Stress Across Generations: DNA Methylation as a Potential Mechanism Underlying Intergenerational Effects of Stress in Both Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Pre-clinical Predator Stress Rodent Models

Trauma context exerts intergenerational effects on child mental health via DNA methylation

Many people experience traumatic or negative events, but few develop mental health issues as a result. This study investigated whether newborn DNA methylation (DNAm) previously associated with maternal childhood physical abuse by her father affected the child's mental health and physical growth, as well as whether it mediated or moderated developmental outcomes.

METHODS

Study sample (N = 903) and data came from Bristol University's Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. DNAm was measured in cord blood at birth. DNAm data was preprocessed, normalized, and quality controlled before subsetting to 60 CpG sites of interest from previous research. Linear regression analysis examined newborn DNAm and child development outcome associations. Sobel test examined the mediating relationship between mother's history of childhood abuse by father, newborn targeted gene DNAm of significant CpG sites, and child's mental health and physical growth. Moderation analyses examined the interaction effects between the significant CpG sites and mothers' physical abuse by their fathers on child's mental health and physical growth.

RESULTS

Full cohort analyses showed that newborn DNAm of several different CpG sites associates with separation anxiety, fear, and unhappy/tearful presentations in children aged 6-7 y. Sex-specific associations emerged with boys showing associations with anxiety and fear, and girls showing associations with fear and unhappiness. In boys only, cord blood DNAm mediates the effect of maternal childhood trauma on offspring mental health. No moderation effects emerged.

CONCLUSION

Intergenerational effects of mother's relationship to her abuser present in newborn DNAm associate with 7-year-old child's mental health, show sex-specific effects, and newborn DNAm does mediate maternal childhood trauma effects on offspring mental health in early-life.

Metals on the Menu-Analyzing the Presence, Importance, and Consequences

Metals are integral components of the natural environment, and their presence in the food supply is inevitable and complex. While essential metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, and copper are crucial for various physiological functions and must be consumed through the diet, others, like lead, mercury, and cadmium, are toxic even at low concentrations and pose serious health risks. This study comprehensively analyzes the presence, importance, and consequences of metals in the food chain. We explore the pathways through which metals enter the food supply, their distribution across different food types, and the associated health implications. By examining current regulatory standards for maximum allowable levels of various metals, we highlight the importance of ensuring food safety and protecting public health. Furthermore, this research underscores the need for continuous monitoring and management of metal content in food, especially as global agricultural and food production practices evolve. Our findings aim to inform dietary recommendations, food fortification strategies, and regulatory policies, ultimately contributing to safer and more nutritionally balanced diets.

Maternal childhood maltreatment: associations to offspring brain volume and white matter connectivity

The deleterious effects of adversity are likely intergenerational, such that one generation's adverse experiences can affect the next. Epidemiological studies link maternal adversity to offspring depression and anxiety, possibly via transmission mechanisms that influence offspring fronto-limbic connectivity. However, studies have not thoroughly disassociated postnatal exposure effects nor considered the role of offspring sex. We utilized infant neuroimaging to test the hypothesis that maternal childhood maltreatment (CM) would be associated with increased fronto-limbic connectivity in infancy and tested brain-behavior associations in childhood. Ninety-two dyads participated (32 mothers with CM, 60 without; 52 infant females, 40 infant males). Women reported on their experiences of CM and non-sedated sleeping infants underwent MRIs at 2.44 ± 2.74 weeks. Brain volumes were estimated via structural MRI and white matter structural connectivity (fiber counts) via diffusion MRI with probabilistic tractography. A subset of parents (n = 36) reported on children's behaviors at age 5.17 ± 1.73 years. Males in the maltreatment group demonstrated greater intra-hemispheric fronto-limbic connectivity (b = 0.96, p= 0.008, [95%CI 0.25, 1.66]), no differences emerged for females. Fronto-limbic connectivity was related to somatic complaints in childhood only for males (r = 0.673, p = 0.006). Our findings suggest that CM could have intergenerational associations to offspring brain development, yet mechanistic studies are needed.

Biological Embedding of Early-Life Adversity and a Scoping Review of the Evidence for Intergenerational Epigenetic Transmission of Stress and Trauma in Humans

Severe or chronic stress and trauma can have a detrimental impact on health. Evidence suggests that early-life adversity can become biologically embedded and has the potential to influence health outcomes decades later. Epigenetics is one mechanism that has been implicated in these long-lasting effects. Observational studies in humans indicate that the effects of stress could even persist across generations, although whether or not epigenetic mechanisms are involved remains under debate. Here, we provide an overview of studies in animals and humans that demonstrate the effects of early-life stress on DNA methylation, one of the most widely studied epigenetic mechanisms, and summarize findings from animal models demonstrating the involvement of epigenetics in the transmission of stress across generations. We then describe the results of a scoping review to determine the extent to which the terms intergenerational or transgenerational have been used in human studies investigating the transmission of trauma and stress via epigenetic mechanisms. We end with a discussion of key areas for future research to advance understanding of the role of epigenetics in the legacy effects of stress and trauma.

Hypothalamus volume mediates the association between adverse childhood experience and PTSD development after adulthood trauma

The hypothalamus is critical for regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and response to stress. Adverse childhood experience (ACE) can affect brain structure, which may contribute to development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after subsequent adult trauma. It is unclear, however, if ACE history is particularly associated with aspects of hypothalamic structure which contribute to development of PTSD. To address this issue, the present study longitudinally assessed hypothalamic volumes and their associations with ACE and early post-trauma stress symptoms in subjects who did or did not develop PTSD during 12 months after adult trauma. 109 subjects (18-60 years, F/M = 75/34) completed the PTSD Checklist (PCL) questionnaire for post-trauma stress symptoms, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) for ACE assessment, and an initial MRI brain scan for hypothalamic volume measurement, within 2 weeks after adult trauma. At post-trauma 12 months, subjects underwent a subsequent PTSD diagnosis interview using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), and a follow-up MRI scan. Left and right hypothalamus volumes at 2 weeks after adult trauma negatively correlated with CTQ scores. Right hypothalamus volume at this early time mediated an association between ACE and PTSD symptoms 12 months later. Right hypothalamus volumes also remained persistently smaller from 2 weeks to 12 months after trauma in survivors who developed PTSD. These results suggest that smaller right hypothalamus volume may be related to ACE history in ways that contribute to PTSD development after trauma in adulthood.

Large epigenome-wide association study identifies multiple novel differentially methylated CpG sites associated with suicidal thoughts and behaviors in veterans

Introduction

The U.S. suicide mortality rate has steadily increased during the past two decades, particularly among military veterans; however, the epigenetic basis of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STB) remains largely unknown.

Methods

To address this issue, we conducted an epigenome-wide association study of DNA methylation (DNAm) of peripheral blood samples obtained from 2,712 U.S. military veterans.

Results

Three DNAm probes were significantly associated with suicide attempts, surpassing the multiple testing threshold (FDR q-value <0.05), including cg13301722 on chromosome 7, which lies between the genes SLC4A2 and CDK5; cg04724646 in PDE3A; and cg04999352 in RARRES3. cg13301722 was also found to be differentially methylated in the cerebral cortex of suicide decedents in a publicly-available dataset (p = 0.03). Trait enrichment analysis revealed that the CpG sites most strongly associated with STB in the present sample were also associated with smoking, alcohol consumption, maternal smoking, and maternal alcohol consumption, whereas pathway enrichment analysis revealed significant associations with circadian rhythm, adherens junction, insulin secretion, and RAP-1 signaling, each of which was recently associated with suicide attempts in a large, independent genome-wide association study of suicide attempts of veterans.

Discussion

Taken together, the present findings suggest that SLC4A2, CDK5, PDE3A, and RARRES3 may play a role in STB. CDK5, a member of the cyclin-dependent kinase family that is highly expressed in the brain and essential for learning and memory, appears to be a particularly promising candidate worthy of future study; however, additional work is still needed to replicate these finding in independent samples.

Intergenerational impact of dietary protein restriction in dairy ewes on epigenetic marks in the perirenal fat of their suckling lambs

In sheep, nutrition during the prepubertal stage is essential for growth performance and mammary gland development. However, the potential effects of nutrient restriction in a prepuberal stage over the progeny still need to be better understood. Here, the intergenerational effect of maternal protein restriction at prepubertal age (2 months of age) on methylation patterns was evaluated in the perirenal fat of Assaf suckling lambs. In total, 17 lambs from ewes subjected to dietary protein restriction (NPR group, 44% less protein) and 17 lambs from control ewes (C group) were analyzed. These lambs were ranked based on their carcass proportion of perirenal and cavitary fat and classified into HighPCF and LowPCF groups. The perirenal tissue from 4 NPR-LowPCF, 4 NPR-HighPCF, 4 C-LowPCF, and 4 C-HighPCF lambs was subjected to whole-genome bisulfite sequencing and differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were identified. Among other relevant processes, these DMRs were mapped in genes responsible for regulating the transition of brown to white adipose tissue and nonshivering thermoregulation, which might be associated with better adaptation/survival of lambs in the perinatal stage. The current study provides important biological insights about the intergenerational effect on the methylation pattern of an NPR in replacement ewes.

Bibliometric analysis of post-traumatic stress disorder in forensic medicine: Research trends, hot spots, and prospects

Background

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has various risk factors, complex pathogenesis, and diverse symptoms, and is often comorbid with other injuries and diseases, making forensic diagnosis difficult.

Methods

To explore the current research status and trends of PTSD, we used the Web of Science Core Collection databases to screen PTSD-related literature published between 2010 and 2021 and CiteSpace to perform bibliometric analysis.

Results

In recent years, PTSD-related research has grown steadily. The countries and institutions with the most research results were the United States and England, and King's College London and Boston University, respectively. Publications were identified from 2,821 different journals, including 13 forensic-related journals, but the journal distribution was relatively scattered and there was a lack of professional core journals. Keyword co-occurrence and clustering identified many hot topics; "rat model," "mental health," and "satisfaction" were the topics most likely to have a clear effect on future research. Analysis extracted nine turning points from the literature that suggested that neural network centers, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and biomarkers were new research directions. It was found that COVID-19 can cause severe psychological stress and induce PTSD, but the relationship needs further study. The literature on stress response areas and biomarkers has gradually increased over time, but specific systemic neural brain circuits and biomarkers remain to be determined.

Conclusion

There is a need to expand the collection of different types of biological tissue samples from patients with different backgrounds, screen PTSD biomarkers and molecular targets using multi-omics and molecular biology techniques, and establish PTSD-related molecular networks. This may promote a systematic understanding of the abnormal activation of neural circuits in patients with PTSD and help to establish a personalized, accurate, and objective forensic diagnostic standard.

Hyperarousal Symptom Severity in Women with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Might Be Associated with LINE-1 Hypomethylation in Childhood Sexual Abuse Victims

Introduction

Sexual assault and a history of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) are related to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) development. Long interspersed nuclear elements (LINE-1) are transposable elements, and their methylation is used to infer DNA global methylation. DNA methylation can be affected by trauma exposition which in turn would be associated with PTSD. Thus, we investigated if the LINE-1 methylation pattern is related to PTSD symptoms in females with a history of CSA.

Methods

This is a case-control study that examined, at baseline (W1), 64 women victims of sexual assault diagnosed with PTSD and 31 patients with PTSD who completed the 1-year follow-up (W2). Participants were categorized into two groups according to the presence of CSA (PTSDCSA+: NW1 = 19, NW2 = 10; PTSDCSA-: NW1 = 45, NW2 = 21). PTSD symptoms (re-experiencing, avoidance, hyperarousal, alterations in cognition/mood) were assessed using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale, and the history of CSA was assessed by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. LINE-1 methylation was measured in three sites (CpG1, CpG2, CpG3) located in the 5'UTR region using bisulfite conversion followed by pyrosequencing. Linear regression models were performed to test the relation between LINE-1 CpG sites methylation and PTSD symptoms.

Results

We found a negative association between CpG2 methylation and hyperarousal symptoms among those in the PTSDCSA+ group in W1 (adjusted p = 0.003) compared to the PTSDCSA- group (p > 0.05). Still, no association was observed between other PTSD symptoms and other CpG sites. Further, in the longitudinal analysis, LINE-1 hypomethylation was no longer observed in PTSD participants exposed to CSA.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that LINE-1 methylation may help understand the relationship between trauma and PTSD. However, more studies are needed to investigate LINE-1 as an epigenetic marker of psychiatric disorders.

A narrative review of the epigenetics of post-traumatic stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder treatment

Epigenetic research in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is essential, given that environmental stressors and fear play such a crucial role in its development. As such, it may provide a framework for understanding individual differences in the prevalence of the disorder and in treatment response. This paper reviews the epigenetic markers associated with PTSD and its treatment, including candidate genes and epigenome-wide studies. Because the etiopathogenesis of PTSD rests heavily on learning and memory, we also draw upon animal neuroepigenetic research on the acquisition, update and erasure of fear memory, focusing on the mechanisms associated with memory reconsolidation. Reconsolidation blockade (or impairment) treatment in PTSD has been studied in clinical trials and, from a neurological perspective, may hold promise for identifying epigenetic markers of successful therapy. We conclude this paper by discussing several key considerations and challenges in epigenetic research on PTSD in humans.

Confronting Racism in All Forms of Pain Research: Reframing Study Designs

This second paper in a 3-part series on antiracism in pain research across the translational spectrum focuses on study design factors. Although objectivity is a cornerstone value of science, subjectivity is embedded in every step of the research process as investigators make choices about who they collaborate with, which research questions they ask, how they recruit participants, which research tools they use, and how they analyze and interpret data. We present theory and evidence from disciplines such as sociology, medical anthropology, statistics, and public health to discuss 4 common study design factors, including 1) the dominant biomedical narrative of pain that restricts funding and exploration of social indicators of pain, 2) low diversity and inclusion in pain research enrollment that restricts generalizability to racialized groups, 3) the use of "race" or "ethnicity" as a statistical variable and proxy for lived experiences (eg, racism, resilience), and 4) limited modeling in preclinical research for the impact of social factors on pain physiology. The information presented in this article is intended to start conversations across stakeholders in the pain field to explore how we can come together to adopt antiracism practices in our work at large to achieve equity for racialized groups. PERSPECTIVE: This is the second paper in a 3-part series on antiracism in pain research. This part identifies common study design factors that risk hindering progress toward pain care equity. We suggest reframes using an antiracism framework for these factors to encourage all pain investigators to collectively make strides toward equity.

Prenatal earthquake stress exposure in different gestational trimesters is associated with methylation changes in the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and long-term working memory in adulthood

Prenatal stress exposure is thought to affect the long-term development of the foetal brain via the HPA axis and to change health outcomes in adulthood, including working memory (WM). The potential mechanism is that there is a critical period of brain development of the foetus, which is a result of selective adaptation to the external environment. The human glucocorticoid gene (NR3C1) is associated with memory and cognition. This study investigates the association between earthquake stress during pregnancy and CpG methylation of the NR3C1 exon 1_F promoter and its influence on working memory in adulthood. DNA methylation analysis using bisulfite sequencing PCR was quantified in 176 subjects who were exposed or not exposed to intrauterine earthquake and were divided into three groups based on the pregnancy trimester. The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R) and Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R) were used to assess working memory performance. The methylated NR3C1 exon 1_F promoter of the prenatal earthquake exposure (PEE) group was significantly higher than that of the control group (CN). Analysis of subgroups indicated that the subjects in the second trimester of PEE group showed significantly higher methylation than those in the third trimester. Significantly low BVMT-R scores were detected in those who experienced prenatal earthquake in the second trimester of PEE group. Methylated CpG site 1 may play a critical role in contributing to lower BVMT-R scores in the second trimester in the PEE group, and may offer a potential epigenetic mechanism that links prenatal stress and long-term effects on working memory.

Infant DNA methylation: an early indicator of intergenerational trauma?

Exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) increases risk for mental and physical health problems. Intergenerationally, mothers' ACEs predict children's health problems including neurodevelopmental and behavioural problems and poorer physical health. Theories of intergenerational trauma suggest that ACEs experienced in one generation negatively affect the health and well-being of future generations, with DNA methylation (DNAm) being one of several potential biological explanations. To begin exploring this hypothesis, we tested whether infant DNA methylation associated with intergenerational trauma. Secondary analysis employed data from the Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition (APrON) study. Subsample data were collected from mothers during pregnancy and postpartum on measures of distress, stress and ACEs and from infants at 3 months of age on DNAm from blood (n = 92) and buccal epithelial cells (BECs; n = 124; primarily nonoverlapping individuals between tissues). Blood and BECs were examined in separate analyses. Preliminary associations identified in blood and BECs suggest that infant DNAm patterns may relate to maternal ACEs. For the majority of ACE-related DNAm sites, neither maternal perinatal distress, nor maternal cortisol awakening response (CAR; a measure of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis function), substantially reduced associations between maternal ACEs and infant DNAm. However, accounting for maternal perinatal distress and cortisol substantially changed the effect of ACEs in a greater proportion of blood DNAm sites than BEC DNAm sites in the top ACEs-associated correlated methylated regions (CMRs), as well as across all CMRs and all remaining CpGs (that did not fall into CMRs). Possible DNAm patterns in infants, thus, might capture a signature of maternal intergenerational trauma, and this effect appears to be more dependent on maternal perinatal distress and CAR in blood relative to BECs.

A Review on Epigenetic Inheritance of Experiences in Humans

If genetics defines the inheritance of DNA, epigenetics aims to regulate and make it adaptable. Epigenetic alterations include DNA methylation, chromatin remodelling, post-translational modifications of histone proteins and activity of non-coding RNAs. Several studies, especially in animal models, have reported transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic marks. However, evidence of transgenerational inheritance in humans via germline in the absence of any direct exposure to the driving external stimulus remains controversial. Most of the epimutations exist in relation with genetic variants. The present review looks at intergenerational and transgenerational inheritance in humans, (both father and mother) in response to diet, exposure to chemicals, stress, exercise, and disease status. If not transgenerational, at least intergenerational human studies could help to understand early processes of inheritance. In humans, female and male germline development follow separate paths of epigenetic events and both oocyte and sperm possess their own unique epigenomes. While DNA methylation alterations are reset during epigenetic reprogramming, non-coding RNAs via human sperm provide evidence of being reliable carriers for transgenerational inheritance. Human studies reveal that one mechanism of epigenetic inheritance cannot be applied to the complete human genome. Multiple factors including time, type, and tissue of exposure determine if the modified epigenetic mark could be transmissible and till which generation. Population-specific differences should also be taken into consideration while associating inheritance to an environmental exposure. A longitudinal study targeting one environmental factor, but different population groups should be conducted at a specific geographical location to pinpoint heritable epigenetic changes.

Unilateral brain injury to pregnant rats induces asymmetric neurological deficits in the offspring

Effects of environmental factors may be transmitted to the following generation, and cause neuropsychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder in the offspring. Enhanced synaptic plasticity induced by environmental enrichment may be also transmitted. We here test the hypothesis that the effects of brain injury in pregnant animals may produce neurological deficits in the offspring. Unilateral brain injury (UBI) by ablation of the hindlimb sensorimotor cortex in pregnant rats resulted in the development of hindlimb postural asymmetry (HL-PA), and impairment of balance and coordination in beam walking test in the offspring. The offspring of rats with the left UBI exhibited HL-PA before and after spinal cord transection with the contralesional (i.e., right) hindlimb flexion. The right UBI caused the offspring to develop HL-PA that however was cryptic and not-lateralized; it was evident only after spinalization, and was characterized by similar occurrence of the ipsi- and contralesional hindlimb flexion. The HL-PA persisted after spinalization suggesting that the asymmetry was encoded in lumbar spinal neurocircuits that control hindlimb muscles. Balance and coordination were affected by the right UBI but not the left UBI. Thus, the effects of a unilateral brain lesion in pregnant animals may be intergenerationally transmitted, and this process may depend on the side of brain injury. The results suggest the existence of left-right side-specific mechanisms that mediate transmission of the lateralized effects of brain trauma from mother to fetus.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and the Developing Adolescent Brain

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents is common and debilitating. In contrast to adult PTSD, relatively little is known about the neurobiology of adolescent PTSD, nor about how current treatments may alter adolescent neurodevelopment to allow recovery from PTSD. Improving our understanding of biological mechanisms of adolescent PTSD, taken in the context of neurodevelopment, is crucial for developing novel and personalized treatment approaches. In this review, we highlight prevailing constructs of PTSD and current findings on these domains in adolescent PTSD. Notably, little data exist in adolescent PTSD for prominent adult PTSD constructs, including threat learning and attentional threat bias. Most work to date has examined general threat processing, emotion regulation, and their neural substrates. These studies suggest that adolescent PTSD, while phenomenologically similar to adult PTSD, shows unique neurodevelopmental substrates that may impair recovery but could also be targeted in the context of adolescent neuroplasticity to improve outcomes. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal data suggest abnormal frontolimbic development compared with typically developing youths, a pattern that may differ from resilient youths. Whether current treatments such as trauma-focused psychotherapy engage these targets and restore healthy neurodevelopment remains an open question. We end our review by highlighting emerging areas and knowledge gaps that could be addressed to better characterize the biology underlying adolescent PTSD. Emerging studies in computational modeling of decision making, caregiver-related transmission of traumatic stress, and other areas may offer new targets that could harness adolescent neurobehavioral plasticity to improve resilience and recovery for some of our most vulnerable youths.

Understanding stress: Insights from rodent models

Through incorporating both physical and psychological forms of stressors, a variety of rodent models have provided important insights into the understanding of stress physiology. Rodent models also have provided significant information with regards to the mechanistic basis of the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders such as anxiety disorders, depressive illnesses, cognitive impairment and post-traumatic stress disorder. Additionally, rodent models of stress have served as valuable tools in the area of drug screening and drug development for treatment of stress-induced conditions. Although rodent models do not accurately reproduce the biochemical or physiological parameters of stress response and cannot fully mimic the natural progression of human disorders, yet, animal research has provided answers to many important scientific questions. In this review article, important studies utilizing a variety of stress models are described in terms of their design and apparatus, with specific focus on their capabilities to generate reliable behavioral and biochemical read-out. The review focusses on the utility of rodent models by discussing examples in the literature that offer important mechanistic insights into physiologically relevant questions. The review highlights the utility of rodent models of stress as important tools for advancing the mission of scientific research and inquiry.

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Stressful life events may lead to the onset of severe psychopathologies in humans.

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Rodents may model many features of stress exposure in human populations.

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Induction of stress via pharmacological and psychological manipulations alter rodent behavior.

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Mechanistic rodent studies reveal key molecular targets critical for new therapeutic targets.

Intergenerational effects of paternal predator cue exposure on behavior, stress reactivity, and neural gene expression

Predation threat impacts prey behavior, physiology, and fitness. Stress-mediated alterations to the paternal epigenome can be transmitted to offspring via the germline, conferring a potential advantage to offspring in predator-rich environments. While intergenerational epigenetic transmission of paternal experience has been demonstrated in mammals, how paternal predator exposure might alter offspring phenotypes across development is unstudied. We exposed male mice to a predator odor (2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline, TMT) or a neutral odor (banana extract) prior to mating and measured offspring behavioral phenotypes throughout development, together with adult stress reactivity and candidate gene expression in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. We predicted that offspring of TMT-exposed males would be less active, would display elevated anxiety-like behaviors, and would have a more efficient stress response relative to controls, phenotypes that should enhance predator avoidance in a high predation risk environment. Unexpectedly, we found that offspring of TMT-exposed males are more active, exhibit less anxiety-like behavior, and have decreased baseline plasma corticosterone relative to controls. Effects of paternal treatment on neural gene expression were limited to the prefrontal cortex, with increased mineralocorticoid receptor expression and a trend towards increased Bdnf expression in offspring of TMT-exposed males. These results suggest that fathers exposed to predation threat produce offspring that are buffered against non-acute stressors and, potentially, better adapted to a predator-dense environment because they avoid trade-offs between predator avoidance and foraging and reproduction. This study provides evidence that ecologically relevant paternal experience can be transmitted through the germline, and can impact offspring phenotypes throughout development.