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Gordon EC. Cognitive Enhancement, Hyperagency, and Responsibility Explosion. THE JOURNAL OF MEDICINE AND PHILOSOPHY 2024:jhae025. [PMID: 38913851 DOI: 10.1093/jmp/jhae025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Hyperagency objections appeal to the risk that cognitive enhancement may negatively impact our well-being by giving us too much control. I charitably formulate and engage with a prominent version of this objection due to Sandel (2009)-viz., that cognitive enhancement may negatively impact our well-being by creating an "explosion" of responsibilities. I first outline why this worry might look prima facie persuasive, and then I show that it can ultimately be defended against. At the end of the day, if we are to resist cognitive enhancement, it should not be based on a Sandel-style hyperagency argument.
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Lyreskog DM, McKeown A. On the (Non-)Rationality of Human Enhancement and Transhumanism. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS 2022; 28:52. [PMID: 36318337 PMCID: PMC9626409 DOI: 10.1007/s11948-022-00410-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The human enhancement debate has over the last few decades been concerned with ethical issues in methods for improving the physical, cognitive, or emotive states of individual people, and of the human species as a whole. Arguments in favour of enhancement defend it as a paradigm of rationality, presenting it as a clear-eyed, logical defence of what we stand to gain from transcending the typical limits of our species. If these arguments are correct, it appears that adults should in principle be able to make rational and informed decisions about enhancing themselves. In this paper, however, we suggest that a rational and informed choice to enhance oneself may in some cases be impossible. Drawing on L. A. Paul's work on 'transformative experience', we argue that some enhancements-such as certain moral or cognitive modifications-may give rise to unbridgeable epistemic gaps in key domains. Importantly, such gaps could prove to be not merely contingently unbridgeable due to a lack of information at a given moment, but radically unbridgeable, making someone in a non-enhanced state inherently unable to conceive of what it would be like to be enhanced in a particular way. Where this experience is key to understanding what values are being pursued by the enhancement itself, it may prove impossible for a person to be sufficiently informed, and to make a rational decision about whether or not to enhance herself. This poses a challenge for human enhancement proponents in general, and for transhumanists in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Lyreskog
- NEUROSEC, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7JX, UK.
- Wellcome Centre for Ethics and Humanities, Oxford, UK.
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, Oxford, UK.
| | - Alex McKeown
- NEUROSEC, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7JX, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Ethics and Humanities, Oxford, UK
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3
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Jangwan NS, Ashraf GM, Ram V, Singh V, Alghamdi BS, Abuzenadah AM, Singh MF. Brain augmentation and neuroscience technologies: current applications, challenges, ethics and future prospects. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 16:1000495. [PMID: 36211589 PMCID: PMC9538357 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.1000495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Ever since the dawn of antiquity, people have strived to improve their cognitive abilities. From the advent of the wheel to the development of artificial intelligence, technology has had a profound leverage on civilization. Cognitive enhancement or augmentation of brain functions has become a trending topic both in academic and public debates in improving physical and mental abilities. The last years have seen a plethora of suggestions for boosting cognitive functions and biochemical, physical, and behavioral strategies are being explored in the field of cognitive enhancement. Despite expansion of behavioral and biochemical approaches, various physical strategies are known to boost mental abilities in diseased and healthy individuals. Clinical applications of neuroscience technologies offer alternatives to pharmaceutical approaches and devices for diseases that have been fatal, so far. Importantly, the distinctive aspect of these technologies, which shapes their existing and anticipated participation in brain augmentations, is used to compare and contrast them. As a preview of the next two decades of progress in brain augmentation, this article presents a plausible estimation of the many neuroscience technologies, their virtues, demerits, and applications. The review also focuses on the ethical implications and challenges linked to modern neuroscientific technology. There are times when it looks as if ethics discussions are more concerned with the hypothetical than with the factual. We conclude by providing recommendations for potential future studies and development areas, taking into account future advancements in neuroscience innovation for brain enhancement, analyzing historical patterns, considering neuroethics and looking at other related forecasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitish Singh Jangwan
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Balawala, India
| | - Ghulam Md Ashraf
- Pre-Clinical Research Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Veerma Ram
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Balawala, India
| | - Vinod Singh
- Prabha Harji Lal College of Pharmacy and Paraclinical Sciences, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Badrah S. Alghamdi
- Pre-Clinical Research Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience Unit, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adel Mohammad Abuzenadah
- Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mamta F. Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Balawala, India
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Zohny H, Earp BD, Savulescu J. Enhancing Gender. JOURNAL OF BIOETHICAL INQUIRY 2022; 19:225-237. [PMID: 35129785 PMCID: PMC9233637 DOI: 10.1007/s11673-021-10163-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Transgender healthcare faces a dilemma. On the one hand, access to certain medical interventions, including hormone treatments or surgeries, where desired, may be beneficial or even vital for some gender dysphoric trans people. But on the other hand, access to medical interventions typically requires a diagnosis, which, in turn, seems to imply the existence of a pathological state-something that many transgender people reject as a false and stigmatizing characterization of their experience or identity. In this paper we argue that developments from the human enhancement debate can help clarify or resolve some of the conceptual and ethical entanglements arising from the apparent conflict between seeking medicine while not necessarily suffering from a pathology or disorder. Specifically, we focus on the welfarist account of human enhancement and argue it can provide a useful conceptual framework for thinking about some of the more contentious disagreements about access to transgender healthcare services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Zohny
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, 16-17 Saint Ebbe's St, Oxford, OX1 1PT, UK.
| | - Brian D Earp
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, 16-17 Saint Ebbe's St, Oxford, OX1 1PT, UK
| | - Julian Savulescu
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, 16-17 Saint Ebbe's St, Oxford, OX1 1PT, UK
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5
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Farina M, Lavazza A. Memory Modulation Via Non-invasive Brain Stimulation: Status, Perspectives, and Ethical Issues. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:826862. [PMID: 35308617 PMCID: PMC8931830 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.826862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
While research to improve memory or counter decay caused by neurodegenerative diseases has a fairly long history, scientific attempts to erase memories are very recent. The use of non-invasive brain stimulation for memory modulation represents a new and promising application for the treatment of certain disorders [such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)]. However, numerous ethical issues are related to memory intervention. In particular, the possibility of using forms of non-invasive brain stimulation requires to distinguish treatment interventions from the enhancement of the healthy. Furthermore, a range of important societal and legal concerns arise when manipulating memories. In this short contribution, we address some of the most significant ethical, social, and legal implications surrounding the application of memory-modulation techniques and offer a series of reflections and considerations, which we hope can be of use to guide -and perhaps regulate- their potential, future implementation in society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Farina
- Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Innopolis University, Innopolis, Russia
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Evans NG, Reynolds JM, Johnson KR. Moving through capacity space: mapping disability and enhancement. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ETHICS 2021; 47:748-755. [PMID: 32718976 DOI: 10.1136/medethics-2019-105732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we highlight some problems for accounts of disability and enhancement that have not been sufficiently addressed in the literature. The reason, we contend, is that contemporary debates that seek to define, characterise or explain the normative valence of disability and enhancement do not pay sufficient attention to (1) a wide range of cases, and (2) the transition between one state and another. In section one, we provide seven cases that might count as disability or enhancement. We explain why (with the exception of the first two, which lay the groundwork for the others) each case might count, and on what basis, and why it is been neglected. Each case is explained as a transition in what we call capacity space. We then argue that no definition of disability or enhancement addresses all of these cases, except for strict welfarist accounts of disability that do not rely on a depiction of any particular capacity. We argue further, however, that this is a serious deficiency of welfarist conceptions of disability. We then address objections to our account.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joel Michael Reynolds
- Philosophy, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C, USA
- Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Washington, D.C, USA
| | - Kaylee R Johnson
- Philosophy, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts, USA
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Burr C, Taddeo M, Floridi L. The Ethics of Digital Well-Being: A Thematic Review. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS 2020; 26:2313-2343. [PMID: 31933119 PMCID: PMC7417400 DOI: 10.1007/s11948-020-00175-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This article presents the first thematic review of the literature on the ethical issues concerning digital well-being. The term 'digital well-being' is used to refer to the impact of digital technologies on what it means to live a life that is good for a human being. The review explores the existing literature on the ethics of digital well-being, with the goal of mapping the current debate and identifying open questions for future research. The review identifies major issues related to several key social domains: healthcare, education, governance and social development, and media and entertainment. It also highlights three broader themes: positive computing, personalised human-computer interaction, and autonomy and self-determination. The review argues that three themes will be central to ongoing discussions and research by showing how they can be used to identify open questions related to the ethics of digital well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Burr
- Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, 1 St Giles, Oxford, OX1 3JS, UK.
| | - Mariarosaria Taddeo
- Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, 1 St Giles, Oxford, OX1 3JS, UK
- The Alan Turing Institute, 96 Euston Road, London, NW1 2DB, UK
| | - Luciano Floridi
- Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, 1 St Giles, Oxford, OX1 3JS, UK
- The Alan Turing Institute, 96 Euston Road, London, NW1 2DB, UK
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Voinea C, Vică C, Mihailov E, Savulescu J. The Internet as Cognitive Enhancement. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS 2020; 26:2345-2362. [PMID: 32253711 PMCID: PMC7417391 DOI: 10.1007/s11948-020-00210-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The Internet has been identified in human enhancement scholarship as a powerful cognitive enhancement technology. It offers instant access to almost any type of information, along with the ability to share that information with others. The aim of this paper is to critically assess the enhancement potential of the Internet. We argue that unconditional access to information does not lead to cognitive enhancement. The Internet is not a simple, uniform technology, either in its composition, or in its use. We will look into why the Internet as an informational resource currently fails to enhance cognition. We analyze some of the phenomena that emerge from vast, continual fluxes of information-information overload, misinformation and persuasive design-and show how they could negatively impact users' cognition. Methods for mitigating these negative impacts are then advanced: individual empowerment, better collaborative systems for sorting and categorizing information, and the use of artificial intelligence assistants that could guide users through the informational space of today's Internet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Voinea
- Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Constantin Vică
- Department of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Emilian Mihailov
- Department of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Julian Savulescu
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Ethics and Humanities, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia
- Melbourne Law School, Melbourne University, Melbourne, Australia
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Zohny H. Moral enhancement and the good life. MEDICINE, HEALTH CARE, AND PHILOSOPHY 2019; 22:267-274. [PMID: 30251030 PMCID: PMC6499734 DOI: 10.1007/s11019-018-9868-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
One approach to defining enhancement is in the form of bodily or mental changes that tend to improve a person's well-being. Such a "welfarist account", however, seems to conflict with moral enhancement: consider an intervention that improves someone's moral motives but which ultimately diminishes their well-being. According to the welfarist account, this would not be an instance of enhancement-in fact, as I argue, it would count as a disability. This seems to pose a serious limitation for the account. Here, I elaborate on this limitation and argue that, despite it, there is a crucial role for such a welfarist account to play in our practical deliberations about moral enhancement. I do this by exploring four scenarios where a person's motives are improved at the cost of their well-being. A framework emerges from these scenarios which can clarify disagreements about moral enhancement and help sharpen arguments for and against it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Zohny
- The Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, The University of Oxford, Suite 8, Littlegate House, 16-17 St Ebbe St, Oxford, OX11PT, UK.
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Abstract
AbstractThe moral enhancement (or bioenhancement) debate seems stuck in a dilemma. On the one hand, the more radical proposals, while certainly novel and interesting, seem unlikely to be feasible in practice, or if technically feasible then most likely imprudent. But on the other hand, the more sensible proposals – sensible in the sense of being both practically achievable and more plausibly ethically justifiable – can be rather hard to distinguish from both traditional forms of moral enhancement, such as non-drug-mediated social or moral education, and non-moral forms of bioenhancement, such as smart-drug style cognitive enhancement. In this essay, I argue that bioethicists have paid insufficient attention to an alternative form of moral bioenhancement – or at least a likely candidate – that falls somewhere between these two extremes, namely the (appropriately qualified) use of certain psychedelic drugs.
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Neuroethical Implications of Neurocognitive Enhancement in Managerial Professional Contexts. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-018-0100-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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13
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Koch T. Disabling disability amid competing ideologies. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ETHICS 2018; 44:575-579. [PMID: 28848062 DOI: 10.1136/medethics-2017-104253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Revised: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This paper critiques current arguments advancing the potential for transhumanism and a range of biological and pharmacological enhancements to better human flourishing. It does so from a historical perspective weighing the individualistic and competitive evolutionary theories of Darwin with the cooperative and communal theories of Prince Peter Kropotkin a generation later. In doing so it proposes the transhumanist and enhancement enthusiasts operate within a paradigm similar to Darwin's, one that is atomist and individualistic. The critique, which considers the status of those with cognitive, sensory and physical limits, advances a vision of society as a cooperative and communal rather than individualistic and competitive. Within this framework the argument is not one of either/or but on the lexicographical superiority of the communal and social over the individualistic and competitive ethos underlying both Darwin and most contemporary transhumanist literature. This reordering of priorities, it is argued, reflects advances in contemporary biology and evolutionary thinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Koch
- Department of Geography (Medical), University of British Columbia, Toronto, BC, Canada
- Investigations, Information Outreach, Toronto, Canada
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Abstract
The growth of self-tracking and personal surveillance has given rise to the Quantified Self movement. Members of this movement seek to enhance their personal well-being, productivity, and self-actualization through the tracking and gamification of personal data. The technologies that make this possible can also track and gamify aspects of our interpersonal, romantic relationships. Several authors have begun to challenge the ethical and normative implications of this development. In this article, we build upon this work to provide a detailed ethical analysis of the Quantified Relationship (QR). We identify eight core objections to the QR and subject them to critical scrutiny. We argue that although critics raise legitimate concerns, there are ways in which tracking technologies can be used to support and facilitate good relationships. We thus adopt a stance of cautious openness toward this technology and advocate the development of a research agenda for the positive use of QR technologies.
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Hofmann B. Limits to human enhancement: nature, disease, therapy or betterment? BMC Med Ethics 2017; 18:56. [PMID: 29017486 PMCID: PMC5635529 DOI: 10.1186/s12910-017-0215-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND New technologies facilitate the enhancement of a wide range of human dispositions, capacities, or abilities. While it is argued that we need to set limits to human enhancement, it is unclear where we should find resources to set such limits. DISCUSSION Traditional routes for setting limits, such as referring to nature, the therapy-enhancement distinction, and the health-disease distinction, turn out to have some shortcomings. However, upon closer scrutiny the concept of enhancement is based on vague conceptions of what is to be enhanced. Explaining why it is better to become older, stronger, and more intelligent presupposes a clear conception of goodness, which is seldom provided. In particular, the qualitative better is frequently confused with the quantitative more. We may therefore not need "external" measures for setting its limits - they are available in the concept of enhancement itself. While there may be shortcomings in traditional sources of limit setting to human enhancement, such as nature, therapy, and disease, such approaches may not be necessary. The specification-of-betterment problem inherent in the conception of human enhancement itself provides means to restrict its unwarranted proliferation. We only need to demand clear, sustainable, obtainable goals for enhancement that are based on evidence, and not on lofty speculations, hypes, analogies, or weak associations. Human enhancements that specify what will become better, and provide adequate evidence, are good and should be pursued. Others should not be accepted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjørn Hofmann
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Gjøvik, Norway.
- Centre for Medical Ethics, University of Oslo, Blindern, PO Box 1130, N-0318, Oslo, Norway.
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Ahlskog R. Moral Enhancement Should Target Self-Interest and Cognitive Capacity. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2017; 10:363-373. [PMID: 28890738 PMCID: PMC5569152 DOI: 10.1007/s12152-017-9331-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Current suggestions for capacities that should be targeted for moral enhancement has centered on traits like empathy, fairness or aggression. The literature, however, lacks a proper model for understanding the interplay and complexity of moral capacities, which limits the practicability of proposed interventions. In this paper, I integrate some existing knowledge on the nature of human moral behavior and present a formal model of prosocial motivation. The model provides two important results regarding the most friction-free route to moral enhancement. First, we should consider decreasing self-interested motivation rather than increasing prosociality directly. Second, this should be complemented with cognitive enhancement. These suggestions are tested against existing and emerging evidence on cognitive capacity, mindfulness meditation and the effects of psychedelic drugs and are found to have sufficient grounding for further theoretical and empirical exploration. Furthermore, moral effects of the latter two are hypothesized to result from a diminished sense of self with subsequent reductions in self-interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Ahlskog
- Department of Government, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala, Sweden
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Iwry J, Yaden DB, Newberg AB. Noninvasive Brain Stimulation and Personal Identity: Ethical Considerations. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:281. [PMID: 28638327 PMCID: PMC5461331 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
As noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) technology advances, these methods may become increasingly capable of influencing complex networks of mental functioning. We suggest that these might include cognitive and affective processes underlying personality and belief systems, which would raise important questions concerning personal identity and autonomy. We give particular attention to the relationship between personal identity and belief, emphasizing the importance of respecting users' personal values. We posit that research participants and patients should be encouraged to take an active approach to considering the personal implications of altering their own cognition, particularly in cases of neurocognitive "enhancement." We suggest that efforts to encourage careful consideration through the informed consent process would contribute usefully to studies and treatments that use NIBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Iwry
- Department of Psychology, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - David B. Yaden
- Department of Psychology, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Andrew B. Newberg
- Myrna Brind Center for Integrative Medicine, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
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Schuijer JW, de Jong IM, Kupper F, van Atteveldt NM. Transcranial Electrical Stimulation to Enhance Cognitive Performance of Healthy Minors: A Complex Governance Challenge. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:142. [PMID: 28396631 PMCID: PMC5366312 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of healthy adolescents are consuming products that can enhance their cognitive performance in educational settings. Currently, the use of pharmaceuticals is the most widely discussed enhancement method in the literature, but new evidence suggests that other methods based on Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) also have potential as cognitive enhancer. Just like pharmaceutical enhancers, the availability and education-related use of tES-devices raise a broad range of ethical, legal, and societal issues that need to be addressed by policy-makers. Few studies, however, have specifically explored these issues in relation to child wellbeing. In this narrative review with systematic search, we describe the issues for child wellbeing that could arise from the availability and education-related use of tES-based enhancers by healthy minors. We demonstrate that the issues form a complex web of uncertainties and concerns, which are mainly incited by two factors. First is the high level of factual uncertainty due to gaps in empirical evidence about the exact working mechanisms and efficacy of tES. Moreover, a lack of insight into the technique’s (long-term) effects on healthy developing brains, and uncertainties about potential cognitive trade-offs have fueled concerns about the technique’s safety and impact. The second factor that contributes to the complexity of issues is the presence of moral diversity in our society. Different opinions exist on whether a certain enhancement effect would be desirable and whether potential risks would be acceptable. These opinions depend on one’s moral perspective, and the way one interprets and weights values such as the child’s autonomy and authenticity. The challenge for proper governance resides in the design of an appropriate framework that is capable of balancing the different moral perspectives in society, while recognizing the uncertainties that still exist. We therefore argue for a responsible innovation approach, which encourages an adaptive attitude toward emerging knowledge and dynamic societal values, to deal with the identified issues regarding tES-based enhancement appropriately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jantien W Schuijer
- Athena Institute, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Irja M de Jong
- Athena Institute, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Frank Kupper
- Athena Institute, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Nienke M van Atteveldt
- Department of Educational Neuroscience, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, VU UniversityAmsterdam, Netherlands; Institute of Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, VU UniversityAmsterdam, Netherlands
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Earp BD, Wudarczyk OA, Foddy B, Savulescu J. Addicted to love: What is love addiction and when should it be treated? PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHIATRY, & PSYCHOLOGY : PPP 2017; 24:77-92. [PMID: 28381923 PMCID: PMC5378292 DOI: 10.1353/ppp.2017.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent research suggests that romantic love can be literally addictive. Although the exact nature of the relationship between love and addiction has been described in inconsistent terms throughout the literature, we offer a framework that distinguishes between a narrow view and a broad view of love addiction. The narrow view counts only the most extreme, harmful forms of love or love-related behaviors as being potentially addictive in nature. The broad view, by contrast, counts even basic social attachment as being on a spectrum of addictive motivations, underwritten by similar neurochemical processes as more conventional addictions. We argue that on either understanding of love-as-addiction, treatment decisions should hinge on considerations of harm and well-being rather than on definitions of disease. Implications for the ethical use of anti-love biotechnology are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Earp
- Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford ; Oxford Centre for Neuroethics, University of Oxford ; Institute for Science & Ethics, University of Oxford
| | | | - Bennett Foddy
- Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford ; Oxford Centre for Neuroethics, University of Oxford
| | - Julian Savulescu
- Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, University of Oxford ; Oxford Centre for Neuroethics, University of Oxford
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Danaher J. An evaluative conservative case for biomedical enhancement. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ETHICS 2016; 42:611-618. [PMID: 27354246 DOI: 10.1136/medethics-2015-103307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
It is widely believed that a conservative moral outlook is opposed to biomedical forms of human enhancement. In this paper, I argue that this widespread belief is incorrect. Using Cohen's evaluative conservatism as my starting point, I argue that there are strong conservative reasons to prioritise the development of biomedical enhancements. In particular, I suggest that biomedical enhancement may be essential if we are to maintain our current evaluative equilibrium (ie, the set of values that undergird and permeate our current political, economic and personal lives) against the threats to that equilibrium posed by external, non-biomedical forms of enhancement. I defend this view against modest conservatives who insist that biomedical enhancements pose a greater risk to our current evaluative equilibrium, and against those who see no principled distinction between the forms of human enhancement.
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Zohny H. Enhancement, disability and the riddle of the relevant circumstances. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ETHICS 2016; 42:605-610. [PMID: 27178536 DOI: 10.1136/medethics-2015-103229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The welfarist account of enhancement and disability holds enhanced and disabled states on a spectrum: the former are biological or psychological states that increase the chances of a person leading a good life in the relevant set of circumstances, while the latter decrease those chances. Here, I focus on a particular issue raised by this account: what should we count as part of an individual's relevant set of circumstances when thinking about enhanced and disabled states? Specifically, is social prejudice relevant to an individual's circumstances in regards to how disabled or enhanced they are? For instance, if an individual is discriminated against on the basis of their skin colour, and this leads to a reduction in their well-being, the welfarist account suggests that their skin colour is a disability. To avoid such a seeming mislabel, Savulescu and Kahane have argued for excluding social prejudice from counting as a relevant circumstance to their welfarist definition of disability. I argue, however, that this exclusion of social prejudice is unsatisfactory and incompatible with the goals of this account.
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Abstract
According to human enhancement advocates, it is morally permissible (and sometimes obligatory) to use biomedical means to modulate or select certain biological traits in order to increase people's welfare, even when there is no pathology to be treated or prevented. Some authors have recently proposed to extend the use of biomedical means to modulate lust, attraction, and attachment. I focus on some conceptual implications of this proposal, particularly with regard to bioconservatives' understanding of the notions of therapy and enhancement I first explain what makes the proposal of medicalizing love interesting and unique, compared to the other forms of bioenhancement usually advocated. I then discuss how the medicalization of love bears on the more general debate on human enhancement, particularly with regard to the key notion of "normality" that is commonly used to define the therapy-enhancement distinction. This analysis suggests that the medicalization of love, in virtue of its peculiarity, requires bioconservatives to reconsider their way of understanding and applying the notions of "therapy" and "enhancement." More in particular, I show that, because a non-arbitrary and value-free notion of "therapy" cannot be applied to the case of love, bioconservatives have the burden of either providing some new criterion that could be used for drawing a line between permissible and impermissible medicalization, or demonstrating that under no circumstances-including the cases in which love is already acknowledged to require medical intervention-can love fall within the domain of medicine.
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Moreau D, Kirk IJ, Waldie KE. Seven Pervasive Statistical Flaws in Cognitive Training Interventions. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:153. [PMID: 27148010 PMCID: PMC4830817 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The prospect of enhancing cognition is undoubtedly among the most exciting research questions currently bridging psychology, neuroscience, and evidence-based medicine. Yet, convincing claims in this line of work stem from designs that are prone to several shortcomings, thus threatening the credibility of training-induced cognitive enhancement. Here, we present seven pervasive statistical flaws in intervention designs: (i) lack of power; (ii) sampling error; (iii) continuous variable splits; (iv) erroneous interpretations of correlated gain scores; (v) single transfer assessments; (vi) multiple comparisons; and (vii) publication bias. Each flaw is illustrated with a Monte Carlo simulation to present its underlying mechanisms, gauge its magnitude, and discuss potential remedies. Although not restricted to training studies, these flaws are typically exacerbated in such designs, due to ubiquitous practices in data collection or data analysis. The article reviews these practices, so as to avoid common pitfalls when designing or analyzing an intervention. More generally, it is also intended as a reference for anyone interested in evaluating claims of cognitive enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Moreau
- Centre for Brain Research and School of Psychology, University of AucklandAuckland, New Zealand
| | - Ian J. Kirk
- Centre for Brain Research and School of Psychology, University of AucklandAuckland, New Zealand
| | - Karen E. Waldie
- Centre for Brain Research and School of Psychology, University of AucklandAuckland, New Zealand
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The importance of stress, self-efficacy, and self-medication for pharmacological neuroenhancement among employees and students. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 156:221-227. [PMID: 26455555 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study examined the relationship between stress, self-efficacy, self-medication, and pharmacological neuroenhancement (PNE) in the Swiss general population. METHODS Using the largest Swiss Internet panel, a sample of 10,171 employees and students (unweighted N=10,084) aged 15-74 years was recruited and asked to complete a self-administered online survey. The data were weighted for age, sex, and language region to provide results that were representative of the Swiss population. Multinomial logistic regression models were conducted to identify predictors of pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE) and pharmacological mood enhancement (PME) over the past year. Two self-medication models and an overall model were determined. RESULTS Current medical treatment for a mental disorder was the best predictor of both PCE and PME use as serious self-medication. The overall model revealed that cannabis use, frequent stress, and long-term stress were predictors of both PCE and PME, whereas negative stressors and time pressure at work did not remain in the final model. Furthermore, past-year PCE with and without PME was associated with being male, being a student, and using illegal drugs other than cannabis, whereas being female and having low self-efficacy predicted past-year PME only. CONCLUSIONS Consideration of the predictor variables identified in this study may help to identify the potential PCE and PME users for whom measures to prevent drug abuse and manage stress are most appropriate. More specifically, the use of PCE and PME as self-medication to enhance performance at work or while studying needs further consideration in the neuroenhancement debate.
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Abstract
In this article I provide an overview of the moral and medical questions surrounding the use of cognitive enhancers. This discussion will be framed in light of 4 key considerations: (1) is there a difference between therapy and enhancement? (2) How safe are these interventions? (3) Is the use of nootropics cheating? (4) Would enhancers create a further divide of social inequality where only the very wealthy have access to them?
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Abstract
Pharmaceuticals or other emerging technologies could be used to enhance (or diminish) feelings of lust, attraction, and attachment in adult romantic partnerships. Although such interventions could conceivably be used to promote individual (and couple) well-being, their widespread development and/or adoption might lead to the 'medicalization' of human love and heartache--for some, a source of a serious concern. In this essay, we argue that the medicalization of love need not necessarily be problematic, on balance, but could plausibly be expected to have either good or bad consequences depending upon how it unfolds. By anticipating some of the specific ways in which these technologies could yield unwanted outcomes, bioethicists and others can help to direct the course of love's medicalization--should it happen to occur--more toward the 'good' side than the 'bad.'
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Schicktanz S, Amelung T, Rieger JW. Qualitative assessment of patients' attitudes and expectations toward BCIs and implications for future technology development. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:64. [PMID: 25964745 PMCID: PMC4410612 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-computer-interfaces (BCIs) are important for the next generation of neuro-prosthesis innovations. Only few pilot projects have tested patients' abilities to control BCIs as well as their satisfaction with the offered technologies. On the one hand, little is known about patients' moral attitudes toward the benefit-risk-ratio of BCIs as well as their needs, priorities, and expectations. On the other hand, ethics experts intensively discuss the general risks of BCIs as well as the limits of neuro-enhancement. To our knowledge, we present here the first qualitative interview study with ten chronic patients matching the potential user categories for motor and communication BCIs to assess their practical and moral attitudes toward this technology. The interviews reveal practical and moral attitudes toward motor BCIs that can impact future technology development. We discuss our empirical findings on patients' perspectives and compare them to neuroscientists' and ethicists' perspectives. Our analysis indicates only partial overlap between the potential users' and the experts' assessments of BCI-technology. It points out the importance of considering the needs and desires of the targeted patient group. Based on our findings, we suggest a multi-fold approach to the development of clinical BCIs, rooted in the participatory technology-development. We conclude that clinical BCI development needs to be explored in a disease-related and culturally sensitive way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Schicktanz
- Department of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, University Medical Center GöttingenGöttingen, Germany
| | - Till Amelung
- Department of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, University Medical Center GöttingenGöttingen, Germany
| | - Jochem W. Rieger
- Department of Psychology, University ofOldenburg, Germany
- Research Center Neurosensory Science, University of OldenburgOldenburg, Germany
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Maslen H, Earp BD, Cohen Kadosh R, Savulescu J. Brain stimulation for treatment and enhancement in children: an ethical analysis. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:953. [PMID: 25566011 PMCID: PMC4270184 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Davis (2014) called for “extreme caution” in the use of non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) to treat neurological disorders in children, due to gaps in scientific knowledge. We are sympathetic to his position. However, we must also address the ethical implications of applying this technology to minors. Compensatory trade-offs associated with NIBS present a challenge to its use in children, insofar as these trade-offs have the effect of limiting the child’s future options. The distinction between treatment and enhancement has some normative force here. As the intervention moves away from being a treatment toward being an enhancement—and thus toward a more uncertain weighing of the benefits, risks, and costs—considerations of the child’s best interests (as judged by the parents) diminish, and the need to protect the child’s (future) autonomy looms larger. NIBS for enhancement involving trade-offs should therefore be delayed, if possible, until the child reaches a state of maturity and can make an informed, personal decision. NIBS for treatment, by contrast, is permissible insofar as it can be shown to be at least as safe and effective as currently approved treatments, which are themselves justified on a best interests standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Maslen
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics and Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - Brian D Earp
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics and Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - Roi Cohen Kadosh
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics and Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - Julian Savulescu
- Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics and Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
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Shook JR, Galvagni L, Giordano J. Cognitive enhancement kept within contexts: neuroethics and informed public policy. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:228. [PMID: 25538573 PMCID: PMC4256981 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurothics has far greater responsibilities than merely noting potential human enhancements arriving from novel brain-centered biotechnologies and tracking their implications for ethics and civic life. Neuroethics must utilize the best cognitive and neuroscientific knowledge to shape incisive discussions about what could possibly count as enhancement in the first place, and what should count as genuinely "cognitive" enhancement. Where cognitive processing and the mental life is concerned, the lived context of psychological performance is paramount. Starting with an enhancement to the mental abilities of an individual, only performances on real-world exercises can determine what has actually been cognitively improved. And what can concretely counts as some specific sort of cognitive improvement is largely determined by the classificatory frameworks of cultures, not brain scans or laboratory experiments. Additionally, where the public must ultimately evaluate and judge the worthiness of individual performance enhancements, we mustn't presume that public approval towards enhancers will somehow automatically arrive without due regard to civic ideals such as the common good or social justice. In the absence of any nuanced appreciation for the control which performance contexts and public contexts exert over what "cognitive" enhancements could actually be, enthusiastic promoters of cognitive enhancement can all too easily depict safe and effective brain modifications as surely good for us and for society. These enthusiasts are not unaware of oft-heard observations about serious hurdles for reliable enhancement from neurophysiological modifications. Yet those observations are far more common than penetrating investigations into the implications to those hurdles for a sound public understanding of cognitive enhancement, and a wise policy review over cognitive enhancement. We offer some crucial recommendations for undertaking such investigations, so that cognitive enhancers that truly deserve public approval can be better identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R. Shook
- Philosophy Department and Graduate School of Education, University at BuffaloBuffalo, NY, USA
| | | | - James Giordano
- Neuroethics Studies Program, Pellegrino Center for Clinical Bioethics and Department of Neurology, Georgetown University Medical CenterWashington, DC, USA
- Human Science Center, Ludwig-Maximilians UniversitätMunich, Germany
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31
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Koivuniemi A, Otto K. When "altering brain function" becomes "mind control". Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:202. [PMID: 25352789 PMCID: PMC4196540 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional neurosurgery has seen a resurgence of interest in surgical treatments for psychiatric illness. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) technology is the preferred tool in the current wave of clinical experiments because it allows clinicians to directly alter the functions of targeted brain regions, in a reversible manner, with the intent of correcting diseases of the mind, such as depression, addiction, anorexia nervosa, dementia, and obsessive compulsive disorder. These promising treatments raise a critical philosophical and humanitarian question. “Under what conditions does ‘altering brain function’ qualify as ‘mind control’?” In order to answer this question one needs a definition of mind control. To this end, we reviewed the relevant philosophical, ethical, and neurosurgical literature in order to create a set of criteria for what constitutes mind control in the context of DBS. We also outline clinical implications of these criteria. Finally, we demonstrate the relevance of the proposed criteria by focusing especially on serendipitous treatments involving DBS, i.e., cases in which an unintended therapeutic benefit occurred. These cases highlight the importance of gaining the consent of the subject for the new therapy in order to avoid committing an act of mind control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kevin Otto
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University West Lafayette, IN, USA ; J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida Gainesville, FL, USA
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Davis NJ. Transcranial stimulation of the developing brain: a plea for extreme caution. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:600. [PMID: 25140146 PMCID: PMC4122183 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nick J Davis
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University Swansea, UK
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Luber B. Neuroenhancement by noninvasive brain stimulation is not a net zero-sum proposition. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:127. [PMID: 25071479 PMCID: PMC4085567 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Luber
- Division of Brain Stimulation, Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Durham, NC, USA
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34
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Nagel SK. Enhancement for well-being is still ethically challenging. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:72. [PMID: 24817843 PMCID: PMC4012187 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Saskia K Nagel
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Osnabrueck Osnabrueck, Germany
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35
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Madan CR. Augmented memory: a survey of the approaches to remembering more. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:30. [PMID: 24624063 PMCID: PMC3939671 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Trimper JB, Wolpe PR, Rommelfanger KS. When "I" becomes "We": ethical implications of emerging brain-to-brain interfacing technologies. FRONTIERS IN NEUROENGINEERING 2014; 7:4. [PMID: 24575002 PMCID: PMC3921579 DOI: 10.3389/fneng.2014.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John B Trimper
- Department of Psychology, Emory University Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Paul Root Wolpe
- Neuroethics Program, Center for Ethics, Emory University Atlanta, GA, USA ; Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, Emory University Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Karen S Rommelfanger
- Neuroethics Program, Center for Ethics, Emory University Atlanta, GA, USA ; Department of Neurology, Emory University Atlanta, GA, USA
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37
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Earp BD, Sandberg A, Savulescu J. Brave New Love: The Threat of High-Tech "Conversion" Therapy and the Bio-Oppression of Sexual Minorities. AJOB Neurosci 2014; 5:4-12. [PMID: 24587962 PMCID: PMC3932804 DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2013.863242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Our understanding of the neurochemical bases of human love and attachment, as well as of the genetic, epigenetic, hormonal, and experiential factors that conspire to shape an individual's sexual orientation, is increasing exponentially. This research raises the vexing possibility that we may one day be equipped to modify such variables directly, allowing for the creation of “high-tech” conversion therapies or other suspect interventions. In this article, we discuss the ethics surrounding such a possibility, and call for the development of legal and procedural safeguards for protecting vulnerable children from the application of such technology. We also consider the more difficult case of voluntary, adult “conversion” and argue that in rare cases, such attempts might be permissible under strict conditions.
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