IL-27, IL-30, and IL-35: A Cytokine Triumvirate in Cancer

IL-27 expression regulation and its effects on adaptive immunity against viruses

IL-27, a member of the IL-6/IL-12 cytokine superfamily, is primarily secreted by antigen presenting cells, specifically by dendric cells, macrophages and B cells. IL-27 has antiviral activities and modulates both innate and adaptive immune responses against viruses. The role of IL-27 in the setting of viral infections is not well defined and both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory functions have been described. Here, we discuss the latest advancements in the role of IL-27 in several viral infection models of human disease. We highlight important aspects of IL-27 expression regulation, the critical cell sources at different stages of the infection and their impact in cell mediated immunity. Lastly, we discuss the need to better define the antiviral and modulatory (pro-inflammatory vs anti-inflammatory) properties of IL-27 in the context of human chronic viral infections.

The role of B-1 cells in cancer progression and anti-tumor immunity

In recent years, in addition to the well-established role of T cells in controlling or promoting tumor growth, a new wave of research has demonstrated the active involvement of B cells in tumor immunity. B-cell subsets with distinct phenotypes and functions play various roles in tumor progression. Plasma cells and activated B cells have been linked to improved clinical outcomes in several types of cancer, whereas regulatory B cells have been associated with disease progression. However, we are only beginning to understand the role of a particular innate subset of B cells, referred to as B-1 cells, in cancer. Here, we summarize the characteristics of B-1 cells and review their ability to infiltrate tumors. We also describe the potential mechanisms through which B-1 cells suppress anti-tumor immune responses and promote tumor progression. Additionally, we highlight recent studies on the protective anti-tumor function of B-1 cells in both mouse models and humans. Understanding the functions of B-1 cells in tumor immunity could pave the way for designing more effective cancer immunotherapies.

Engineered nanomicelles inhibit the tumour progression via abrogating the prostaglandin-mediated immunosuppression

Cancer treatment is challenged due to immunosuppressive inflammatory tumour microenvironment (TME) caused by infiltration of tumour-promoting and inhibition of tumour-inhibiting immune cells. Here, we report the engineering of chimeric nanomicelles (NMs) targeting the cell proliferation using docetaxel (DTX) and inflammation using dexamethasone (DEX) that alters the immunosuppressive TME. We show that a combination of phospholipid-DTX conjugate and PEGylated-lipid-DEX conjugate can self-assemble to form sub-100 nm chimeric NMs (DTX-DEX NMs). Anti-cancer activities against syngeneic and xenograft mouse models showed that the DTX-DEX NMs are more effective in tumour regression, enhance the survival of mice over other treatment modes, and alter the tumour stroma. DTX-DEX NMs cause a significant reduction in myeloid-derived suppressor cells, alter the polarization of macrophages, and enhance the accumulation of cytotoxic CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in tumour tissues, along with alterations in cytokine expression. We further demonstrated that these DTX-DEX NMs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins, especially PGE2, by targeting the cyclooxygenase 2 that is partly responsible for immunosuppressive TME. Therefore, this study presents, for the first time, the engineering of lithocholic acid-derived chimeric NMs that affect the prostaglandin pathway, alter the TME, and mitigate tumour progression with enhanced mice survival.

The Role of Cytokines in Cutaneous T Cell Lymphoma: A Focus on the State of the Art and Possible Therapeutic Targets

Cutaneous T cell lymphomas (CTCLs), encompassing mycosis fungoides (MF) and Sézary syndrome (SS), present a complex landscape influenced by cytokines and cellular responses. In this work, the intricate relationship between these inflammatory proteins and disease pathogenesis is examined, focusing on what is known at the clinical and therapeutic levels regarding the most well-known inflammatory mediators. An in-depth look is given to their possible alterations caused by novel immunomodulatory drugs and how they may alter disease progression. From this narrative review of the actual scientific landscape, Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) emerges as a central player, demonstrating a dual role in both promoting and inhibiting cancer immunity, but the work navigates through all the major interleukins known in inflammatory environments. Immunotherapeutic perspectives are elucidated, highlighting the crucial role of the cutaneous microenvironment in shaping dysfunctional cell trafficking, antitumor immunity, and angiogenesis in MF, showcasing advancements in understanding and targeting the immune phenotype in CTCL. In summary, this manuscript aims to comprehensively explore the multifaceted aspects of CTCL, from the immunopathogenesis and cytokine dynamics centred around TNF-α and IFN-γ to evolving therapeutic modalities. Including all the major known and studied cytokines in this analysis broadens our understanding of the intricate interplay influencing CTCL, paving the way for improved management of this complex lymphoma.

IL-27 in combination with anti-PD-1 can be anti-cancer or pro-cancer

Interleukin-27 (IL-27) is known to play opposing roles in immunology. The present paper considers, specifically, the role IL-27 plays in cancer immunotherapy when combined with immune checkpoint inhibitor anti-PD-1. We first develop a mathematical model for this combination therapy, by a system of Partial Differential Equations, and show agreement with experimental results in mice injected with melanoma cells. We then proceed to simulate tumor volume with IL-27 injection at a variable dose F and anti-PD-1 at a variable dose g. We show that in some range of "small" values of g, as f increases tumor volume decreases as long as fFc(g), where Fc(g) is a monotone increasing function of g. This demonstrates that IL-27 can be both anti-cancer and pro-cancer, depending on the ranges of both anti-PD-1 and IL-27.

Global transcriptomic analysis of breast cancer and normal mammary epithelial cells infected with Borrelia burgdorferi

The bacterial spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme Disease, can disseminate and colonize various tissues and organs, orchestrating severe clinical symptoms including arthritis, carditis, and neuroborreliosis. Previous research has demonstrated that breast cancer tissues could provide an ideal habitat for diverse populations of bacteria, including B. burgdorferi, which is associated with a poor prognosis. Recently, we demonstrated that infection with B. burgdorferi enhances the invasion and migration of triple-negative MDA-MB-231 cells which represent a type of breast tumor with more aggressive cancer traits. In this study, we hypothesized that infection by B. burgdorferi affects the expression of cancer-associated genes to effectuate breast cancer phenotypes. We applied the high-throughput technique of RNA-sequencing on B. burgdorferi-infected MDA-MB-231 breast cancer and normal-like MCF10A cells to determine the most differentially expressed genes (DEG) upon infection. Overall, 142 DEGs were identified between uninfected and infected samples in MDA-MB-231 while 95 DEGs were found in MCF10A cells. A major trend of the upregulation of C-X-C and C-C motif chemokine family members as well as genes and pathways was associated with infection, inflammation, and cancer. These genes could serve as potential biomarkers for pathogen-related tumorigenesis and cancer progression which could lead to new therapeutic opportunities.

Interleukin-27 potentiates CD8+ T-cell-mediated antitumor immunity in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells are highly dependent on interactions with the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) for survival and proliferation. In the search for novel treatments, pro-inflammatory cytokines have emerged as candidates to reactivate the immune system. Among those, interleukin 27 (IL-27) has recently gained attention, but its effects differ among malignancies. Here, we utilized the Eμ-TCL1 and EBI3 knock-out mouse models as well as clinical samples from patients to investigate the role of IL-27 in CLL. Characterization of murine leukemic spleens revealed that the absence of IL-27 leads to enhanced CLL development and a more immunosuppressive TME in transgenic mice. Gene-profiling of T-cell subsets from EBI3 knock-out highlighted transcriptional changes in the CD8+ T-cell population associated with T-cell activation, proliferation, and cytotoxicity. We also observed an increased anti-tumor activity of CD8+ T cells in the presence of IL-27 ex vivo with murine and clinical samples. Notably, IL-27 treatment led to the reactivation of autologous T cells from CLL patients. Finally, we detected a decrease in IL-27 serum levels during CLL development in both pre-clinical and patient samples. Altogether, we demonstrated that IL-27 has a strong anti-tumorigenic role in CLL and postulate this cytokine as a promising treatment or adjuvant for this malignancy.

Interleukin-27-induced HIV-resistant dendritic cells suppress reveres transcription following virus entry in an SPTBN1, autophagy, and YB-1 independent manner

Interleukin (IL)-27, a member of the IL-12 family of cytokines, induces human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-resistant monocyte-derived macrophages and T cells. This resistance is mediated via the downregulation of spectrin beta, non-erythrocytic 1 (SPTBN1), induction of autophagy, or suppression of the acetylation of Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1); however, the role of IL-27 administration during the induction of immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells (iDC) is poorly investigated. In the current study, we investigated the function of IL-27-induced iDC (27DC) on HIV infection. 27DC inhibited HIV infection by 95 ± 3% without significant changes in the expression of CD4, CCR5, and SPTBN1 expression, autophagy induction and acetylation of YB-1 compared to iDC. An HIV proviral DNA copy number assay displayed that 27DC suppressed reverse transcriptase (RT) reaction without influencing the virus entry. A DNA microarray analysis was performed to identify the differentially expressed genes between 27DC and iDC. Compared to iDC, 51 genes were differentially expressed in 27DC, with more than 3-fold changes in four independent donors. Cross-reference analysis with the reported 2,214 HIV regulatory host genes identified nine genes as potential interests: Ankyrin repeat domain 22, Guanylate binding protein (GBP)-1, -2, -4, -5, Stabilin 1, Serpin family G member 1 (SERPING1), Interferon alpha inducible protein 6, and Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 3. A knock-down study using si-RNA failed to determine a key factor associated with the anti-HIV activity due to the induction of robust amounts of off-target effects. Overexpression of each protein in cells had no impact on HIV infection. Thus, we could not define the mechanism of the anti-HIV effect in 27DC. However, our findings indicated that IL-27 differentiates monocytes into HIV-resistant DC, and the inhibitory mechanism differs from IL-27-induced HIV-resistant macrophages and T cells.

Exploring the JAK/STAT Signaling Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Unraveling Signaling Complexity and Therapeutic Implications

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) continues to pose a substantial global health challenge due to its high incidence and limited therapeutic options. In recent years, the Janus Kinase (JAK) and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) pathway has emerged as a critical signaling cascade in HCC pathogenesis. The review commences with an overview of the JAK/STAT pathway, delving into the dynamic interplay between the JAK/STAT pathway and its numerous upstream activators, such as cytokines and growth factors enriched in pathogenic livers afflicted with chronic inflammation and cirrhosis. This paper also elucidates how the persistent activation of JAK/STAT signaling leads to diverse oncogenic processes during hepatocarcinogenesis, including uncontrolled cell proliferation, evasion of apoptosis, and immune escape. In the context of therapeutic implications, this review summarizes recent advancements in targeting the JAK/STAT pathway for HCC treatment. Preclinical and clinical studies investigating inhibitors and modulators of JAK/STAT signaling are discussed, highlighting their potential in suppressing the deadly disease. The insights presented herein underscore the necessity for continued research into targeting the JAK/STAT signaling pathway as a promising avenue for HCC therapy.

Attenuated Dengue virus PV001-DV induces oncolytic tumor cell death and potent immune responses

BACKGROUND

Viral therapies developed for cancer treatment have classically prioritized direct oncolytic effects over their immune activating properties. However, recent clinical insights have challenged this longstanding prioritization and have shifted the focus to more immune-based mechanisms. Through the potential utilization of novel, inherently immune-stimulating, oncotropic viruses there is a therapeutic opportunity to improve anti-tumor outcomes through virus-mediated immune activation. PV001-DV is an attenuated strain of Dengue virus (DEN-1 #45AZ5) with a favorable clinical safety profile that also maintains the potent immune stimulatory properties characterstic of Dengue virus infection.

METHODS

In this study, we utilized in vitro tumor killing and immune multiplex assays to examine the anti-tumor effects of PV001-DV as a potential novel cancer immunotherapy.

RESULTS

In vitro assays demonstrated that PV001-DV possesses the ability to directly kill human melanoma cells lines as well as patient melanoma tissue ex vivo. Importantly, further work demonstrated that, when patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were exposed to PV001-DV, a substantial induction in the production of apoptotic factors and immunostimulatory cytokines was detected. When tumor cells were cultured with the resulting soluble mediators from these PBMCs, rapid cell death of melanoma and breast cancer cell lines was observed. These soluble mediators also increased dengue virus binding ligands and immune checkpoint receptor, PD-L1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

The direct in vitro tumor-killing and immune-mediated tumor cytotoxicity facilitated by PV001-DV contributes support of its upcoming clinical evaluation in patients with advanced melanoma who have failed prior therapy.

Gut colonization with an obesity-associated enteropathogenic microbe modulates the premetastatic niches to promote breast cancer lung and liver metastasis

Introduction

Obesity, an independent risk factor for breast cancer growth and metastatic progression, is also closely intertwined with gut dysbiosis; and both obese state and dysbiosis promote each other. Enteric abundance of Bacteroides fragilis is strongly linked with obesity, and we recently discovered the presence of B. fragilis in malignant breast cancer. Given that enterotoxigenic B. fragilis or ETBF, which secretes B. fragilis toxin (BFT), has been identified as a procarcinogenic microbe in breast cancer, it is necessary to examine its impact on distant metastasis and underlying systemic and localized alterations promoting metastatic progression of breast cancer.

Methods

We used syngeneic mammary intraductal (MIND) model harboring gut colonization with ETBF to query distant metastasis of breast cancer cells. Alterations in the immune network and cytokines/chemokines in the tumor microenvironment and distant metastatic sites were examined using flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and multiplex arrays.

Results

ETBF infection initiates a systemic inflammation aiding in the establishment of the premetastatic niche formation in vital organs via increased proinflammatory and protumorigenic cytokines like IL17A, IL17E, IL27p28, IL17A/F, IL6, and IL10 in addition to creating a prometastatic immunosuppressive environment in the liver and lungs rich in myeloid cells, macrophages, and T regulatory cells. It induces remodeling of the tumor microenvironment via immune cell and stroma infiltration, increased vasculogenesis, and an EMT-like response, thereby encouraging early metastatic dissemination ready to colonize the conducive environment in liver and lungs of the breast tumor-bearing mice.

Discussion

In this study, we show that enteric ETBF infection concomitantly induces systemic inflammation, reshapes the tumor immune microenvironment, and creates conducive metastatic niches to potentiate early dissemination and seeding of metastases to liver and lung tissues in agreement with the "seed and soil hypothesis." Our results also support the ETBF-induced "parallel model" of metastasis that advocates for an early dissemination of tumor cells that form metastatic lesions independent of the primary tumor load.

Interleukin-27-induced HIV-resistant dendritic cells suppress reveres transcription following virus entry in an SPTBN1, Autophagy, and YB-1 independent manner

Interleukin (IL)-27, a member of the IL-12 family of cytokines, induces human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-resistant monocyte-derived macrophages and T cells. This resistance is mediated via the downregulation of spectrin beta, non-erythrocytic 1 (SPTBN1), induction of autophagy, or suppression of the acetylation of Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1); however, the role of IL-27 administration during the induction of immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells (iDC) is poorly investigated. In the current study, we investigated the function of IL-27-induced iDC (27DC) on HIV infection. 27DC inhibited HIV infection by 95 ± 3 % without significant changes in the expression of CD4, CCR5, and SPTBN1 expression, autophagy induction and acetylation of YB-1 compared to iDC. An HIV proviral DNA copy number assay displayed that 27DC suppressed reverse transcriptase (RT) reaction without influencing the virus entry. A DNA microarray analysis was performed to identify the differentially expressed genes between 27DC and iDC. Compared to iDC, 51 genes were differentially expressed in 27DC, with more than 3-fold changes in four independent donors. Cross-reference analysis with the reported 2,214 HIV regulatory host genes identified nine genes as potential interests: Ankyrin repeat domain 22, Guanylate binding protein (GBP)-1, -2, -4, -5, Stabilin 1, Serpin family G member 1 (SERPING1), Interferon alpha inducible protein 6, and Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 3. A knock-down study using si-RNA failed to determine a key factor associated with the anti-HIV activity due to the induction of robust amounts of off-target effects. Overexpression of each protein in cells had no impact on HIV infection. Thus, we could not define the mechanism of the anti-HIV effect in 27DC. However, our findings indicated that IL-27 differentiates monocytes into HIV-resistant DC, and the inhibitory mechanism differs from IL-27-induced HIV-resistant macrophages and T cells.

Interleukins (Cytokines) as Biomarkers in Colorectal Cancer: Progression, Detection, and Monitoring

Cancer is the primary cause of death in economically developed countries and the second leading cause in developing countries. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Risk factors for CRC include obesity, a diet low in fruits and vegetables, physical inactivity, and smoking. CRC has a poor prognosis, and there is a critical need for new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers to reduce related deaths. Recently, studies have focused more on molecular testing to guide targeted treatments for CRC patients. The most crucial feature of activated immune cells is the production and release of growth factors and cytokines that modulate the inflammatory conditions in tumor tissues. The cytokine network is valuable for the prognosis and pathogenesis of colorectal cancer as they can aid in the cost-effective and non-invasive detection of cancer. A large number of interleukins (IL) released by the immune system at various stages of CRC can act as "biomarkers". They play diverse functions in colorectal cancer, and include IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-11, IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23, IL-33, TNF, TGF-β, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which are pro-tumorigenic genes. However, there are an inadequate number of studies in this area considering its correlation with cytokine profiles that are clinically useful in diagnosing cancer. A better understanding of cytokine levels to establish diagnostic pathways entails an understanding of cytokine interactions and the regulation of their various biochemical signaling pathways in healthy individuals. This review provides a comprehensive summary of some interleukins as immunological biomarkers of CRC.

The role of interleukin-6 in the development of cardiovascular diseases: A review

Currently, the search and study of new biological markers that can provide early diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases, serve as a laboratory tool for assessing the effectiveness of treatment, or be used as prognostic markers and risk stratification criteria is ongoing. Our literature review indicates the potentially important diagnostic and prognostic value of assessing members of the interleukin-6 family. It is expected that further scientific and clinical studies will demonstrate the possibility of using members of the interleukin-6 family as an additional laboratory tool for the diagnosis, risk stratification and prediction of cardiovascular events in cardiac patients. It is necessary to evaluate in detail the possibilities of blockade of these interleukin-6 molecules in patients with cardiovascular diseases in vitro and in vivo.

Cell type specific IL-27p28 (IL-30) deletion in mice uncovers an unexpected regulatory function of IL-30 in autoimmune inflammation

IL-27 is an IL-12 family cytokine with immune regulatory properties, capable of modulating inflammatory responses, including autoimmunity. While extensive studies investigated the major target cells of IL-27 mediating its functions, the source of IL-27 especially during tissue specific autoimmune inflammation has not formally been examined. IL-27p28 subunit, also known as IL-30, was initially discovered as an IL-27-specific subunit, and it has thus been deemed as a surrogate marker to denote IL-27 expression. However, IL-30 can be secreted independently of Ebi3, a subunit that forms bioactive IL-27 with IL-30. Moreover, IL-30 itself may act as a negative regulator antagonizing IL-27. In this study, we exploited various cell type specific IL-30-deficient mouse models and examined the source of IL-30 in a T cell mediated autoimmune neuroinflammation. We found that IL-30 expressed by infiltrating and CNS resident APC subsets, infiltrating myeloid cells and microglia, is central in limiting the inflammation. However, dendritic cell-derived IL-30 was dispensable for the disease development. Unexpectedly, in cell type specific IL-30 deficient mice that develop severe EAE, IL-30 expression in the remaining wild-type APC subsets is disproportionately increased, suggesting that increased endogenous IL-30 production may be involved in the severe pathogenesis. In support, systemic recombinant IL-30 administration exacerbates EAE severity. Our results demonstrate that dysregulated endogenous IL-30 expression may interfere with immune regulatory functions of IL-27, promoting encephalitogenic inflammation in vivo.

Interleukin gene delivery for cancer gene therapy: In vitro and in vivo studies

Cytokine-mediated cancer therapy has the potential to enhance immunotherapeutic approaches and cancer elimination plans through the endowing of the immune system by providing improved anticancer immunity. Despite the encouraging pioneer studies on interleukins (ILs), the influence of ILs-originated therapeutics is still restricted by a class of potent immunoregulatory cytokines, systemic dose-limiting toxicities, ILs pleiotropy, and administration issues. During previous years, the area of transferring genes encoding immunostimulatory ILs was fundamentally widened to overcome these challenges and expedite ILs-based tumor regression. Numerous viral and non-viral delivery systems are currently available to act as crucial elements of the gene therapy toolbox. Moreover, cell-based cancer therapies are recruiting MSCs in the role of versatile gene delivery platforms to design one of the promising therapeutic approaches. These formulated gene carrier systems can provide possible alternatives to diminish dose-limiting adverse effects, promote administration, and enhance the therapeutic activity of ILs-derived treatment modalities in cancer treatment. This review provides a discussion on the advances of ILs gene delivery systems while focusing on the developing platforms in preclinical cancer immunogene therapy studies.

IL-27 suppresses spring viremia of carp virus replication in zebrafish

Interleukin (IL) 27 is a member of the IL-12 family and is a heterodimeric cytokine composed of IL-27A and Epstein-Barr virus-induced 3 (EBI3). It plays an important role in regulating inflammation and cancer progression. IL-27A not only functions by dimerizing with EBI3 but also acts alone. Here, we report that IL-27A and EBI3 suppress spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) replication in zebrafish. Expression analysis reveals that il-27a and ebi3 were significantly upregulated in the ZF4 cells by SVCV and poly(I:C), and in the zebrafish caudal fin (ZFIN) cells overexpressed with SVCV genes. Interestingly, il-27a and ebi3 were not modulated by IFNφ1, indicating that they are not IFN stimulated genes (ISGs). Furthermore, overexpression of IL-27A and EBI3 alone inhibited SVCV replication in the EPC cells, but less potent than co-expression of IL-27A and EBI3. Intriguingly, IL-27A could not induce the expression of irf3, ifn, isg15 and mx1. Taken together, our results demonstrate that IL-27A and EBI3 activate innate antiviral response in an IFN independent manner in zebrafish.

Follicular Thyroid Adenoma and Follicular Thyroid Carcinoma-A Common or Distinct Background? Loss of Heterozygosity in Comprehensive Microarray Study

Pre- and postsurgical differentiation between follicular thyroid adenoma (FTA) and follicular thyroid cancer (FTC) represents a significant diagnostic challenge. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether they share a common or distinct background and what the mechanisms underlying follicular thyroid lesions malignancy are. The study aimed to compare FTA and FTC by the comprehensive microarray and to identify recurrent regions of loss of heterozygosity (LOH). We analyzed formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples acquired from 32 Caucasian patients diagnosed with FTA (16) and FTC (16). We used the OncoScan™ microarray assay (Affymetrix, USA), using highly multiplexed molecular inversion probes for single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The total number of LOH was higher in FTC compared with FTA (18 vs. 15). The most common LOH present in 21 cases, in both FTA (10 cases) and FTC (11 cases), was 16p12.1, which encompasses many cancer-related genes, such as TP53, and was followed by 3p21.31. The only LOH present exclusively in FTA patients (56% vs. 0%) was 11p11.2-p11.12. The alteration which tended to be detected more often in FTC (6 vs. 1 in FTA) was 12q24.11-q24.13 overlapping FOXN4, MYL2, PTPN11 genes. FTA and FTC may share a common genetic background, even though differentiating rearrangements may also be detected.

Berberine promotes immunological outcomes and decreases neuroinflammation in the experimental model of multiple sclerosis through the expansion of Treg and Th2 cells

INTRODUCTION

Among the most frequent demyelinating autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) is multiple sclerosis. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is used as an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Berberine is an alkaloid found in some medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory effects.

METHODS

C57BL/6 female mice were used and divided into three groups: (1) The control group received PBS, (2) the low-dose treatment group received 10 mg/kg of berberine, and (3) The high-dose treatment group received 30 mg/kg of berberine. Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein and complete Freund's adjuvant were subcutaneously administered to induce EAE. Mice were given intraperitoneal injections of pertussis toxin on the day of immunization and 2 days later. Histological studies showed low lymphocyte infiltration and demyelination of CNS in the treated groups.

RESULTS

The clinical scores of the treatment group with low-dose berberine (T1: 2 ± 0.13) and high-dose berberine (T2: 1.5 ± 0.14) were significantly (p < .001) lower than the control group (CTRL: 4.5 ± 0.13). Treatment groups decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, interleukin [IL]-17) (p < .001) as well as increased anti-inflammatory cytokine expression (IL-4, IL-10, IL-27, IL-33, IL-35, TGF-β) (p < .01) when compared to the CTRL group. Treatment groups with berberine reduced expression of the Th1 and Th17 cytokines and transcription factors (p < .001) and increased expression of transcription factors and Th2 and Treg cytokines (p < .01) in contrast to CTRL group.

CONCLUSION

Berberine appears to have a protective effect on disease development and alleviating disease status in EAE, which appears to be due to the cell expansion and function of Treg and Th2 cells in addition to berberine's anti-inflammatory properties.

What Are the Roles of Proprotein Convertases in the Immune Escape of Tumors?

Protein convertases (PCs) play a significant role in post-translational procedures by transforming inactive precursor proteins into their active forms. The role of PCs is crucial for cellular homeostasis because they are involved in cell signaling. They have also been described in many diseases such as Alzheimer's and cancer. Cancer cells are secretory cells that send signals to the tumor microenvironment (TME), remodeling the surrounding space for their own benefits. One of the most important components of the TME is the immune system of the tumor. In this review, we describe recent discoveries that link PCs to the immune escape of tumors. Among PCs, many findings have determined the role of Furin (PC3) as a paramount enzyme causing the TME to induce tumor immune evasion. The overexpression of various cytokines and proteins, for instance, IL10 and TGF-B, moves the TME towards the presence of Tregs and, consequently, immune tolerance. Furthermore, Furin is implicated in the regulation of macrophage activity that contributes to the increased impairment of DCs (dendritic cells) and T effector cells. Moreover, Furin interferes in the MHC Class_1 proteolytic cleavage in the trans-Golgi network. In tumors, the T cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) response is impeded by the PD1 receptor (PD1-R) located on CTLs and its ligand, PDL1, located on cancer cells. The inhibition of Furin is a subtle means of enhancing the antitumor response by repressing PD-1 expression in tumors or macrophage cells. The impacts of other PCs in tumor immune escape have not yet been clarified to the extent that Furin has. Accordingly, the influence of other types of PCs in tumor immune escape is a promising topic for further consideration.

The roles and clinical applications of interleukins in endometrial carcinoma

As a common malignant tumor of the female reproductive system, endometrial carcinoma (EC) seriously endangers women's health with an increasing incidence. The oncogenesis and progression of cancer are closely linked with immune microenvironment, of which interleukins are the important components. In order to illustrate the roles and clinical applications of interleukins in EC, literature of interleukins and EC were reviewed. Based on the present studies, interleukins play crucial roles in the oncogenesis and development of EC via regulating the proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, apoptosis, pyroptosis and autophagy of EC as well as the immune function against EC. And some of the interleukins seems to have prospective clinical applications in EC, such as evaluating the risk of tumorigenesis, discriminating the malignancy from benign disorders or normal condition, indicating cancer aggressiveness, predicting the prognosis of patients and serving as the novel therapy. However, there is still a long way to go before the clinical applications of interleukins in EC come into reality. Nevertheless, it is certain that the exploration of interleukins will definitely be of great benefit to the screening, diagnosis and treatment of EC in the future.

Murine fecal microbiota transfer models selectively colonize human microbes and reveal transcriptional programs associated with response to neoadjuvant checkpoint inhibitors

Human gut microbial species found to associate with clinical responses to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are often tested in mice using fecal microbiota transfer (FMT), wherein tumor responses in recipient mice may recapitulate human responses to ICI treatment. However, many FMT studies have reported only limited methodological description, details of murine cohorts, and statistical methods. To investigate the reproducibility and robustness of gut microbial species that impact ICI responses, we performed human to germ-free mouse FMT using fecal samples from patients with non-small cell lung cancer who had a pathological response or nonresponse after neoadjuvant ICI treatment. R-FMT mice yielded greater anti-tumor responses in combination with anti-PD-L1 treatment compared to NR-FMT, although the magnitude varied depending on mouse cell line, sex, and individual experiment. Detailed investigation of post-FMT mouse microbiota using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, with models to classify and correct for biological variables, revealed a shared presence of the most highly abundant taxa between the human inocula and mice, though low abundance human taxa colonized mice more variably after FMT. Multiple Clostridium species also correlated with tumor outcome in individual anti-PD-L1-treated R-FMT mice. RNAseq analysis revealed differential expression of T and NK cell-related pathways in responding tumors, irrespective of FMT source, with enrichment of these cell types confirmed by immunohistochemistry. This study identifies several human gut microbial species that may play a role in clinical responses to ICIs and suggests attention to biological variables is needed to improve reproducibility and limit variability across experimental murine cohorts.

Structural insights into the assembly and activation of the IL ‐27 signaling complex

Interleukin 27 (IL‐27) is a heterodimeric cytokine that elicits potent immunosuppressive responses. Comprised of EBI3 and p28 subunits, IL‐27 binds GP130 and IL‐27Rα receptor chains to activate the JAK/STAT signaling cascade. However, how these receptors recognize IL‐27 and form a complex capable of phosphorylating JAK proteins remains unclear. Here, we used cryo electron microscopy (cryoEM) and AlphaFold modeling to solve the structure of the IL‐27 receptor recognition complex. Our data show how IL‐27 serves as a bridge connecting IL‐27Rα (domains 1–2) with GP130 (domains 1–3) to initiate signaling. While both receptors contact the p28 component of the heterodimeric cytokine, EBI3 stabilizes the complex by binding a positively charged surface of IL‐27Rα and Domain 1 of GP130. We find that assembly of the IL‐27 receptor recognition complex is distinct from both IL‐12 and IL‐6 cytokine families and provides a mechanistic blueprint for tuning IL‐27 pleiotropic actions.

Sulfur mustard single-dose exposure triggers senescence in primary human dermal fibroblasts

Chronic wounds, skin blisters, and ulcers are the result of skin exposure to the alkylating agent sulfur mustard (SM). One potential pathomechanism is senescence, which causes permanent growth arrest with a pro-inflammatory environment and may be associated with a chronic wound healing disorder. SM is known to induce chronic senescence in human mesenchymal stem cells which are subsequently unable to fulfill their regenerative function in the wound healing process. As dermal fibroblasts are crucial for cutaneous wound healing by being responsible for granulation tissue formation and synthesis of the extracellular matrix, SM exposure might also impair their function in a similar way. This study, therefore, investigated the SM sensitivity of primary human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) by determining the dose-response curve. Non-lethal concentrations LC₁ (3 µM) to LC₂₅ (65 µM) were used to examine the induction of senescence. HDF were exposed once to 3 µM, 13 µM, 24 µM, 40 µM or 65 μM SM, and were then cultured for 31 days. Changes in morphology as well as at the genetic and protein level were investigated. For the first time, HDF were shown to undergo senescence in a time- and concentration-dependent manner after SM exposure. They developed a characteristic senescence phenotype and expressed various senescence markers. Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were significantly altered in SM-exposed HDF as part of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype. The senescent fibroblasts can thus be considered a contributor to the SM-induced chronic wound healing disorder and might serve as a new therapeutic target in the future.

Antiviral Activities of Interleukin-27: A Partner for Interferons?

Emergence of new, pandemic-level viral threats has brought to the forefront the importance of viral immunology and continued improvement of antiviral therapies. Interleukin-27 (IL-27) is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses. Accumulating evidence has revealed potent antiviral activities of IL-27 against numerous viruses, including HIV, influenza, HBV and more. IL-27 contributes to the immune response against viruses indirectly by increasing production of interferons (IFNs) which have various antiviral effects. Additionally, IL-27 can directly interfere with viral infection both by acting similarly to an IFN itself and by modulating the differentiation and function of various immune cells. This review discusses the IFN-dependent and IFN-independent antiviral mechanisms of IL-27 and highlights the potential of IL-27 as a therapeutic cytokine for viral infection.

IL-27 Improves Prophylactic Protection Provided by a Dead Tumor Cell Vaccine in a Mouse Melanoma Model

The protocol used to induce cell death for generating vaccines from whole tumor cells is a critical consideration that impacts vaccine efficacy. Here we compared how different protocols used to induce cell death impacted protection provided by a prophylactic whole tumor cell vaccine in a mouse melanoma model. We found that melanoma cells exposed to γ-irradiation or lysis combined with UV-irradiation (LyUV) provided better protection against tumor challenge than lysis only or cells exposed to UV-irradiation. Furthermore, we found that the immunoregulatory cytokine, IL-27 enhanced protection against tumor growth in a dose-dependent manner when combined with either LyUV or γ-irradiated whole tumor cell vaccine preparations. Taken together, this data supports the use of LyUV as a potential protocol for developing whole tumor cell prophylactic cancer vaccines. We also showed that IL-27 can be used at low doses as a potent adjuvant in combination with LyUV or γ-irradiation treated cancer cells to improve the protection provided by a prophylactic cancer vaccine in a mouse melanoma model.

The Role of Interleukin-6 Family Members in Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular disease is one of the main causes of human mortality. Cytokines play crucial roles in the development of cardiovascular disease. Interleukin (IL)-6 family members are a series of cytokines, including IL-6, IL-11, IL-30, IL-31, OSM, LIF, CNTF, CT-1, CT-2, and CLC, that regulate multiple biological effects. Experimental and clinical evidence shows that IL-6 family members are closely related to cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, aortic dissection, cardiac fibrosis, and cardiomyopathy. This review mainly discusses the role of IL-6 family members in cardiovascular disease for the sake of identifying possible intervention targets for cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment.

Interleukin-27 Regulates the Function of the Gastrointestinal Epithelial Barrier in a Human Tissue-Derived Organoid Model

A treatment with direct healing effects on the gastrointestinal epithelial barrier is desirable for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Interleukin-27 (IL-27) is an immunoregulatory cytokine, and oral delivery is an effective treatment in murine models of IBD. We aimed to define IL-27 effects on the human gastrointestinal epithelial barrier. We characterised gene and protein expression of permeability mediators in a human colon-derived organoid model. Functional permeability was determined in an organoid-derived 2D monolayer by transepithelial electrical resistance. IL-27 effects on epithelial innate immune responses were assessed through expression of cytokines, anti-microbial peptides and MUC genes. IL-27 effects on wound healing and proliferation were determined in human colon epithelial cell lines. IL-27 led to restoration of permeability regulation following inflammatory cytokine insult (p = 0.001), associated with differential expression of tight junction mediators with decrease in claudin 2 (p = 0.024) and increase in claudin 4 (p < 0.001), E-cadherin (p < 0.001) and zona occludens (p = 0.0014). IL-27 evoked differential gene expression of epithelial-derived innate immune responses (reduced IL1B and IL18, and increased IL33, HBD1, MUC1 and MUC2; p < 0.012). IL-27 induced epithelial barrier wound healing through restitution (p < 0.001), and increased proliferation (p < 0.001) following injury. Overall, IL-27 provokes mucosal healing of the human gastrointestinal epithelial barrier.

Anti-inflammatory cytokines in sickle cell disease

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a well-studied monogenetic disease with an established chronic inflammatory component. The paradigm shift towards inflammation has made the pathophysiology of SCD even more complex. Studies have shown that an imbalance between the pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in SCD exists; however, the reports are skewed toward the pro-inflammatory mediators. We enumerate recent in vitro and in vivo studies on anti-inflammatory cytokines in SCD patients, and discuss the biology of anti-inflammatory cytokines including the already reported IL-2, TGF-β, and IL-10 as well as the recently discovered IL-27, IL-35 and IL-37. This review will improve the understanding of the pathophysiology of SCD and aid in the search of new therapeutic options for patients with SCD.

Immunomodulatory effects of mesenchymal stem cells in peripheral nerve injury

Various immune cells and cytokines are present in the aftermath of peripheral nerve injuries (PNI), and coordination of the local inflammatory response is of great significance for the recovery of PNI. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exhibit immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory abilities which can accelerate tissue regeneration and attenuate inflammation, but the role of MSCs in the regulation of the local inflammatory microenvironment after PNI has not been widely studied. Here, we summarize the known interactions between MSCs, immune cells, and inflammatory cytokines following PNI with a focus on the immunosuppressive role of MSCs. We also discuss the immunomodulatory potential of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles as a new cell-free treatment for PNI.

Mechanistic insight into the synergism of IL-27 and IL-28B in regulation of benzo(a)pyrene-induced lung carcinogenesis associated ROS/NF-κB/NLRP3 crosstalk

AIM

Our previous work depicted that benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)-induced lung cancer associated pulmonary redox imbalance and inflammation were effectively regulated by the combinatorial treatment of IL-27 and IL-28B. So in continuation of that finding the present study was designed to reveal the inflammation regulating signaling network modulated by IL-27 and IL-28B treatment related to BaP-induced lung cancer.

METHODS

Male Swiss albino mice were treated with BaP to induce lung tumor. Then they received individual as well as combinatorial treatment of IL-27 and IL-28B. At the end of the experimental schedule, the expression of NF-κB signaling proteins, the formation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex and IL-18; IL-17A expression in the lung were observed using Western blot and RT-PCR. The tissue and serum levels of some proinflammatory cytokines were also studied using ELISA. Mast cell density was also studied using toluidine blue staining procedure.

RESULTS

Treatment with IL-27 or IL-28B alone was successful to regulate the expression of NF-κB signaling proteins and NLRP3 complex in some cases but best attenuation was observed in animals who received both IL-27 and IL-28B in combination. In combination, it was successful in down-regulating the expression of p-ERK1/2 and in reducing the accumulation of mast cells in the lung tissue associated with BaP-induced lung carcinogenesis. The impaired PPARγ expression was also reinstated upon combination treatment.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, the treatment in combination with IL-27 and IL-28B is an effective regimen to attenuate the ROS/NF-κB/NLRP3 axis associated with BaP-induced lung carcinogenesis.

Macrophage-mediated RON signaling supports breast cancer growth and progression through modulation of IL-35

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) play a major role in regulating mammary tumor growth and in directing the responses of tumor infiltrating leukocytes in the microenvironment. However, macrophage-specific mechanisms regulating the interactions of macrophages with tumor cells and other leukocytes that support tumor progression have not been extensively studied. In this study, we show that the activation of the RON receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathway specifically in macrophages supports breast cancer growth and metastasis. Using clinically relevant murine models of breast cancer, we demonstrate that loss of macrophage RON expression results in decreases in mammary tumor cell proliferation, survival, cancer stem cell self-renewal, and metastasis. Macrophage RON signaling modulates these phenotypes via direct effects on the tumor proper and indirectly by regulating leukocyte recruitment including macrophages, T-cells, and B-cells in the mammary tumor microenvironment. We further show that macrophage RON expression regulates the macrophage secretome including IL-35 and other immunosuppressive factors. Overall, our studies implicate activation of RON signaling in macrophages as a key player in supporting a thriving mammary pro-tumor microenvironment through novel mechanisms including the augmentation of tumor cell properties through IL-35.

Interleukin-27 in liver xenotransplantation: A rational target to mitigate ischemia reperfusion injury and increase xenograft survival

Transplantation of xenogeneic organs is an attractive solution to the existing organ shortage dilemma, thus, securing a clinically acceptable prolongation of xenograft survival is an important goal. In preclinical transplantation models, recipients of liver, kidney, heart, or lung xenotransplants demonstrate significant graft damages through the release of pro-inflammatory molecules, including the C-reactive protein, cytokines, and histone-DNA complexes that all foster graft rejection. Recent studies have demonstrated that mitigation of ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) greatly improves xenograft survival. Organ IRI develops primarily on a complex network of cytokines and chemokines responding to molecular cues from the graft milieu. Among these, interleukin 27 (IL-27) plays an immunomodulatory role in IRI onset due to graft environment-dependent pro- and anti- inflammatory activities. This review focuses on the impact of IL-27 on IRI of liver xenotransplants and provides insights on the function of IL-27 that could potentially guide genetic engineering strategies of donor pigs and/or conditioning of organs prior to transplantation.

Directing T-Cell Immune Responses for Cancer Vaccination and Immunotherapy

Cancer vaccination and immunotherapy revolutionised the treatment of cancer, a result of decades of research into the immune system in health and disease. However, despite recent breakthroughs in treating otherwise terminal cancer, only a minority of patients respond to cancer immunotherapy and some cancers are largely refractive to immunotherapy treatment. This is due to numerous issues intrinsic to the tumour, its microenvironment, or the immune system. CD4+ and CD8+ αβ T-cells emerged as the primary effector cells of the anti-tumour immune response but their function in cancer patients is often compromised. This review details the mechanisms by which T-cell responses are hindered in the setting of cancer and refractive to immunotherapy, and details many of the approaches under investigation to direct T-cell function and improve the efficacy of cancer vaccination and immunotherapy.

Effect of the Rehabilitation Program, ReStOre, on Serum Biomarkers in a Randomized Control Trial of Esophagogastric Cancer Survivors

Background

The Rehabilitation Strategies Following Esophagogastric cancer (ReStOre) randomized control trial demonstrated a significant improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness of esophagogastric cancer survivors. This follow-up, exploratory study analyzed the biological effect of exercise intervention on levels of 55 serum proteins, encompassing mediators of angiogenesis, inflammation, and vascular injury, from participants on the ReStOre trial.

Methods

Patients >6 months disease free from esophagogastric cancer were randomized to usual care or the 12-week ReStOre program (exercise training, dietary counselling, and multidisciplinary education). Serum was collected at baseline (T0), post-intervention (T1), and at 3-month follow up (T2). Serum biomarkers were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results

Thirty-seven patients participated in this study; 17 in the control arm and 20 in the intervention arm. Exercise intervention resulted in significant alterations in the level of expression of serum IP-10 (mean difference (MD): 38.02 (95% CI: 0.69 to 75.35)), IL-27 (MD: 249.48 (95% CI: 22.43 to 476.53)), and the vascular injury biomarkers, ICAM-1 (MD: 1.05 (95% CI: 1.07 to 1.66)), and VCAM-1 (MD: 1.51 (95% CI: 1.04 to 2.14)) at T1. A significant increase in eotaxin-3 (MD: 2.59 (95% CI: 0.23 to 4.96)), IL-15 (MD: 0.27 (95% CI: 0 to 0.54)) and decrease in bFGF (MD: 1.62 (95% CI: -2.99 to 0.26)) expression was observed between control and intervention cohorts at T2 (p<0.05).

Conclusions

Exercise intervention significantly altered the expression of a number of serum biomarkers in disease-free patients who had prior treatment for esophagogastric cancer.

Impact

Exercise rehabilitation causes a significant biological effect on serum biomarkers in esophagogastric cancer survivors.

Clinical Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03314311).

Interleukin-35 suppresses the activity of natural killer-like B cells in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

Natural killer-like B (NKB) cells are newly identified lymphocyte subset, which present immunomodulatory property in infectious diseases through secretion of interleukin-18 (IL-18). However, the role of NKB cells function and its regulation in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is not elucidated. Seventy-two HCC patients and twenty-five controls were enrolled. Peripheral and liver-infiltrating CD3^-CD19⁺CD56⁺NKp46⁺ cells were investigated by flow cytometry. Serum IL-35 and NKB cell-secreting cytokine level was measured by ELISA. The regulatory activity of IL-35 to peripheral and liver-infiltrating NKB cells was assessed in direct co-culture system between CD8⁺ T cells and HepG2 cells. Peripheral NKB cells and IL-18 secretion were reduced in HCC patients, while liver-infiltrating NKB cells and IL-18 secretion were also decreased in HCC tumor sites. Increased IL-35 level was negatively correlated with NKB cell percentage and IL-18 production in HCC. NKB cells induced the elevation of CD8⁺ T cell cytotoxicty, and this enhancement could be inhibited by IL-18 binding protein. IL-35 stimulation dampened NKB cell percentage and IL-18 production, leading to the suppression of NKB cell-mediated CD8⁺ T cell cytotoxicity in HCC patients. Our current data revealed that IL-35 might suppress NKB cell activity in HCC patients.

Cytokines Induced by Edwardsiella tarda: Profile and Role in Antibacterial Immunity

Edwardsiella tarda is a Gram-negative bacterial pathogen with a broad range of hosts, including fish and mammals. In the present study, we used an advanced antibody array technology to identify the expression pattern of cytokines induced by E. tarda in a mouse infection model. In total, 31 and 24 differentially expressed cytokines (DECs) were identified in the plasma at 6 h and 24 h post-infection (hpi), respectively. The DECs were markedly enriched in the Gene Ontology (GO) terms associated with cell migration and response to chemokine and in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways associated with immunity, diseases, and infection. Ten key DECs, including IL6 and TNF-α, were found to form extensive protein-protein interaction networks. IL6 was demonstrated to inhibit E. tarda infection and be required for E. tarda-induced inflammatory response. TNF-α also exerted an inhibitory effect on E. tarda infection, and knockdown of fish (Japanese flounder) TNF-α promoted E. tarda invasion in host cells. Together, the results of this study revealed a comprehensive profile of cytokines induced by E. tarda, thus adding new insights into the role of cytokine-associated immunity against bacterial infection and also providing the potential plasma biomarkers of E. tarda infection for future studies.

Lipoprotein lipase hydrolysis products induce pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in triple-negative breast cancer cells

Objectives

Breast cancer cell growth and proliferation requires lipids for energy production, cell membrane synthesis, or as signaling molecules. Lipids can be delivered to cells by lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an extracellular lipase that hydrolyzes triacylglycerols and phospholipids from lipoproteins, that is expressed by adipose tissue and some breast cancer cell lines. Studies have shown that lipoprotein hydrolysis products induce pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion by endothelial cells. Thus, our objective was to determine if hydrolysis products generated by LPL from total lipoproteins can also promote pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion from breast cancer cells.

Results

Using cytokine arrays, we found that MDA-MB-231 cells increased secretion of seven cytokines in response to treatment with lipoprotein hydrolysis products. In contrast, MCF-7 cells showed decreased secretion of two cytokines. Expanding the analysis to additional cell lines by ELISA, we found increased secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 by MDA-MB-468 cells, and increased secretion of IL-4 by MDA-MB-468 and SKBR3 cells. The changes to cytokine secretion profiles of the breast cancer cell types examined, including the non-cancerous MCF-10a breast cells, were independent of increased cell metabolic activity. These results provide information on how lipoprotein hydrolysis products within the tumor microenvironment might affect breast cancer cell viability and progression.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-021-05728-z.

Interleukins in cancer: from biology to therapy

Interleukins and associated cytokines serve as the means of communication for innate and adaptive immune cells as well as non-immune cells and tissues. Thus, interleukins have a critical role in cancer development, progression and control. Interleukins can nurture an environment enabling and favouring cancer growth while simultaneously being essential for a productive tumour-directed immune response. These properties of interleukins can be exploited to improve immunotherapies to promote effectiveness as well as to limit side effects. This Review aims to unravel some of these complex interactions.

Gene-Edited Interleukin CAR-T Cells Therapy in the Treatment of Malignancies: Present and Future

In recent years, chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T cells) have been faced with the problems of weak proliferation and poor persistence in the treatment of some malignancies. Researchers have been trying to perfect the function of CAR-T by genetically modifying its structure. In addition to the participation of T cell receptor (TCR) and costimulatory signals, immune cytokines also exert a decisive role in the activation and proliferation of T cells. Therefore, genetic engineering strategies were used to generate cytokines to enhance tumor killing function of CAR-T cells. When CAR-T cells are in contact with target tumor tissue, the proliferation ability and persistence of T cells can be improved by structurally or inductively releasing immunoregulatory molecules to the tumor region. There are a large number of CAR-T cells studies on gene-edited cytokines, and the most common cytokines involved are interleukins (IL-7, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, IL-21, IL-23). Methods for the construction of gene-edited interleukin CAR-T cells include co-expression of single interleukin, two interleukin, interleukin combined with other cytokines, interleukin receptors, interleukin subunits, and fusion inverted cytokine receptors (ICR). Preclinical and clinical trials have yielded positive results, and many more are under way. By reading a large number of literatures, we summarized the functional characteristics of some members of the interleukin family related to tumor immunotherapy, and described the research status of gene-edited interleukin CAR-T cells in the treatment of malignant tumors. The objective is to explore the optimized strategy of gene edited interleukin-CAR-T cell function.

Human Placental Trophoblasts Infected by Listeria monocytogenes Undergo a Pro-Inflammatory Switch Associated With Poor Pregnancy Outcomes

The placenta controls the growth of the fetus and ensures its immune protection. Key to these functions, the syncytiotrophoblast (SYN) is a syncytium formed by fusion of underlying mononuclear trophoblasts. The SYN covers the placental surface and is bathed in maternal blood to mediate nutritional and waste exchanges between the mother and fetus. The bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes breaches the trophoblast barrier and infects the placental/fetal unit resulting in poor pregnancy outcomes. In this work, we analyzed the L. monocytogenes intracellular lifecycle in primary human trophoblasts. In accordance with previous studies, we found that the SYN is 20-fold more resistant to infection compared to mononuclear trophoblasts, forming a protective barrier to infection at the maternal interface. We show for the first time that this is due to a significant reduction in L. monocytogenes uptake by the SYN rather than inhibition of the bacterial intracellular division or motility. We here report the first transcriptomic analysis of L. monocytogenes-infected trophoblasts (RNA sequencing). Pathway analysis showed that infection upregulated TLR2, NOD-like, and cytosolic DNA sensing pathways, as well as downstream pro-inflammatory circuitry (NF-κB, AP-1, IRF4, IRF7) leading to the production of mediators known to elicit the recruitment and activation of maternal leukocytes (IL8, IL6, TNFα, MIP-1). Signature genes associated with poor pregnancy outcomes were also upregulated upon infection. Measuring the release of 54 inflammatory mediators confirmed the transcriptomic data and revealed sustained production of tolerogenic factors (IL-27, IL-10, IL-1RA, TSLP) despite infection. Both the SYN and mononuclear trophoblasts produced cytokines, but surprisingly, some cytokines were predominantly produced by the SYN (IL-8, IL-6) or by non-fused trophoblasts (TNFα). Collectively, our data support that trophoblasts act as placental gatekeepers that limit and detect L. monocytogenes infection resulting in a pro-inflammatory response, which may contribute to the poor pregnancy outcomes if the pathogen persists.

Association between the serum concentrations and mutational status of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF and the expression levels of the hERG potassium channel gene in patients with colorectal cancer

The present study aimed to determine the diagnostic value of the serum levels and mutational status of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF, and the expression levels of human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). The serum concentrations were determined using the ELISA technique and genotype variations of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF were examined using Sanger sequencing, and the expression levels of hERG, which encodes a potassium channel, were determined by quantitative PCR, in blood and tissue samples obtained from 80 patients with CRC and 80 healthy individuals. The results of the present study revealed that the percentage of granulocytes and serum concentrations of carcinoembryonic antigen, IL-8 and IL-27 were significantly increased, whereas the percentage of lymphocytes was decreased in patients with CRC. In total, 31 mutations in three genes (eight mutations in VEGF, 13 mutations in IL-27 and 10 mutations in IL-8) were identified in patients with CRC. The relative mRNA expression levels of hERG were also significantly upregulated in tissue and blood samples of patients with CRC compared with those of healthy individuals. In conclusion, the results of the present study indicated that the increased concentrations and genetic variations of IL-8, IL-27 and VEGF may serve important roles in the development and angiogenic processes of CRC. These changes were concomitant with the upregulation of the expression levels of the potassium channel hERG.

Regulation of Alloantibody Responses

The control of alloimmunity is essential to the success of organ transplantation. Upon alloantigen encounter, naïve alloreactive T cells not only differentiate into effector cells that can reject the graft, but also into T follicular helper (Tfh) cells that promote the differentiation of alloreactive B cells that produce donor-specific antibodies (DSA). B cells can exacerbate the rejection process through antibody effector functions and/or B cell antigen-presenting functions. These responses can be limited by immune suppressive mechanisms mediated by T regulatory (Treg) cells, T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells, B regulatory (Breg) cells and a newly described tolerance-induced B (TIB) cell population that has the ability to suppress de novo B cells in an antigen-specific manner. Transplantation tolerance following costimulation blockade has revealed mechanisms of tolerance that control alloreactive T cells through intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms, but also inhibit alloreactive B cells. Thus, the control of both arms of adaptive immunity might result in more robust tolerance, one that may withstand more severe inflammatory challenges. Here, we review new findings on the control of B cells and alloantibody production in the context of transplant rejection and tolerance.

The Effect of Unconventional Cytokine Combinations on NK-Cell Responses to Viral Infection

Cytokines are soluble and membrane-bound factors that dictate immune responses. Dogmatically, cytokines are divided into families that promote type 1 cell-mediated immune responses (e.g., IL-12) or type 2 humoral responses (e.g., IL-4), each capable of antagonizing the opposing family of cytokines. The discovery of additional families of cytokines (e.g., IL-17) has added complexity to this model, but it was the realization that immune responses frequently comprise mixtures of different types of cytokines that dismantled this black-and-white paradigm. In some cases, one type of response may dominate these mixed milieus in disease pathogenesis and thereby present a clear therapeutic target. Alternatively, synergistic or blended cytokine responses may obfuscate the origins of disease and perplex clinical decision making. Most immune cells express receptors for many types of cytokines and can mediate a myriad of functions important for tolerance, immunity, tissue damage, and repair. In this review, we will describe the unconventional effects of a variety of cytokines on the activity of a prototypical type 1 effector, the natural killer (NK) cell, and discuss how this may impact the contributions of these cells to health and disease.

CD40 Agonist Overcomes T Cell Exhaustion Induced by Chronic Myeloid Cell IL-27 Production in a Pancreatic Cancer Preclinical Model

Pancreatic cancer is a particularly lethal malignancy that resists immunotherapy. In this study, using a preclinical pancreatic cancer murine model, we demonstrate a progressive decrease in IFN-γ and granzyme B and a concomitant increase in Tox and IL-10 in intratumoral tumor-specific T cells. Intratumoral myeloid cells produced elevated IL-27, a cytokine that correlates with poor patient outcome. Abrogating IL-27 signaling significantly decreased intratumoral Tox⁺ T cells and delayed tumor growth yet was not curative. Agonistic αCD40 decreased intratumoral IL-27-producing myeloid cells, decreased IL-10-producing intratumoral T cells, and promoted intratumoral Klrg1⁺Gzmb⁺ short-lived effector T cells. Combination agonistic αCD40+αPD-L1 cured 63% of tumor-bearing animals, promoted rejection following tumor rechallenge, and correlated with a 2-log increase in pancreas-residing tumor-specific T cells. Interfering with Ifngr1 expression in nontumor/host cells abrogated agonistic αCD40+αPD-L1 efficacy. In contrast, interfering with nontumor/host cell Tnfrsf1a led to cure in 100% of animals following agonistic αCD40+αPD-L1 and promoted the formation of circulating central memory T cells rather than long-lived effector T cells. In summary, we identify a mechanistic basis for T cell exhaustion in pancreatic cancer and a feasible clinical strategy to overcome it.

T-Bet Controls Cellularity of Intestinal Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells

Innate lymphoid cells (ILC) play a significant immunological role at mucosal surfaces such as the intestine. T-bet-expressing group 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) are believed to play a substantial role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, a role of T-bet-negative ILC3 in driving colitis has also been suggested in mouse models questioning T-bet as a critical factor for IBD. We report here that T-bet deficient mice had a greater cellularity of NKp46-negative ILC3 correlating with enhanced expression of RORγt and IL-7R, but independent of signaling through STAT1 or STAT4. We observed enhanced neutrophilia in the colonic lamina propria (cLP) of these animals, however, we did not detect a greater risk of T-bet-deficient mice to develop spontaneous colitis. Furthermore, by utilizing an in vivo fate-mapping approach, we identified a population of T-bet-positive precursors in NKp46-negative ILC3s. These data suggest that T-bet controls ILC3 cellularity, but does do not drive a pathogenic role of ILC3 in mice with a conventional specific pathogen-free microbiota.

Emerging roles for the IL-6 family of cytokines in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer has one of the poorest prognoses of all malignancies, with little improvement in clinical outcome over the past 40 years. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is responsible for the vast majority of pancreatic cancer cases, and is characterised by the presence of a dense stroma that impacts therapeutic efficacy and drives pro-tumorigenic programs. More specifically, the inflammatory nature of the tumour microenvironment is thought to underlie the loss of anti-tumour immunity and development of resistance to current treatments. Inflammatory pathways are largely mediated by the expression of, and signalling through, cytokines, chemokines, and other cellular messengers. In recent years, there has been much attention focused on dual targeting of cancer cells and the tumour microenvironment. Here we review our current understanding of the role of IL-6, and the broader IL-6 cytokine family, in pancreatic cancer, including their contribution to pancreatic inflammation and various roles in pancreatic cancer pathogenesis. We also summarise potential opportunities for therapeutic targeting of these pathways as an avenue towards combating poor patient outcomes.

The IL-27 component EBI-3 and its receptor subunit IL-27Rα are essential for the cytoprotective action of humanin on male germ cells†

Humanin (HN) is a mitochondrial-derived peptide that protects many cells/tissues from damage. We previously demonstrated that HN reduces stress-induced male germ cell apoptosis in rodents. HN action in neuronal cells is mediated through its binding to a trimeric cell membrane receptor composed of glycoprotein 130 (gp130), IL-27 receptor subunit (IL-27R, also known as WSX-1/TCCR), and ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor subunit (CNTFR). The mechanisms of HN action in testis remain unclear. We demonstrated in ex-vivo seminiferous tubules culture that HN prevented heat-induced germ cell apoptosis was blocked by specific anti-IL-27R, anti-gp130, and anti-EBI-3, but not by anti-CNTFR antibodies significantly. The cytoprotective action of HN was studied by using groups of il-27r-/- or ebi-3-/- mice administered the following treatment: (1) vehicle; (2) a single intraperitoneal (IP) injection of HN peptide; (3) testicular hyperthermia; and (4) testicular hyperthermia plus HN. We demonstrated that HN inhibited heat-induced germ cell apoptosis in wildtype but not in il-27r-/- or ebi-3-/- mice. HN restored heat-suppressed STAT3 phosphorylation in wildtype but not il-27r-/- or ebi-3-/- mice. Dot blot analyses showed the direct interaction of HN with IL-27R or EBI-3 peptide. Immunofluorescence staining showed the co-localization of IL-27R with HN and gp130 in Leydig cells and germ cells. We conclude that the anti-apoptotic effects of HN in mouse testes are mediated through interaction with EBI-3, IL-27R, and activation of gp130, whereas the role of CNTFR needs further studies. This suggests a multicomponent tissue-specific receptor for HN in the testis and links HN action with the IL-12/IL-27 family of cytokines.

Evaluation of Serum and Gene Expression of Galectin-4, Interleukin-27, and Complement-7 in Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Egyptian Patients

Background

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is considered a major global public health problem. Recently, there are great advances in HCV therapy, but there are some limitations that are creating an urgent need for assessment of some cytokines that have a potent antiviral effect in the immune system and anti-inflammatory effects to provide a potential novel immunotherapeutic target in HCV infection.

Objective

This study was directed to assess the serum levels and gene expression levels of Galectin-4 (LEG4), Interleukin-27 (IL-27), and Complement-7 (C-7) and their correlation with the viral load in HCV infection. Subjects and Methods. This work was conducted on 80 subjects, Group 1 (n = 40) early detected HCV patients and Group 2 (n = 40) healthy controls. LEG4, IL-27, and C-7 were assessed at the protein levels by ELISA, and their gene expression was assessed by RT-qPCR. The viral load was measured by PCR.

Results

There were significant elevations in the mean levels of gene expression and serum levels of all studied parameters LEG4, IL-27, and C-7 in the HCV group compared to the control group. Significant negative correlations between the viral load and each of the serum proteins and gene expressions of both LEG4 and IL-27 in HCV patients were found. The gene expression levels of LEG4, IL-27, and C-7 were positively correlated with their corresponding serum proteins in HCV patients.

Conclusion

LEG4 and IL-27 showed significant negative correlations with the viral load, which could be an immune response to the control of the extent of hepatic inflammation, thus creating a potential novel immunotherapeutic approach in HCV infection for further studies or therapeutic clinical trials.