 infection completed an online questionnaire (11.9% response rate); 1148 and 2092 with/without a history of infection, respectively.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary outcome was the prevalence of long COVID symptoms in children with/without a history of infection. Secondary outcomes were the factors associated with the presence of long COVID symptoms and with failure to return to baseline health status in children with a history of infection including gender, age, time from illness, symptomatic illness and vaccine status.

RESULTS

Most long COVID symptoms were more prevalent in children with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection: headaches (211 (18.4%) vs 114 (5.4%), p<0.001), weakness (173 (15.1%) vs 70 (3.3%), p<0.001), fatigue (141 (12.3%) vs 133 (6.4%), p<0.001) and abdominal pain (109 (9.5%) vs 79 (3.8%), p<0.001). Most long COVID symptoms in children with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection were more prevalent in the older age group (12-18) compared with the younger age group (5-11). Some symptoms were more prevalent in children without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection, including attention problems with school malfunctioning (225 (10.8%) vs 98 (8.5%), p=0.05), stress (190 (9.1%) vs 65 (5.7%), p<0.001), social problems (164 (7.8%) vs 32 (2.8%)) and weight changes (143 (6.8%) vs 43 (3.7%), p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that the prevalence of long COVID symptoms in children with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection might be higher and more prevalent in adolescents than in young children. Some of the symptoms, mainly somatic symptoms, were more prevalent in children without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection, highlighting the impact of the pandemic itself rather than the infection.

Pulmonary function three to five months after hospital discharge for COVID-19: a single centre cohort study

Some COVID-19 survivors suffer from persistent pulmonary function impairment, but the extent and associated factors are unclear. This study aimed to characterize pulmonary function impairment three to five months after hospital discharge and the association with disease severity. Survivors of COVID-19 after hospitalization to the VieCuri Medical Centre between February and December 2020 were invited for follow-up, three to five months after discharge. Dynamic and static lung volumes, respiratory muscle strength and diffusion capacity were measured. The cohort comprised 257 patients after a moderate (n = 33), severe (n = 151) or critical (n = 73) COVID-19 infection with a median follow-up of 112 days (interquartile range 96-134 days). The main sequelae included reduced diffusion capacity (36%) and reduced maximal expiratory pressure (24%). Critically ill patients were more likely to have reduced diffusion capacity than moderate (OR 8.00, 95% CI 2.46-26.01) and severe cases (OR 3.74, 95% CI 1.88-7.44) and lower forced vital capacity (OR 3.29, 95% CI 1.20-9.06) compared to severe cases. Many COVID-19 survivors, especially after a critical disease course, showed pulmonary function sequelae, mainly DLCO impairments, three to five months after discharge. Monitoring is needed to investigate the persistence of these symptoms and the longer-term implications of the COVID-19 burden.

Long-COVID-19 clinical and health outcomes: an umbrella review

Background

A growing interest in long-term sequelae of COVID-19 has prompted several systematic literature reviews (SLRs) to evaluate long-COVID-19 effects. However, many of these reviews lack in-depth information on the timing, duration, and severity of these conditions.

Objectives

Our aim was to synthesize both qualitative and quantitative evidence on prevalence and outcomes of long-term effect of COVID-19 through an umbrella review.

Design

Umbrella review of relevant SLRs on long-COVID-19 in terms of prolonged symptoms and clinical conditions, and comprehensively synthesized the latest existing evidence.

Data Sources and Methods

We systematically identified and appraised prior systematic reviews/meta-analyses using MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane database of systematic review from 2020 to 2021 following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidance. We summarized and categorized all relevant clinical symptoms and outcomes in adults with COVID-19 using the Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities System Organ Class (MedDRA SOC).

Results

We identified 967 systematic reviews/meta-analyses; 36 were retained for final data extraction. The most prevalent SOC were social circumstances (40%), blood and lymphatic system disorders (39%), and metabolism and nutrition disorder (38%). The most frequently reported SOC outcomes within each MedDRA category were poor quality of life (59%), wheezing and dyspnea (19-49%), fatigue (30-64%), chest pain (16%), decreased or loss of appetite (14-17%), abdominal discomfort or digestive disorder (12-18%), arthralgia with or without myalgia (16-24%), paresthesia (27%) and hair loss (14-25%), and hearing loss or tinnitus (15%).

Conclusion

This study confirmed a high prevalence of several long COVID-19 outcomes according to the MedDRA categories and indicated that the majority of evidence was rated as moderate to low.

Registration

The review was registered at PROSPERO (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/) (CRD42022303557).

Low Cardiorespiratory Fitness Post-COVID-19: A Narrative Review

Patients recovering from COVID-19 often report symptoms of exhaustion, fatigue and dyspnoea and present with exercise intolerance persisting for months post-infection. Numerous studies investigated these sequelae and their possible underlying mechanisms using cardiopulmonary exercise testing. We aimed to provide an in-depth discussion as well as an overview of the contribution of selected organ systems to exercise intolerance based on the Wasserman gears. The gears represent the pulmonary system, cardiovascular system, and periphery/musculature and mitochondria. Thirty-two studies that examined adult patients post-COVID-19 via cardiopulmonary exercise testing were included. In 22 of 26 studies reporting cardiorespiratory fitness (herein defined as peak oxygen uptake-VO2peak), VO2peak was < 90% of predicted value in patients. VO2peak was notably below normal even in the long-term. Given the available evidence, the contribution of respiratory function to low VO2peak seems to be only minor except for lung diffusion capacity. The prevalence of low lung diffusion capacity was high in the included studies. The cardiovascular system might contribute to low VO2peak via subnormal cardiac output due to chronotropic incompetence and reduced stroke volume, especially in the first months post-infection. Chronotropic incompetence was similarly present in the moderate- and long-term follow-up. However, contrary findings exist. Peripheral factors such as muscle mass, strength and perfusion, mitochondrial function, or arteriovenous oxygen difference may also contribute to low VO2peak. More data are required, however. The findings of this review do not support deconditioning as the primary mechanism of low VO2peak post-COVID-19. Post-COVID-19 sequelae are multifaceted and require individual diagnosis and treatment.

Long COVID in children and adolescents: COVID-19 follow-up results in third-level pediatric hospital

INTRODUCTION

In children, the manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the acute phase are considered mild compared with those in adults; however, some children experience a severe disease that requires hospitalization. This study was designed to present the operation and follow-up results of the Post-COVID-19 Detection and Monitoring Sequels Clinic of Hospital Infantil de Mexico Federico Gómez in managing children with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHODS

This was a prospective study conducted from July 2020 to December 2021, which included 215 children aged 0-18 years who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 on polymerase chain reaction and/or immunoglobulin G test. The follow-up was conducted in the pulmonology medical consultation; ambulatory and hospitalized patients were assessed at 2, 4, 6, and 12 months.

RESULTS

The median age of the patients was 9.02 years, and neurological, endocrinological, pulmonary, oncological, and cardiological comorbidities were the most commonly observed among the patients. Moreover, 32.6% of the children had persistent symptoms at 2 months, 9.3% at 4 months, and 2.3% at 6 months, including dyspnea, dry cough, fatigue, and runny nose; the main acute complications were severe pneumonia, coagulopathy, nosocomial infections, acute renal injury, cardiac dysfunction, and pulmonary fibrosis. The more representative sequelae were alopecia, radiculopathy, perniosis, psoriasis, anxiety, and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that children experience persistent symptoms, such as dyspnea, dry cough, fatigue, and runny nose, although to a lesser extent than adults, with significant clinical improvement 6 months after the acute infection. These results indicate the importance of monitoring children with COVID-19 through face-to-face consultations or telemedicine, with the objective of offering multidisciplinary and individualized care to preserve the health and quality of life of these children.

Evolution and long‑term respiratory sequelae after severe COVID-19 pneumonia: nitric oxide diffusion measurement value

INTRODUCTION

There are no published studies assessing the evolution of combined determination of the lung diffusing capacity for both nitric oxide and carbon monoxide (DL_NO and DL_CO) 12 months after the discharge of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

METHODS

Prospective cohort study which included patients who were assessed both 3 and 12 months after an episode of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia. Their clinical status, health condition, lung function testings (LFTs) results (spirometry, DL_NO-DL_CO analysis, and six-minute walk test), and chest X-ray/computed tomography scan images were compared.

RESULTS

194 patients, age 62 years (P_25-75, 51.5-71), 59% men, completed the study. 17% required admission to the intensive care unit. An improvement in the patients' exercise tolerance, the extent of the areas of ground-glass opacity, and the LFTs between 3 and 12 months following their hospital discharge were found, but without a decrease in their degree of dyspnea or their self-perceived health condition. DL_NO was the most significantly altered parameter at 12 months (19.3%). The improvement in DL_NO-DL_CO mainly occurred at the expense of the recovery of alveolar units and their vascular component, with the membrane factor only improving in patients with more severe infections.

CONCLUSIONS

The combined measurement of DL_NO-DL_CO is the most sensitive LFT for the detection of the long-term sequelae of COVID-19 pneumonia and it explain better their pathophysiology.

What are the long-term holistic health consequences of COVID-19 among survivors? An umbrella systematic review

Many people who have survived COVID-19 have experienced negative persistent impacts on health. Impacts on health have included persistent respiratory symptoms, decreased quality of life, fatigue, impaired functional capacity, memory deficits, psychological impacts, and difficulties in returning to paid employment. Evidence is yet to be pooled to inform future directions in research and practice, to determine the physical, psychological, social, and spiritual impacts of the illness which extend beyond the acute phase of COVID-19 survivors. This umbrella review (review of systematic reviews) critically synthesized physical (including abnormal laboratory parameters), psychological, social, and spiritual impacts which extended beyond the acute phase of COVID-19 survivors. The search strategy was based on the sample, phenomena of interest, design, evaluation, research model and all publications were double screened independently by four review authors for the eligibility criteria. Data extraction and quality assessment were conducted in parallel independently. Eighteen systematic reviews were included, which represented a total of 493 publications. Sample sizes ranged from n = 15 to n = 44 799 with a total of n = 295 455 participants. There was incomplete reporting of several significant data points including the description of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 variant, COVID-19 treatments, and key clinical and demographic data. A number of physical, psychological, and social impacts were identified for individuals grappling with post-COVID condition. The long term sequalae of acute COVID-19 and size of the problem is only beginning to emerge. Further investigation is needed to ensure that those affected by post-COVID condition have their informational, spiritual, psychological, social, and physical needs met in the future.

Respiratory function and CT abnormalities among survivors of COVID-19 pneumonia: a nationwide follow-up study

INTRODUCTION

Considering the pulmonary burden caused by acute COVID-19, questions remain of respiratory consequences after recovery. The aim of the study was to describe respiratory function of COVID-19 pneumonia survivors at mid-term follow-up (median 68 days) and assess whether impairments were predicted by acute illness severity or residual CT abnormalities.

METHODS

Residents of Iceland that had COVID-19 and oxygen saturation ≤94% from 28 February 2020 to 30 April 2021 were offered a clinical follow-up visit with an interview, a 6 min walk test (6MWT), spirometry with gas exchange measurement and chest CT. The results of these examinations were described, grouped by the level of care during acute illness. The associations of disease severity and CT abnormalities at follow-up with subjective dyspnoea, 6MWT results and lung function test results were estimated with regression analyses.

RESULTS

Of 190 eligible patients, 164 (86%) participated in the study. Of those, 32 had never been admitted to hospital, 103 were admitted to hospital without intensive care and 29 had required intensive care. At a follow-up, need for intensive care during acute illness was associated with shorter walking distance on 6MWT, lower oxygen saturation and lower DL_CO. Imaging abnormalities at follow-up were observed for most participants (74%) and the magnitude of these changes was associated with decrements in 6MWT distance, oxygen saturation, forced vital capacity and DL_CO.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings show that impaired exercise capacity and lung physiology at follow-up were primarily observed for patients with COVID-19 pneumonia that required intensive care treatment and/or had persistent imaging abnormalities.

Long Covid: where we stand and challenges ahead

Post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC), also known as Post-Covid Syndrome, and colloquially as Long Covid, has been defined as a constellation of signs and symptoms which persist for weeks or months after the initial SARS-CoV-2 infection. PASC affects a wide range of diverse organs and systems, with manifestations involving lungs, brain, the cardiovascular system and other organs such as kidney and the neuromuscular system. The pathogenesis of PASC is complex and multifactorial. Evidence suggests that seeding and persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in different organs, reactivation, and response to unrelated viruses such as EBV, autoimmunity, and uncontrolled inflammation are major drivers of PASC. The relative importance of pathogenetic pathways may differ in different tissue and organ contexts. Evidence suggests that vaccination, in addition to protecting against disease, reduces PASC after breakthrough infection although its actual impact remains to be defined. PASC represents a formidable challenge for health care systems and dissecting pathogenetic mechanisms may pave the way to targeted preventive and therapeutic approaches.

Long-COVID in patients with a history of mild or asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection: a Nationwide Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Evaluating the prevalence of long-COVID symptoms in patients with a history of mild or asymptomatic infection with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the factors associated with developing long-COVID.

DESIGN

A nationwide cohort study. Using a centralized database, we have identified patients with and without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection 1-6 months before data collection. Patients were asked to fill out an online questionnaire through text messages.

SETTING

Israeli general practice.

SUBJECTS

2755 persons participated in the study in September 2021 (a response rate of 7.5%): 819 with and, 936 without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

We asked patients to provide details about their demographic status, medical history, COVID-related variables and the presence of long-COVID symptoms.

RESULTS

Most prevalent long-COVID symptoms were decreased smell sensation (35.1% vs. 4.3%, p < 0.001), decreased taste sensation (25.2% vs. 3.2%, p < 0.001), memory disturbances (36.9% vs. 14.4%, p < 0.001), dyspnea (24.2% vs. 10.7%, p < 0.001) and arthralgia (33% vs. 16.3%, p < 0.001). Risk factors associated with long-COVID included female gender, symptomatic COVID-19, overweight or obesity and the presence of dyslipidemia. About 34.6% of participants reported not returning to their baseline health condition after the acute illness.

CONCLUSION

Long-COVID is frequently seen following a mild symptomatic COVID-19 infection and, to a lesser extent, following an asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Primary care physicians should be aware of these symptoms and consider this option in their differential diagnosis. Health policymakers should expect a significant impact of this syndrome on public health.Key PointsLong-COVID has emerged as a significant health problem with a serious impact on normal daily function• Long-COVID symptoms were evident in patients with mild symptomatic disease and in asymptomatic patients to a lesser extent.• Risk factors for having Long-COVID symptoms include female gender, symptomatic disease, increased BMI, and the presence of dyslipidemia.• Fatigue, dyspnea, weakness, decreased libido, weight changes, memory, and sleep disturbances were associated with not returning to the baseline health state.

Assessment of Long-Term Effects on Pulmonary Functions Between Severe and Non-Severe Convalescent COVID-19 Patients: A Single-Center Study in China

Objective

To explore the long-term effects of SARS-Cov-2 infection on the pulmonary function in the severe convalescent COVID-19 patients for 6 to 9 months follow-up in Beijing, China.

Methods

A total of 64 cases of COVID-19 patients were recruited for the study and discharged from the Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, for 6 to 9 months. COVID-19 patients were divided into non-severe (mild and moderate) and severe groups. The follow-up investigated the lung function tests, the novel coronavirus antibody (IgM and IgG), chest CT and blood tests.

Results

About 25.00% (16/64) patients had pulmonary ventilation dysfunction and 35.9% (23/64) had diffusion dysfunction. In the severe group, 56.50% (13/23) individuals showed decreased diffusion function. The diffusion dysfunction of the severe group was significantly decreased than the non-severe group (P = 0.01). Among 56 cases, the positive rate of IgG titers was 73.2% (41/56). The result of chest CT showed 55.36% (31/56) cases in nodules, 44.64% (25/56) in strip-like changes, 37.5% (21/56) in-ground glass shadow, and 5.36% (3/56) in grid shadow, which was significantly different between the severe group and the non-severe group. Patients tended to have ground glass changes in the severe group while nodules in the non-severe group.

Conclusion

For the 6 to 9 months in convalescent COVID-19 patients, 56.50% (13/23) of severe patients had pulmonary diffusion dysfunction. Convalescent COVID-19 patients should have their pulmonary function regularly tested, especially those with severe illness.

Neurologic manifestations of COVID-19 in critically ill patients: results of the prospective multicenter registry PANDEMIC

Background

Neurologic manifestations are increasingly reported in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Yet, data on prevalence, predictors and relevance for outcome of neurological manifestations in patients requiring intensive care are scarce. We aimed to characterize prevalence, risk factors and impact on outcome of neurologic manifestations in critically ill COVID-19 patients.

Methods

In the prospective, multicenter, observational registry study PANDEMIC (Pooled Analysis of Neurologic DisordErs Manifesting in Intensive care of COVID-19), we enrolled COVID-19 patients with neurologic manifestations admitted to 19 German intensive care units (ICU) between April 2020 and September 2021. We performed descriptive and explorative statistical analyses. Multivariable models were used to investigate factors associated with disorder categories and their underlying diagnoses as well as to identify predictors of outcome.

Results

Of the 392 patients included in the analysis, 70.7% (277/392) were male and the mean age was 65.3 (SD ± 3.1) years. During the study period, a total of 2681 patients with COVID-19 were treated at the ICUs of 15 participating centers. New neurologic disorders were identified in 350 patients, reported by these centers, suggesting a prevalence of COVID-19-associated neurologic disorders of 12.7% among COVID-19 ICU patients. Encephalopathy (46.2%; 181/392), cerebrovascular (41.0%; 161/392) and neuromuscular disorders (20.4%; 80/392) were the most frequent categories identified. Out of 35 cerebrospinal fluid analyses with reverse transcriptase PCR for SARS-COV-2, only 3 were positive. In-hospital mortality was 36.0% (140/389), and functional outcome (mRS 3 to 5) of surviving patients was poor at hospital discharge in 70.9% (161/227). Intracerebral hemorrhage (OR 6.2, 95% CI 2.5–14.9, p < 0.001) and acute ischemic stroke (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.9–8.2, p < 0.001) were the strongest predictors of poor outcome among the included patients.

Conclusions

Based on this well-characterized COVID-19 ICU cohort, that comprised 12.7% of all severe ill COVID-19 patients, neurologic manifestations increase mortality and morbidity. Since no reliable evidence of direct viral affection of the nervous system by COVID-19 could be found, these neurologic manifestations may for a great part be indirect para- or postinfectious sequelae of the infection or severe critical illness. Neurologic ICU complications should be actively searched for and treated.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13054-022-04080-3.

Breathing Back Better! A State of the Art on the Benefits of Functional Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Post-Tuberculosis and Post-COVID Lungs

Currently, tuberculosis (TB) and COVID-19 account for substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide, not only during their acute phase, but also because of their sequelae. This scoping review aims to describe the specific aspects of post-TB and post-COVID (long-COVID-19) sequelae, and the implications for post-disease follow-up and rehabilitation. In particular, evidence on how to identify patients affected by sequelae is presented and discussed. A section of the review is dedicated to identifying patients eligible for pulmonary rehabilitation (PR), as not all patients with sequelae are eligible for PR. Components of PR are presented and discussed, as well as their effectiveness. Other essential components to implement comprehensive rehabilitation programmes such as counselling and health education of enrolled patients, evaluation of cost-effectiveness of PR and its impact on health systems as well as research priorities for the future are included in this scoping review.

ERS International Congress 2021: highlights from the Respiratory Clinical Care and Physiology Assembly

It is a challenge to keep abreast of all the clinical and scientific advances in the field of respiratory medicine. This article contains an overview of laboratory-based science, randomised controlled trials and qualitative research that were presented during the 2021 European Respiratory Society International Congress within the sessions from the five groups of the Assembly 1 - Respiratory clinical care and physiology. Selected presentations are summarised from a wide range of topics: clinical problems, rehabilitation and chronic care, general practice and primary care, electronic/mobile health (e-health/m-health), clinical respiratory physiology, exercise and functional imaging.

Persistent Lung Injury and Prothrombotic State in Long COVID

Lung injury may persist during the recovery period of COVID-19 as shown through imaging, six-minute walk, and lung function tests. The pathophysiological mechanisms leading to long COVID have not been adequately explained. Our aim is to investigate the basis of pulmonary susceptibility during sequelae and the possibility that prothrombotic states may influence long-term pulmonary symptoms of COVID-19. The patient’s lungs remain vulnerable during the recovery stage due to persistent shedding of the virus, the inflammatory environment, the prothrombotic state, and injury and subsequent repair of the blood-air barrier. The transformation of inflammation to proliferation and fibrosis, hypoxia-involved vascular remodeling, vascular endothelial cell damage, phosphatidylserine-involved hypercoagulability, and continuous changes in serological markers all contribute to post-discharge lung injury. Considering the important role of microthrombus and arteriovenous thrombus in the process of pulmonary functional lesions to organic lesions, we further study the possibility that prothrombotic states, including pulmonary vascular endothelial cell activation and hypercoagulability, may affect long-term pulmonary symptoms in long COVID. Early use of combined anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy is a promising approach to reduce the incidence of pulmonary sequelae. Essentially, early treatment can block the occurrence of thrombotic events. Because impeded pulmonary circulation causes large pressure imbalances over the alveolar membrane leading to the infiltration of plasma into the alveolar cavity, inhibition of thrombotic events can prevent pulmonary hypertension, formation of lung hyaline membranes, and lung consolidation.

Long COVID: The Nature of Thrombotic Sequelae Determines the Necessity of Early Anticoagulation

Many discharged COVID-19 patients affected by sequelae experience reduced quality of life leading to an increased burden on the healthcare system, their families and society at large. Possible pathophysiological mechanisms of long COVID include: persistent viral replication, chronic hypoxia and inflammation. Ongoing vascular endothelial damage promotes platelet adhesion and coagulation, resulting in the impairment of various organ functions. Meanwhile, thrombosis will further aggravate vasculitis contributing to further deterioration. Thus, long COVID is essentially a thrombotic sequela. Unfortunately, there is currently no effective treatment for long COVID. This article summarizes the evidence for coagulation abnormalities in long COVID, with a focus on the pathophysiological mechanisms of thrombosis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by various types of cells can carry SARS-CoV-2 through the circulation and attack distant tissues and organs. Furthermore, EVs express tissue factor and phosphatidylserine (PS) which aggravate thrombosis. Given the persistence of the virus, chronic inflammation and endothelial damage are inevitable. Pulmonary structural changes such as hypertension, embolism and fibrosis are common in long COVID. The resulting impaired lung function and chronic hypoxia again aggravates vascular inflammation and coagulation abnormalities. In this article, we also summarize recent research on antithrombotic therapy in COVID-19. There is increasing evidence that early anticoagulation can be effective in improving outcomes. In fact, persistent systemic vascular inflammation and dysfunction caused by thrombosis are key factors driving various complications of long COVID. Early prophylactic anticoagulation can prevent the release of or remove procoagulant substances, thereby protecting the vascular endothelium from damage, reducing thrombotic sequelae, and improving quality of life for long-COVID patients.

Global Trends and Research Hotspots in Long COVID: A Bibliometric Analysis

Long COVID is a condition distinguished by long-term sequelae that occur or persist after the convalescence period of COVID-19. During the COVID-19 pandemic, more and more people who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 experienced long COVID, which attracted the attention of researchers. This study aims to assess the pattern of long COVID research literature, analyze the research topics, and provide insights on long COVID. In this study, we extracted 784 publications from Scopus in the field of long COVID. According to bibliometric analysis, it is found that: developed countries in Europe and America were in leading positions in terms of paper productivity and citations. The International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health and the Journal of Clinical Medicine were leading journals in the perspective of publications count, and Nature Medicine had the highest number of citations. Author Greenhalgh T has the highest number of papers and citations. The main research topics were: pathophysiology, symptoms, treatment, and epidemiology. The causes of long COVID may be related to organ injury, inflammation, maladaptation of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) pathway, and mental factors. The symptoms are varied, including physical and psychological symptoms. Treatment options vary from person to person. Most patients developed at least one long-term symptom. Finally, we presented some possible research opportunities.

Mental health and alcohol use among patients attending a post-COVID-19 follow-up clinic: a cohort study

Background: Ongoing mental health problems following COVID-19 infection warrant greater examination. This study aimed to investigate psychiatric symptoms and problematic alcohol use among Long COVID patients. Methods: The study was conducted at the Mater Misericordiae University Hospital’s post-COVID-19 follow-up clinic in Dublin, Ireland. A prospective cohort study design was used encompassing assessment of patients’ outcomes at 2-4 months following an initial clinic visit (Time 1), and 7–14-month follow-up (Time 2). Outcomes regarding participants’ demographics, acute COVID-19 healthcare use, mental health, and alcohol use were examined. Results: The baseline sample’s (n = 153) median age = 43.5yrs (females = 105 (68.6%)). Sixty-seven of 153 patients (43.8%) were admitted to hospital with COVID-19, 9/67 (13.4%) were admitted to ICU, and 17/67 (25.4%) were readmitted to hospital following an initial COVID-19 stay. Sixteen of 67 (23.9%) visited a GP within seven days of hospital discharge, and 26/67 (38.8%) did so within 30 days. Seventeen of 153 participants (11.1%) had a pre-existing affective disorder. The prevalence of clinical range depression, anxiety, and PTSD scores at Time 1 and Time 2 (n = 93) ranged from 12.9% (Time 1 anxiety) to 22.6% (Time 1 PTSD). No statistically significant differences were observed between Time 1 and Time 2 depression, anxiety, and PTSD scores. Problematic alcohol use was common at Time 1 (45.5%) and significantly more so at Time 2 (71.8%). Clinical range depression, anxiety, and PTSD scores were significantly more frequent among acute COVID-19 hospital admission and GP attendance (30 days) participants, as well as among participants with lengthy ICU stays, and those with a previous affective disorder diagnosis. Conclusions: Ongoing psychiatric symptoms and problematic alcohol use in Long COVID populations are a concern and these issues may be more common among individuals with severe acute COVID-19 infection and /or pre-existing mental illness.

ESCMID rapid guidelines for assessment and management of long COVID

Scope

The aim of these guidelines is to provide evidence-based recommendations for the assessment and management of individuals with persistent symptoms after acute COVID-19 infection and to provide a definition for this entity, termed ‘long COVID’.

Methods

We performed a search of the literature on studies addressing epidemiology, symptoms, assessment, and treatment of long COVID. The recommendations were grouped by these headings and by organ systems for assessment and treatment. An expert opinion definition of long COVID is provided. Symptoms were reviewed by a search of the available literature. For assessment recommendations, we aimed to perform a diagnostic meta-analysis, but no studies provided relevant results. For treatment recommendations we performed a systematic review of the literature in accordance with the PRISMA statement. We aimed to evaluate patient-related outcomes, including quality of life, return to baseline physical activity, and return to work. Quality assessment of studies included in the systematic review is provided according to study design.

Recommendations

Evidence was insufficient to provide any recommendation other than conditional guidance. The panel recommends considering routine blood tests, chest imaging, and pulmonary functions tests for patients with persistent respiratory symptoms at 3 months. Other tests should be performed mainly to exclude other conditions according to symptoms. For management, no evidence-based recommendations could be provided. Physical and respiratory rehabilitation should be considered. On the basis of limited evidence, the panel suggests designing high-quality prospective clinical studies/trials, including a control group, to further evaluate the assessment and management of individuals with persistent symptoms of COVID-19.

Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: Involvement and Interactions between Respiratory, Cardiovascular and Nervous Systems

Though the acute effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been extensively reported, the long-term effects are less well described. Specifically, while clinicians endure to battle COVID-19, we also need to develop broad strategies to manage post-COVID-19 symptoms and encourage those affected to seek suitable care. This review addresses the possible involvement of the lung, heart and brain in post-viral syndromes and describes suggested management of post-COVID-19 syndrome. Post-COVID-19 respiratory manifestations comprise coughing and shortness of breath. Furthermore, arrhythmias, palpitations, hypotension, increased heart rate, venous thromboembolic diseases, myocarditis and acute heart failure are usual cardiovascular events. Among neurological manifestations, headache, peripheral neuropathy symptoms, memory issues, lack of concentration and sleep disorders are most commonly observed with varying frequencies. Finally, mental health issues affecting mental abilities and mood fluctuations, namely anxiety and depression, are frequently seen. Finally, long COVID is a complex syndrome with protracted heterogeneous symptoms, and patients who experience post-COVID-19 sequelae require personalized treatment as well as ongoing support.