Systemic L-Kynurenine sulfate administration disrupts object recognition memory, alters open field behavior and decreases c-Fos immunopositivity in C57Bl/6 mice

Tryptophan metabolism as a 'reflex' feature of neuroimmune communication: Sensor and effector functions for the indoleamine-2, 3-dioxygenase kynurenine pathway

Although the central nervous system (CNS) and immune system were regarded as independent entities, it is now clear that immune system cells can influence the CNS, and neuroglial activity influences the immune system. Despite the many clinical implications for this 'neuroimmune interface', its detailed operation at the molecular level remains unclear. This narrative review focuses on the metabolism of tryptophan along the kynurenine pathway, since its products have critical actions in both the nervous and immune systems, placing it in a unique position to influence neuroimmune communication. In particular, since the kynurenine pathway is activated by pro-inflammatory mediators, it is proposed that physical and psychological stressors are the stimuli of an organismal protective reflex, with kynurenine metabolites as the effector arm co-ordinating protective neural and immune system responses. After a brief review of the neuroimmune interface, the general perception of tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway is expanded to emphasize this environmentally driven perspective. The initial enzymes in the kynurenine pathway include indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1), which is induced by tissue damage, inflammatory mediators or microbial products, and tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), which is induced by stress-induced glucocorticoids. In the immune system, kynurenic acid modulates leucocyte differentiation, inflammatory balance and immune tolerance by activating aryl hydrocarbon receptors and modulates pain via the GPR35 protein. In the CNS, quinolinic acid activates N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-sensitive glutamate receptors, whereas kynurenic acid is an antagonist: the balance between glutamate, quinolinic acid and kynurenic acid is a significant regulator of CNS function and plasticity. The concept of kynurenine and its metabolites as mediators of a reflex coordinated protection against stress helps to understand the variety and breadth of their activity. It should also help to understand the pathological origin of some psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases involving the immune system and CNS, facilitating the development of new pharmacological strategies for treatment.

Maternal Inflammation with Elevated Kynurenine Metabolites Is Related to the Risk of Abnormal Brain Development and Behavioral Changes in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Several studies show that genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset and progression of neurodevelopmental disorders. Maternal immune activation (MIA) during gestation is considered one of the major environmental factors driving this process. The kynurenine pathway (KP) is a major route of the essential amino acid L-tryptophan (Trp) catabolism in mammalian cells. Activation of the KP following neuro-inflammation can generate various endogenous neuroactive metabolites that may impact brain functions and behaviors. Additionally, neurotoxic metabolites and excitotoxicity cause long-term changes in the trophic support, glutamatergic system, and synaptic function following KP activation. Therefore, investigating the role of KP metabolites during neurodevelopment will likely promote further understanding of additional pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this review, we describe the changes in KP metabolism in the brain during pregnancy and represent how maternal inflammation and genetic factors influence the KP during development. We overview the patients with ASD clinical data and animal models designed to verify the role of perinatal KP elevation in long-lasting biochemical, neuropathological, and behavioral deficits later in life. Our review will help shed light on new therapeutic strategies and interventions targeting the KP for neurodevelopmental disorders.

IDO1 Is a Therapeutic Target for Pancreatic Cancer-Associated Depression

Metabolites of tryptophan degradation are known to alter mood. Their effects have only been superficially examined in the context of pancreatic cancer. Herein, we study the role of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), an enzyme important in the conversion of tryptophan to kynurenine, in a murine model of pancreatic cancer-associated depression. Behavioral tests (open field, forced swim, tail suspension, and elevated plus maze) and biochemical assays (LC-MS metabolomics) were used to characterize a depressive-phenotype in tumor-bearing mice (relative to non-tumor-bearing mice). In addition, we determine whether pharmacologic blockade of IDO1 affects mood in tumor-bearing mice. Immunocompetent mice bearing orthotopic pancreatic tumors exhibit depressive-like behavior relative to non-tumor-bearing mice. Pancreatic tumors strongly express IDO1. Consequently, serum kynurenine levels in tumor-bearing mice are elevated relative to non-tumor-bearing mice. Tumor-bearing mice treated with epacadostat, an IDO1 inhibitor, exhibited improved mood relative to mice receiving vehicle. There was a 95% reduction in serum kynurenine levels in mice receiving epacadostat relative to mice treated with vehicle. As confirmatory evidence of on-target activity, tumors of mice treated with epacadostat exhibited a compensatory increase in IDO1 protein levels. Escitalopram, an approved antidepressant, was ineffective at improving mood in tumor-bearing mice as measured by behavioral assays and did not affect kynurenine levels. Neither epacadostat, nor escitalopram, affected overall survival relative to vehicle. Mice with pancreatic cancer exhibit depressive-like behavior. Epacadostat was effective as an antidepressant for pancreatic cancer-associated depression in mice. These data offer a rationale to consider IDO1 inhibition as a therapeutic strategy to mitigate depressive symptoms in patients with pancreatic cancer.

An integrated cytokine and kynurenine network as the basis of neuroimmune communication

Two of the molecular families closely associated with mediating communication between the brain and immune system are cytokines and the kynurenine metabolites of tryptophan. Both groups regulate neuron and glial activity in the central nervous system (CNS) and leukocyte function in the immune system, although neither group alone completely explains neuroimmune function, disease occurrence or severity. This essay suggests that the two families perform complementary functions generating an integrated network. The kynurenine pathway determines overall neuronal excitability and plasticity by modulating glutamate receptors and GPR35 activity across the CNS, and regulates general features of immune cell status, surveillance and tolerance which often involves the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR). Equally, cytokines and chemokines define and regulate specific populations of neurons, glia or immune system leukocytes, generating more specific responses within restricted CNS regions or leukocyte populations. In addition, as there is a much larger variety of these compounds, their homing properties enable the superimposition of dynamic variations of cell activity upon local, spatially limited, cell populations. This would in principle allow the targeting of potential treatments to restricted regions of the CNS. The proposed synergistic interface of 'tonic' kynurenine pathway affecting baseline activity and the superimposed 'phasic' cytokine system would constitute an integrated network explaining some features of neuroimmune communication. The concept would broaden the scope for the development of new treatments for disorders involving both the CNS and immune systems, with safer and more effective agents targeted to specific CNS regions.

Prodromal depression and anxiety are associated with worse treatment compliance and survival among patients with pancreatic cancer

OBJECTIVE

To determine the frequency of depression or anxiety preceding a diagnosis of pancreatic cancer (PC). Further, to examine the association of PC-associated depression or anxiety with treatment compliance and survival.

METHODS

856 patients with PC from a single institution were identified using International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes. For each case, two non-cancer age- and sex-matched controls were included. Dates of depression or anxiety diagnosis identified using ICD codes were compared to the date of PC diagnosis. The medical record was queried to further explore psychiatric symptoms. Multivariable analyses were performed to examine if prediagnosis depression or anxiety was associated with receipt of treatment or survival.

RESULTS

A greater proportion of patients with PC experienced depression or anxiety in the year preceding diagnosis than the overall frequency in controls (4.6% vs. 2.6%, p = 0.005) based on ICD codes. Patients with PC exhibited signs of prodromal depression or anxiety based on ICD codes, clinical documentation of psychiatric symptoms, or initiation of new psychiatric medications more often than controls (20.7% vs. 6.7%, p < 0.001). Prediagnosis depression or anxiety was associated with a reduced likelihood of receiving chemotherapy (OR = 0.58, p = 0.04). There was an associated decrease in overall survival among patients with metastatic disease who experienced depression or anxiety before PC diagnosis (HR = 1.32, p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

The frequency of depression or anxiety among patients with PC was higher than the general population. Prediagnosis psychiatric symptoms were associated with reduced chemotherapy utilization and worse overall survival. Thus, timely identification and treatment of these symptoms may improve outcomes.

Analgesic Activity of Cinnabarinic Acid in Models of Inflammatory and Neuropathic Pain

Cinnabarinic acid (CA) is a trace kynurenine metabolite, which activates both type-4 metabotropic glutamate (mGlu4) and arylic hydrocarbon (Ah) receptors. We examined the action of CA in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain moving from the evidence that mGlu4 receptors are involved in the regulation of pain thresholds. Systemic administration of low doses of CA (0.125 and 0.25 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced nocifensive behaviour in the second phase of the formalin test. CA-induced analgesia was abrogated in mGlu4 receptor knockout mice, but was unaffected by treatment with the Ah receptor antagonist, CH223191 (1 mg/Kg, s.c.). Acute injection of low doses of CA (0.25 mg/kg, i.p.) also caused analgesia in mice subjected to Chronic Constriction Injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Electrophysiological recording showed no effect of CA on spinal cord nociceptive neurons and a trend to a lowering effect on the frequency and duration of excitation of the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) ON cells in CCI mice. However, local application of CH223191 or the group-III mGlu receptor antagonist, MSOP disclosed a substantial lowering and enhancing effect of CA on both populations of neurons, respectively. When repeatedly administered to CCI mice, CA retained the analgesic activity only when combined with CH223191. Repeated administration of CA plus CH223191 restrained the activity of both spinal nociceptive neurons and RVM ON cells, in full agreement with the analgesic activity. These findings suggest that CA is involved in the regulation of pain transmission, and its overall effect depends on the recruitment of mGlu4 and Ah receptors.

Dietary Supplementation throughout Life with Non-Digestible Oligosaccharides and/or n-3 Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids in Healthy Mice Modulates the Gut-Immune System-Brain Axis

The composition and activity of the intestinal microbial community structures can be beneficially modulated by nutritional components such as non-digestible oligosaccharides and omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs). These components affect immune function, brain development and behaviour. We investigated the additive effect of a dietary combination of scGOS:lcFOS and n-3 PUFAs on caecal content microbial community structures and development of the immune system, brain and behaviour from day of birth to early adulthood in healthy mice. Male BALB/cByJ mice received a control or enriched diet with a combination of scGOS:lcFOS (9:1) and 6% tuna oil (n-3 PUFAs) or individually scGOS:lcFOS (9:1) or 6% tuna oil (n-3 PUFAs). Behaviour, caecal content microbiota composition, short-chain fatty acid levels, brain monoamine levels, enterochromaffin cells and immune parameters in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) and spleen were assessed. Caecal content microbial community structures displayed differences between the control and dietary groups, and between the dietary groups. Compared to control diet, the scGOS:lcFOS and combination diets increased caecal saccharolytic fermentation activity. The diets enhanced the number of enterochromaffin cells. The combination diet had no effects on the immune cells. Although the dietary effect on behaviour was limited, serotonin and serotonin metabolite levels in the amygdala were increased in the combination diet group. The combination and individual interventions affected caecal content microbial profiles, but had limited effects on behaviour and the immune system. No apparent additive effect was observed when scGOS:lcFOS and n-3 PUFAs were combined. The results suggest that scGOS:lcFOS and n-3 PUFAs together create a balance-the best of both in a healthy host.

The Effects of Maternal Interleukin-17A on Social Behavior, Cognitive Function, and Depression-Like Behavior in Mice with Altered Kynurenine Metabolites

Viral infection and chronic maternal inflammation during pregnancy are correlated with a higher prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the pathoetiology of ASD is not fully understood; moreover, the key molecules that can cross the placenta following maternal inflammation and contribute to the development of ASD have not been identified. Recently, the pro-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-17A (IL-17A) was identified as a potential mediator of these effects. To investigate the impact of maternal IL-17A on offspring, C57BL/6J dams were injected with IL-17A-expressing plasmids via the tail vein on embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5), and maternal IL-17A was expressed continuously throughout pregnancy. By adulthood, IL-17A-injected offspring exhibited behavioral abnormalities, including social and cognitive defects. Additionally, maternal IL-17A promoted metabolism of the essential amino acid tryptophan, which produces several neuroactive compounds and may affect fetal neurodevelopment. We observed significantly increased levels of kynurenine in maternal serum and fetal plasma. Thus, we investigated the effects of high maternal concentration of kynurenine on offspring by continuously administering mouse dams with kynurenine from E12.5 during gestation. Obviously, maternal kynurenine administration rapidly increased kynurenine levels in the fetal plasma and brain, pointing to the ability of kynurenine to cross the placenta and change the KP metabolites which are affected as neuroactive compounds in the fetal brain. Notably, the offspring of kynurenine-injected mice exhibited behavioral abnormalities similar to those observed in offspring of IL-17A-conditioned mice. Several tryptophan metabolites were significantly altered in the prefrontal cortex of the IL-17A-conditioned and kynurenine-injected adult mice, but not in the hippocampus. Even though we cannot exclude the possibility or other molecules being related to ASD pathogenesis and the presence of a much lower degree of pathway activation, our results suggest that increased kynurenine following maternal inflammation may be a key factor in changing the balance of KP metabolites in fetal brain during neuronal development and represents a therapeutic target for inflammation-induced ASD-like phenotypes.

Natural Molecules and Neuroprotection: Kynurenic Acid, Pantethine and α-Lipoic Acid

The incidence of neurodegenerative diseases has increased greatly worldwide due to the rise in life expectancy. In spite of notable development in the understanding of these disorders, there has been limited success in the development of neuroprotective agents that can slow the progression of the disease and prevent neuronal death. Some natural products and molecules are very promising neuroprotective agents because of their structural diversity and wide variety of biological activities. In addition to their neuroprotective effect, they are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic effects and often serve as a starting point for drug discovery. In this review, the following natural molecules are discussed: firstly, kynurenic acid, the main neuroprotective agent formed via the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism, as it is known mainly for its role in glutamate excitotoxicity, secondly, the dietary supplement pantethine, that is many sided, well tolerated and safe, and the third molecule, α-lipoic acid is a universal antioxidant. As a conclusion, because of their beneficial properties, these molecules are potential candidates for neuroprotective therapies suitable in managing neurodegenerative diseases.

Transplantation of microbiota from drug-free patients with schizophrenia causes schizophrenia-like abnormal behaviors and dysregulated kynurenine metabolism in mice

Accumulating evidence suggests that gut microbiota plays a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia via the microbiota-gut-brain axis. This study sought to investigate whether transplantation of fecal microbiota from drug-free patients with schizophrenia into specific pathogen-free mice could cause schizophrenia-like behavioral abnormalities. The results revealed that transplantation of fecal microbiota from schizophrenic patients into antibiotic-treated mice caused behavioral abnormalities such as psychomotor hyperactivity, impaired learning and memory in the recipient animals. These mice also showed elevation of the kynurenine-kynurenic acid pathway of tryptophan degradation in both periphery and brain, as well as increased basal extracellular dopamine in prefrontal cortex and 5-hydroxytryptamine in hippocampus, compared with their counterparts receiving feces from healthy controls. Furthermore, colonic luminal filtrates from the mice transplanted with patients' fecal microbiota increased both kynurenic acid synthesis and kynurenine aminotransferase II activity in cultured hepatocytes and forebrain cortical slices. Sixty species of donor-derived bacteria showed significant difference between the mice colonized with the patients' and the controls' fecal microbiota, highlighting 78 differentially enriched functional modules including tryptophan biosynthesis function. In conclusion, our study suggests that the abnormalities in the composition of gut microbiota contribute to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia partially through the manipulation of tryptophan-kynurenine metabolism.

The Trace Kynurenine, Cinnabarinic Acid, Displays Potent Antipsychotic-Like Activity in Mice and Its Levels Are Reduced in the Prefrontal Cortex of Individuals Affected by Schizophrenia

Cinnabarinic acid (CA) is a kynurenine metabolite that activates mGlu4 metabotropic glutamate receptors. Using a highly sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC/MS-MS) method, we found that CA is present in trace amounts in human brain tissue. CA levels were largely reduced in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of individuals affected by schizophrenia. This reduction did not correlate with age, sex, duration of the disease, and duration and type of antipsychotic medication and might, therefore, represent a trait of schizophrenia. Interestingly, systemic treatment with low doses of CA (<1 mg/kg, i.p.) showed robust efficacy in several behavioral tests useful to study antipsychotic-like activity in mice and rats and attenuated MK-801-evoked glutamate release. CA failed to display antipsychotic-like activity and inhibit excitatory synaptic transmission in mice lacking mGlu4 receptors. These findings suggest that CA is a potent endogenous antipsychotic-like molecule and reduced CA levels in the PFC might contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Long-term systemic administration of kynurenic acid brain region specifically elevates the abundance of functional CB1 receptors in rats

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is one of the most significant metabolite of the kynurenine pathway both in terms of functional and potential therapeutic value. It is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, but it can also activate the G-protein coupled receptor 35 (GPR35), which shares several structural and functional properties with cannabinoid receptors. Previously our group demonstrated that systemic chronic KYNA treatment altered opioid receptor G-protein activity. Opioid receptors also overlap in many features with cannabinoid receptors. Thus, our aim was to examine the direct in vitro and systemic, chronic in vivo effect of KYNA on type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB₁R) binding and G-protein activity. Based on competition and [³⁵S]GTPγS G-protein binding assays in rat brain, KYNA alone did not show significant binding towards the CB₁R, nor did it alter CB₁R ligand binding and agonist activity in vitro. When rats were chronically treated with KYNA (single daily, i.p., 128 mg/kg for 9 days), the KYNA plasma and cerebrospinal fluid levels significantly increased compared to vehicle treated group. Furthermore, in G-protein binding assays, in the whole brain the amount of G-proteins in basal and in maximum activity coupled to the CB₁R also increased due to the treatment. At the same time, the overall stimulatory properties of the receptor remained unaltered in vehicle and KYNA treated samples. Similar observations were made in rat hippocampus, but not in the cortex and brainstem. In saturation binding assays the density of CB₁Rs in rat whole brain and hippocampus were also significantly enhanced after the same treatment, without significantly affecting ligand binding affinity. Thus, KYNA indirectly and brain region specifically increases the abundance of functional CB₁Rs, without modifying the overall binding and activity of the receptor. Supposedly, this can be a compensatory mechanism on the part of the endocannabinoid system induced by the long-term KYNA exposure.

Sex differences in behavioral responses during a conditioned flight paradigm

Females exhibit greater susceptibility to trauma- and stress-related disorders compared to males; therefore, it is imperative to study sex differences in the mode and magnitude of defensive responses in the face of threat. To test for sex differences in defensive behavior, we used a modified Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm that elicits clear transitions between freezing and flight behaviors within individual subjects. Female mice subjected to this paradigm exhibited more freezing behavior compared to males, especially during the intertrial interval period. Female mice also exhibited more freezing in response to conditioned auditory stimuli in the last block of extinction training. Furthermore, there were sex differences in the expression of other adaptive behaviors during fear conditioning. Assaying rearing, grooming, and tail rattling behaviors during the conditioned flight paradigm yielded measurable differences across sessions and between males and females. Overall, these results provide insight into sex-dependent alterations in mouse behavior induced by fear conditioning.

Effects of IDO1 and TDO2 inhibition on cognitive deficits and anxiety following LPS-induced neuroinflammation

OBJECTIVE

Sustained immune activation leads to cognitive dysfunctions, depression-, and anxiety-like behaviours in humans and rodents. It is modelled by administration of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) to induce expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines that then activate indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO1), the rate-limiting enzyme in the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism. Here, we ask whether chronic IDO1 inhibition by 1-methyl-tryptophan (1-MT, added at 2 g/l in the drinking water) or chronic inhibition of tryptophan 2,3 dioxygenase (TDO2), another enzyme capable of converting tryptophan to kynurenine, by 680C91 (15 mg/kg per os), can rescue LPS-induced (0.83-mg/kg intraperitoneally) anxiety and cognitive deficits. We also investigate the acute effects of 680C91 on serotonergic, dopaminergic, and kynurenine pathway metabolites.

METHODS

We examined LPS-induced deficits in trace fear conditioning and anxiety in the light-dark box and elevated plus maze (EPM) in group-housed C57Bl6/N mice. Kynurenine pathway metabolites and monoamine levels were measured via high-performance liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

Chronic blockade of IDO1 with 1-MT did not rescue cognitive deficits or abrogate the anxiogenic behaviour caused by LPS despite a decrease in the brain kynurenine:tryptophan ratio. However, 1-MT by itself demonstrated anxiolytic properties in the EPM. Acute and chronic inhibition of TDO2 elevated brain levels of tryptophan, while chronic inhibition of TDO2 was unsuccessful in rescuing cognitive deficits and abrogating the anxiety caused by LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

In line with previous studies, we show that LPS administration induces anxiety and cognitive dysfunctions in mice that however were not reversed by chronic blockade of IDO1 or TDO2 at the doses used.

Kynurenines and the Endocannabinoid System in Schizophrenia: Common Points and Potential Interactions

Schizophrenia, which affects around 1% of the world’s population, has been described as a complex set of symptoms triggered by multiple factors. However, the exact background mechanisms remain to be explored, whereas therapeutic agents with excellent effectivity and safety profiles have yet to be developed. Kynurenines and the endocannabinoid system (ECS) play significant roles in both the development and manifestation of schizophrenia, which have been extensively studied and reviewed previously. Accordingly, kynurenines and the ECS share multiple features and mechanisms in schizophrenia, which have yet to be reviewed. Thus, the present study focuses on the main common points and potential interactions between kynurenines and the ECS in schizophrenia, which include (i) the regulation of glutamatergic/dopaminergic/γ-aminobutyric acidergic neurotransmission, (ii) their presence in astrocytes, and (iii) their role in inflammatory mechanisms. Additionally, promising pharmaceutical approaches involving the kynurenine pathway and the ECS will be reviewed herein.

Neuroprotection by luteolin and gallic acid against cobalt chloride-induced behavioural, morphological and neurochemical alterations in Wistar rats

Cobalt (Co) intoxication arising from occupational exposures and ion release from metal implants has been associated with neurological alterations such as cognitive decline, incoordination and depression. The present study evaluated the mechanisms of neuro-protection exerted by Luteolin (Lut; 100 mg/kg) and Gallic acid (GA; 120 mg/kg) in Wistar rats exposed to cobalt chloride (CoCl₂) at 150 mg/kg for 7 consecutive days. Results indicate that CoCl₂ induced neuro-behavioural deficits specifically by decreasing exploratory activities of CoCl₂-exposed rats, increased anxiety, as well as significant reduction in hanging latency. Co-treatment with Lut or GA, however, restored these parameters to values near those of normal controls. Moreover, Lut and GA prevented CoCl₂-induced increases in hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) in the brain, while also restoring the activities of acetylcholinesterase, glutathione S-transferase (GST) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). In addition, Lut and GA produced significant reversal of CoCl_2-induced elevation in levels of serum Interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and Tumor necrosis factor (TNFα). Meanwhile, immunohistochemistry revealed increased astrocytic expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), with intense calbindin (CB) D-28k staining and pronounced dendrites in the Purkinje cells. In contrast, the CoCl₂ group was characterized by decreased number of neurons expressing CB and dendritic loss. Taken together, mechanisms of luteolin and/or gallic acid protection against Co toxicity involved restoration of Ca²⁺ homeostasis, acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant enzyme activities, as well as inhibition of lipid peroxidation in the brain.

Alzheimer's Disease: Recent Concepts on the Relation of Mitochondrial Disturbances, Excitotoxicity, Neuroinflammation, and Kynurenines

The pathomechanism of Alzheimer's disease (AD) certainly involves mitochondrial disturbances, glutamate excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. The three main aspects of mitochondrial dysfunction in AD, i.e., the defects in dynamics, altered bioenergetics, and the deficient transport, act synergistically. In addition, glutamatergic neurotransmission is affected in several ways. The balance between synaptic and extrasynaptic glutamatergic transmission is shifted toward the extrasynaptic site contributing to glutamate excitotoxicity, a phenomenon augmented by increased glutamate release and decreased glutamate uptake. Neuroinflammation in AD is predominantly linked to central players of the innate immune system, with central nervous system (CNS)-resident microglia, astroglia, and perivascular macrophages having been implicated at the cellular level. Several abnormalities have been described regarding the activation of certain steps of the kynurenine (KYN) pathway of tryptophan metabolism in AD. First of all, the activation of indolamine 2,3-dioxygenase, the first and rate-limiting step of the pathway, is well-demonstrated. 3-Hydroxy-L-KYN and its metabolite, 3-hydroxy-anthranilic acid have pro-oxidant, antioxidant, and potent immunomodulatory features, giving relevance to their alterations in AD. Another metabolite, quinolinic acid, has been demonstrated to be neurotoxic, promoting glutamate excitotoxicity, reactive oxygen species production, lipid peroxidation, and microglial neuroinflammation, and its abundant presence in AD pathologies has been demonstrated. Finally, the neuroprotective metabolite, kynurenic acid, has been associated with antagonistic effects at glutamate receptors, free radical scavenging, and immunomodulation, giving rise to potential therapeutic implications. This review presents the multiple connections of KYN pathway-related alterations to three main domains of AD pathomechanism, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation, implicating possible therapeutic options.

inPentasomes: An innovative nose-to-brain pentamidine delivery blunts MPTP parkinsonism in mice

Preclinical and clinical evidences have demonstrated that astroglial-derived S100B protein is a key element in neuroinflammation underlying the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), so much as that S100B inhibitors have been proposed as promising candidates for PD targeted therapy. Pentamidine, an old-developed antiprotozoal drug, currently used for pneumocystis carinii is one of the most potent inhibitors of S100B activity, but despite this effect, is limited by its low capability to cross blood brain barrier (BBB). To overcome this problem, we developed a non-invasive intranasal delivery system, chitosan coated niosomes with entrapped pentamidine (inPentasomes), in the attempt to provide a novel pharmacological approach to ameliorate parkinsonism induced by subchronic MPTP administration in C57BL-6 J mice. inPentasomes, prepared by evaporation method was administered daily by intranasal route in subchronic MPTP-intoxicated rodents and resulted in a dose-dependent manner (0.001-0.004 mg/kg) capable for a significant Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) positive neuronal density rescue in both striatum and substantia nigra of parkinsonian mice. In parallel, inPentasomes significantly decreased the extent of glial-related neuroinflammation through the reduction of specific gliotic markers (Iba-1, GFAP, COX-2, iNOS) with consequent PGE₂ and NO₂^- release reduction, in nigrostriatal system. inPentasomes-mediated S100B inhibition resulted in a RAGE/NF-κB pathway downstream inhibition in the nigrostriatal circuit, causing a marked amelioration of motor performances in intoxicated mice. On the basis of our results, chitosan coated niosomes loaded with pentamidine, the inPentasome system, self-candidates as a promising new intranasal approach to mitigate parkinsonism in humans and possibly paves the way for a possible clinical repositioning of pentamidine as anti-PD drug.

Loss of odor-induced c-Fos expression of juxtaglomerular activity following maintenance of mice on fatty diets

Diet-induced obesity (DIO) decreases the number of OMP+ olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) in the olfactory epithelium by 25% and reduces correlate axonal projections to the olfactory bulb (OB). Whether surviving OSNs have equivalent odor responsivity is largely unknown. Herein, we utilized c-fos immediate-early gene expression to map neuronal activity and determine whether mice weaned to control (CF), moderately-high fat (MHF), or high-fat (HF) diet for a period of 6 months had changes in odor activation. Diet-challenged M72-IRES-tau-GFP mice were exposed to either a preferred M72 (Olfr160) ligand, isopropyl tiglate, or clean air in a custom-made Bell-jar infusion chamber using an alternating odor exposure pattern generated by a picosprizer™. Mice maintained on fatty diets weighed significantly more and cleared glucose less efficiently as determined by an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT). The number of juxtaglomerular cells (JGs) decreased following maintenance of the mice on the MHF diet for cells surrounding the medial but not lateral M72 glomerulus within a 4 cell-column distance. The percentage of c-fos + JGs surrounding the lateral M72 glomerulus decreased in fat-challenged mice whereas those surrounding the medial glomerulus were not affected by diet. Altogether, these results show an asymmetry in the responsiveness of the 'mirror image' glomerular map for the M72 receptor that shows greater sensitivity of the lateral vs. medial glomerulus upon exposure to fatty diet.

Functional disruption of stress modulatory circuits in a model of temporal lobe epilepsy

Clinical data suggest that the neuroendocrine stress response is chronically dysregulated in a subset of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), potentially contributing to both disease progression and the development of psychiatric comorbidities such as anxiety and depression. Whether neuroendocrine dysregulation and psychiatric comorbidities reflect direct effects of epilepsy-related pathologies, or secondary effects of disease burden particular to humans with epilepsy (i.e. social estrangement, employment changes) is not clear. Animal models provide an opportunity to dissociate these factors. Therefore, we queried whether epileptic mice would reproduce neuroendocrine and behavioral changes associated with human epilepsy. Male FVB mice were exposed to pilocarpine to induce status epilepticus (SE) and the subsequent development of spontaneous recurrent seizures. Morning baseline corticosterone levels were elevated in pilocarpine treated mice at 1, 7 and 10 weeks post-SE relative to controls. Similarly, epileptic mice had increased adrenal weight when compared to control mice. Exposure to acute restraint stress resulted in hypersecretion of corticosterone 30 min after the onset of the challenge. Anatomical analyses revealed reduced Fos expression in infralimbic and prelimbic prefrontal cortex, ventral subiculum and basal amygdala following restraint. No differences in Fos immunoreactivity were found in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, hippocampal subfields or central amygdala. In order to assess emotional behavior, a second cohort of mice underwent a battery of behavioral tests, including sucrose preference, open field, elevated plus maze, 24h home-cage monitoring and forced swim. Epileptic mice showed increased anhedonic behavior, hyperactivity and anxiety-like behaviors. Together these data demonstrate that epileptic mice develop HPA axis hyperactivity and exhibit behavioral dysfunction. Endocrine and behavioral changes are associated with impaired recruitment of forebrain circuits regulating stress inhibition and emotional reactivity. Loss of forebrain control may underlie pronounced endocrine dysfunction and comorbid psychopathologies seen in temporal lobe epilepsy.

Tryptophan circuit in fatigue: From blood to brain and cognition

Brain tryptophan and its neuroactive metabolites play key roles in central fatigue. However, previous brain function analysis targets may have included both glia and neurons together. Here, we clarified the fatigue-cognitive circuit of the central-peripheral linkage, including the role of glial-neuronal interaction in cognition. Using a rat model of central fatigue induced by chronic sleep disorder (CFSD), we isolated presynaptic terminals and oligodendrocytes. Results showed that compared to control group, presynaptic levels of tryptophan, kynurenine, and kynurenic acid, but not serotonin, in the CFSD group were higher in the hypothalamus and hippocampus. Moreover, CFSD group had higher oligodendrocytic levels of tryptophan, and impaired spatial cognitive memory accuracy and increased hyperactivity and impulsivity. These findings suggest that dynamic change in glial-neuronal interactions within the hypothalamus-hippocampal circuit causes central fatigue, and increased tryptophan-kynurenic acid pathway activity in this circuit causes reduced cognitive function. Additionally, CFSD group had 1.5 times higher plasma levels of tryptophan and kynurenine. Furthermore, in rats undergoing intraperitoneal administration of kynurenine (100mg/kg) versus vehicle, kynurenine-treated rats showed enhanced production of kynurenic acid in the hippocampus, with suppressed recall of retained spatial cognitive memory. The study revealed that uptake of periphery-derived kynurenine and tryptophan into the brain enhances kynurenic acid production in the brain, and the three factors produce amplification effect involved in the role of central-peripheral linkage in central fatigue, triggering cognitive dysfunction.

Systemic administration of l-kynurenine sulfate induces cerebral hypoperfusion transients in adult C57Bl/6 mice

The kynurenine pathway is a cascade of enzymatic steps generating biologically active compounds. l-kynurenine (l-KYN) is a central metabolite of tryptophan degradation. In the mammalian brain, l-KYN is partly converted to kynurenic acid (KYNA), which exerts multiple effects on neurotransmission. Recently, l-KYN or one of its derivatives were attributed a direct role in the regulation of the systemic circulation. l-KYN dilates arterial blood vessels during sepsis in rats, while it increases cerebral blood flow (CBF) in awake rabbits. Therefore, we hypothesized that acute elevation of systemic l-KYN concentration may exert potential effects on mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) and on resting CBF in the mouse brain. C57Bl/6 male mice were anesthetized with isoflurane, and MABP was monitored in the femoral artery, while CBF was assessed through the intact parietal bone with the aid of laser speckle contrast imaging. l-KYN sulfate (l-KYNs) (300mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle was administered intraperitoneally. Subsequently, MABP and CBF were continuously monitored for 2.5h. In the control group, MABP and CBF were stable (69±4mmHg and 100±5%, respectively) throughout the entire data acquisition period. In the l-KYNs-treated group, MABP was similar to that, of control group (73±6mmHg), while hypoperfusion transients of 22±6%, lasting 7±3min occurred in the cerebral cortex over the first 60-120min following drug administration. In conclusion, the systemic high-dose of l-KYNs treatment destabilizes resting CBF by inducing a number of transient hypoperfusion events. This observation indicates the careful consideration of the dose of l-KYN administration by interpreting the effect of kynurenergic manipulation on brain function. By planning clinical trials basing on kynurenergic manipulation possible vascular side effects should also be considered.

Neurotoxic kynurenine metabolism is increased in the dorsal hippocampus and drives distinct depressive behaviors during inflammation

The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism has an important role in mediating the behavioral effects of inflammation, which has implications in understanding neuropsychiatric comorbidity and for the development of novel therapies. Inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), prevents the development of many of these inflammation-induced preclinical behaviors. However, dysregulation in the balance of downstream metabolism, where neuroactive kynurenines are generated, is hypothesized to be a functionally important pathogenic feature of inflammation-induced depression. Here we utilized two novel transgenic mouse strains to directly test the hypothesis that neurotoxic kynurenine metabolism causes depressive-like behavior following peripheral immune activation. Wild-type (WT) or kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO)-deficient (KMO^-/-) mice were administered either lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.5 mg kg^-1) or saline intraperitoneally. Depressive-like behavior was measured across multiple domains 24 h after immune challenge. LPS precipitated a robust depressive-like phenotype, but KMO^-/- mice were specifically protected from LPS-induced immobility in the tail suspension test (TST) and reduced spontaneous alternations in the Y-maze. Direct administration of 3-hydroxykynurenine, the metabolic product of KMO, caused a dose-dependent increase in depressive-like behaviors. Mice with targeted deletion of 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid dioxygenase (HAAO), the enzyme that generates quinolinic acid, were similarly challenged with LPS. Similar to KMO^-/- mice, LPS failed to increase immobility during the TST. Whereas kynurenine metabolism was generally increased in behaviorally salient brain regions, a distinct shift toward KMO-dependent kynurenine metabolism occurred in the dorsal hippocampus in response to LPS. Together, these results demonstrate that KMO is a pivotal mediator of hippocampal-dependent depressive-like behaviors induced by peripheral LPS challenge.

The novel KMO inhibitor CHDI-340246 leads to a restoration of electrophysiological alterations in mouse models of Huntington's disease

Dysregulation of the kynurenine (Kyn) pathway has been associated with the progression of Huntington's disease (HD). In particular, elevated levels of the kynurenine metabolites 3-hydroxy kynurenine (3-OH-Kyn) and quinolinic acid (Quin), have been reported in the brains of HD patients as well as in rodent models of HD. The production of these metabolites is controlled by the activity of kynurenine mono-oxygenase (KMO), an enzyme which catalyzes the synthesis of 3-OH-Kyn from Kyn. In order to determine the role of KMO in the phenotype of mouse models of HD, we have developed a potent and selective KMO inhibitor termed CHDI-340246. We show that this compound, when administered orally to transgenic mouse models of HD, potently and dose-dependently modulates the Kyn pathway in peripheral tissues and in the central nervous system. The administration of CHDI-340246 leads to an inhibition of the formation of 3-OH-Kyn and Quin, and to an elevation of Kyn and Kynurenic acid (KynA) levels in brain tissues. We show that administration of CHDI-340246 or of Kyn and of KynA can restore several electrophysiological alterations in mouse models of HD, both acutely and after chronic administration. However, using a comprehensive panel of behavioral tests, we demonstrate that the chronic dosing of a selective KMO inhibitor does not significantly modify behavioral phenotypes or natural progression in mouse models of HD.

Role of Glia in Stress-Induced Enhancement and Impairment of Memory

Both acute and chronic stress profoundly affect hippocampally-dependent learning and memory: moderate stress generally enhances, while chronic or extreme stress can impair, neural and cognitive processes. Within the brain, stress elevates both norepinephrine and glucocorticoids, and both affect several genomic and signaling cascades responsible for modulating memory strength. Memories formed at times of stress can be extremely strong, yet stress can also impair memory to the point of amnesia. Often overlooked in consideration of the impact of stress on cognitive processes, and specifically memory, is the important contribution of glia as a target for stress-induced changes. Astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes all have unique contributions to learning and memory. Furthermore, these three types of glia express receptors for both norepinephrine and glucocorticoids and are hence immediate targets of stress hormone actions. It is becoming increasingly clear that inflammatory cytokines and immunomodulatory molecules released by glia during stress may promote many of the behavioral effects of acute and chronic stress. In this review, the role of traditional genomic and rapid hormonal mechanisms working in concert with glia to affect stress-induced learning and memory will be emphasized.

Stress-related regulation of the kynurenine pathway: Relevance to neuropsychiatric and degenerative disorders

The kynurenine pathway (KP), which is activated in times of stress and infection has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Activation of this tryptophan metabolising pathway results in the production of neuroactive metabolites which have the potential to interfere with normal neuronal functioning which may contribute to altered neuronal transmission and the emergence of symptoms of these brain disorders. This review investigates the involvement of the KP in a range of neurological disorders, examining recent in vitro, in vivo and clinical discoveries highlights evidence to indicate that the KP is a potential therapeutic target in both neurodegenerative and stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Furthermore, this review identifies gaps in our knowledge with regard to this field which are yet to be examined to lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the role of KP activation in brain health and disease. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'The Kynurenine Pathway in Health and Disease'.